“SPINTRONICS &

QUANTUM COMPUTATION”
DISSERTATION SUBMITTED FOR THE PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PHYSICS

BY
SEEMARANI JANA
EXAM ROLL NO-57R0022018
UNDER THE GUIDANCE AND SUPERVISION OF

KRISHNA AUROMUN

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
RAMADEVI WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY
BHUBANESWAR, ODISHA
SESSION: 2022 - 25

1
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project report titled “Spintronics &

Quantum Computation” is submitted by me in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Science as per
the course curriculum. This report is an original piece of work conducted
by me under the guidance and supervision of Dr. Krishna Auromun. The
information presented has been gathered genuine and reliable sources.
I further affirm that this work has not been submitted, either wholly
or partially, for the award of any other degree of certification at any
institution.

Name: Seemarani Jana

Registration No: -Roo-7758/2022
University Roll No: 57R0022018

BSc physics

Session: 2022-2025

2
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
RAMA DEVI WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY,
VIDYA VIHAR, BHUBANESWAR, ODISHA – 751022,

Dr. Krishna Auromun

Graduate Department of Science
Rama Devi Women’s University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis titled “Spintronics & Quantum Computation” is a bona
fide research work carried out by Seemarani Jana under my guidance and supervision. The
thesis embodies the results of her original research and contribution. The project meets the
academic standards required for the degree of Bachelor of science in physics as per the
regulations.
I further certify that no part of this project has been submitted to any institution for the award
of any degree or diploma.
I extend my best wishes for her future endeavours.

SIGNATURE OF THE GUIDE SIGNATURE OF THE CO-

ORDINATOR
(Dr. Krishna Auromun) ( Dr. Sujata Mohanty)

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am very thankful to evolution by virtue of which the human brain could develop to
such an extent that it makes them think and ask the question “What can we develop more?” I
would like to thank respected Sujata Mohanty for giving me such a wonderful opportunity
to expand my knowledge for my own branch and giving me guidelines to present a seminar
report. It helped me a lot to realize of what we study for.

My foremost thanks go to my dissertation advisor Dr. Krishna Auromun. This

dissertation and my research skills more technical. The only way I can do justice to his efforts
put behind my research work is by working on all the knowledge he has given me and by
putting it in legitimate use for scientific and technological advancements. I’m also grateful to
the creator of this universe and the enigma of its supremacy that has always naturally
attracted me towards physics.
Finally, I’m obliged to my soul that has a great coordination with my brain. Most
importantly I would like to thank myself as I am the one who completed this project.

4
 (Seemarani Jana)

5
 ABSTRACT

Spintronics also known as magneto electronics, is an emerging technology that exploits both
the intrinsic spin of the electron and its associated magnetic moment, in additional to its
fundamental electronic charge, in solid state devices. Spintronics emerged from discoveries in
the 1980s concerning spin-dependent electron transport phenomena in solid state devices.
This includes the observation of spin-polarised electron injection from a ferromagnetic metal
to a normal metal (1985), and the discovery of Giant Magneto Resistance GMR (1988). The
origins of spintronics can be traced back even further to the ferromagnet/superconductor
tunnelling experiments and initial experiments on Magnetic Tunnel Junctions (MTJ). The use
of semiconductors for spintronics can be traced back at least as far as the theoretical proposal
of a spin field-effect transistor by Datta and Das in 1990.
Recently integrated magnetic/ spintronic device micro arrays have demonstrated great
potentials in both biomedical researches and practices. Also, they have widely used in
creation of Magnetoresistive Random Access Memories (MRAM). Motorola has developed a
first generation 256kb MRAM based on single magnetic tunnel junction and a single
transistor and which has a read/write cycle of under 50 nanoseconds. The IBM-Infineon
MRAM Development Alliance has recently developed a prototype 16Mb MRAM. Thermal
Assisted Switching (TAS) which is being developed by Crocus Technology, and Spin Torque
Transfer (STT) on which Crocus, Hynix, IBM and several other companies are working.
Another design in development, called Restrack memory, encodes information in the
direction of magnetization between domain walls of a ferromagnetic metal wire.
The seminar spintronics and spintronic devices will give an introduction on spintronics and
will deal with the recent advances of spintronic devices like MRAM, and will make a
comparison of the other memories available at present and the advantage of the MRAM and
its technical feasibility, the seminar will also cover spintronic logic devices and spintronic
devices in Magnetic Biosensing

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 CONTENTS
Chapter-1………………………………………………. (7-9)
1. Introduction
2. History
Chapter-2………………………………………………. (10-13)
3. Why Spintronics?
4. Working
Chapter-3………………………………………………. (14-20)
4. Fundamentals of Spin
5. Spin Hall Effect
Chapter-4………………………………………………. (21-35)
7. Spintronics V/s Electronics
8. Applications
8.1. Spin Transistor
8.2. MRAM
8.3. GMR
8.4. Quantum Computation
Chapter-4………………………………………………… (36-41)
9. Expectation for Future
10. Advantages & Limitations
11. Conclusion

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 Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION

The spin electronics also called spintronics, is an emerging field of basic and applied
research physics and engineering that aims to exploit the role played by electron spin in
solid state materials. It is the study of intrinsic spin of the electron and its associated
magnetic moment, in addition to its fundamental electronic charge, in solid state devices.
[4]
Spintronics is the nano technology which deals with the spin dependent properties of an
electron instead of charge dependent properties.[1]
Spintronics, where the spin of an electron is controlled by an external magnetic field and
polarize the electrons. These polarised electrons are used to control the electric current.
Once we add the spin degree of freedom to electronics, it will provide significant
versatility and functionality to future electronic products. Magnetic spin properties of
electrons are used in many applications such as magnetic memory, magnetic reading
(read, write heads), etc. [4]
The goal of the spintronics is to understand the interaction between the particle spin and
its solid-state environments and to make useful devices using the acquire knowledge.[3]
Fundamental studies of spintronics include investigations of spin transport in electronic
materials, as well as understanding spin dynamics and spin relaxation.[5]
In our conventional electronic devices charge of electron used to achieve functionalities
and also semi conducting materials for logical operation and magnetic materials for
storage, but spintronics manipulates the electron spin and resulting magnetic moment; to
achieve improve functionalities and also magnetic materials are used for processing and
storage. These spintronic devices are more versatile and faster than the present one.[7]
Conventional electronic devices rely on the transport of electrical charge carriers -
electrons in a semiconductor such as silicon. Now, however, physicists are trying to
exploit the 'spin' of the electron rather than its charge to create a remarkable new
generation of 'spintronic' devices which will be smaller, more versatile and more robust
than those currently making up silicon chips and circuit elements. During that 50-year
period, the world witnessed a revolution based on a digital logic of electrons. From the
earliest transistor to the remarkably powerful microprocessor in your desktop computer,
most electron IC devices have employed circuits that express data as binary digits, or bits
—ones and zeros represented by the existence or absence of electric charge.[9]
In electronic devices, information is stored and transmitted by the flow of electricity in
the form of negatively charged subatomic particles called electrons. The zeroes and ones
of computer binary code are represented by the presence or absence of electrons within
a semiconductor or other material.[3]
In Spintronics, information is stored and transmitted using another property of electrons

8
called spin. Spin is the intrinsic angular momentum of an electron, each electron acts like
a tiny bar magnet, like acompass needle, that points either up or down to represent the spin
of an electron. [5]

HISTORY

It is well known that electronics is based on electrons ability to carry charge, which
generates an electric current. In contrast, in the relatively new field of spintronics,
currents are generated by the electrons’ spin and magnetic moment. For a long time, it
was believed this property manifested itself very weakly and was challenging to utilize
experimentally.[1]
Two experiments in 1920’s suggested spin as an additional property of an electron. One
was closely spaced splitting of hydrogen spectral lines, called fine structure. The other
was Stern-Gerlach experiment, which in 1922 that a beam of silver atoms directed
through an inhomogeneous magnetic field would be forced two beams. These pointed
towards magnetism associated with the electrons.[5]
In 1965, Gordon Moore, Intel's co-founder, predicted that the number of transistors on an
integrated circuit would double every 18 months. That prediction, now known as Moore’s
Law, effectively described a trend that has continued ever since, but the end of that trend
— the moment when transistors are as small as atoms, and cannot be shrunk any further
—is expected as early as 2015.[8]
Magnetoresistance is the property of a material to change the value of its electrical
resistance when an external magnetic field is applied to it. The effect was first discovered
by William Thomson (more commonly known as Lord Kelvin) in 1856, but he was
unable to lower the electrical resistance of anything by more than 5%. This effect was
later termed Anisotropic Magnetoresistance (AMR) to distinguish it from GMR.
Spintronics came into light by the advent of Giant Magneto Resistance (GMR) in 1988.
GMR is 200 times stronger than ordinary Magneto Resistance. It results from subtle
electron – spin effects in ultra multi-layers of magnetic materials that cause a huge change
in electrical resistance. Giant magneto resistance is a quantum mechanical magneto
resistance effect observed in thin film structures composed of alternating ferromagnetic
and nonmagnetic layers.[15]
The 2007 Nobel Prize in physics was awarded to Albert Fert and Peter Grunberg for the
discovery of GMR. The effect is observed as a significant change in the electrical
resistance depending on whether the magnetization of adjacent ferromagnetic layers is in

9
a parallel or an anti-parallel alignment. The overall resistance is relatively low for parallel
alignment and relatively high for anti-parallel alignment. GMR is used by hard disk drive
manufactures.[13]
The idea of a spin field effect transistor, or SpinFET, is to control a spin signal analog to
the charged-based transistor via applied voltage instead of magnetic field. They are
attractive candidates as basic for spin-driven integrated circuits. The first spin field
transistor (SpinFET) was proposed by Datta and Das in 1990, which is composed of two
ferromagnetic terminals separated by a non-magnetic material. [11] A good elaboration of
device structure of a spin transistor, operating principle and performance can be found in.
The spin injection in semiconductor by different means is a topic under intense research,
and will be highlighted later. However, if one is able to resolve the problem of spin
injection into a semiconductor with sufficient accuracy, the next challenge will be
manipulation and control of the spin transport through the conducting channel. This is
usually achieved by applying an external magnetic field to rotate the spin, although in
principle the principle the spin-orbit coupling (SOC) allows to control spin electronically.
Indeed, the SOC in the semiconductor heterostructures can be tailored by voltage gates on
the top of the heterostructures, hence allowing to control the spin by voltage. The
practical realization of such structures is still a research topic, and hence the proper
understanding of spin-orbit coupling in semiconductors must be further developed. [14]
Thus began the history of spintronics—a branch of technology where the electron’s spin
is used for various process, from data storage to device switching. Spintronic-based
devices are already being produced today. For example, every gadget—computer or
smartphones—contains memory and a device to read information from that memory. In
past, inductive devices were used for reading data, but now engineers are utilizing
spintronics. [10]
Later, the development of magnetic memory began, but this also brought the first
challenge. It turned out that controlling the magnetization of each heterostructure required
excessive amount of energy. Moreover, the proximity of metallic heterostructures affected
their performance: the magnetic field of one structure would alter the magnetic field of its
neighbour. However, in 1996, scientist Jhon Slonczewski proposed that magnetization
could be controlled not by a magnetic field but by spin-polarized electron. This effect
became known as spin-transfer torque (STT). This discovery pushed spintronics another
step forward. [7]

“Roman Morgunov: “I would call spintronics the daughter of electronics, not its sister. A
sister implies equivalence and a similar structure. But children are often more advanced
than their parents. Their minds are more complex, and they can develop more interesting
ideas than their parents. In short, spintronics is a more sophisticated field of technology.

10
 Chapter-2
FUNDAMETALS OF SPIN
MOORE’S LAW:
Moore’s law is a term used to refer to the observation made by the late Gordon Moore in
1965 that the number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit (IC) doubles about every
2 years. Moore’s law isn’t really a law in the legal sense or even a proven theory in the
scientific sense (such as E=mc2). [6]
Moore went on to co-found intel corporation and his observation became the driving
force behind the semiconductor technology revolution at intel and elsewhere. [1]
Moore’s law is based on empirical observation made by Moore. The doubling of every 2
years of the number of transistors on a microchip was extrapolated from observed data.
Over time, the details of Moore’s law were amended to better reflect actual growth of
transistor density. The doubling interval was first increased to two years and then
decreased to about 18 months. The exponential nature of Moore’s law continued,
however, creating decades of significant opportunity for the semiconductor industry. The
true exponential nature of Moore’s law is illustrated by the figure below.[2]

The microprocessor has embodied progress in computing for over five decades.
Remarkably, transistor counts in a microprocessor have continued to double every 2
years, regardless of the underlying microarchitecture, chip designer or silicon
manufacturer. By 2030, we are likely to witness microprocessor products with over 1
trillion transistors in a package! [6]

11
Moore’s law is reaching physical and technical limits in terms of miniaturization and
power consumption for conventional electronics, its principles can be still relevant for
emerging technologies like spintronics. [7]
Spintronic devices, which exploit the spin of electrons in addition to their charge, are
often seen as a potential successor to traditional electronic devices. Moore’s law
encourages the push for miniaturization, which benefits spintronic devices by allowing
them to integrate more efficiently into smaller, more powerful systems. As Moore’s law
predicts the increase in the number of transistor and processing power over time, the same
principle applies to spintronic devices. With advancements in materials and fabrication
techniques, spintronic components can be made smaller, faster, and more energy-efficient,
potentially enabling devices that outperform traditional semiconductors- based
components in areas like memory storage, logic operations, and energy consumption. [5]
Spintronic devices require a new materials like ferromagnetic metals, insulators, and
semiconductors that can support spin-based effects. Moore’s law encourages investment
in research and development, potentially accelerating the discovery and refinement of
these materials for use of spintronics. Spintronics can complement traditional electronics
rather than completely replacing them. Moore’s law continues to drive the development
of traditional transistors, while spintronics adds functionality (such as non-volatile
memory and faster data transfer) that could benefit from the same scaling trends.
Spintronic technologies are also closely related to quantum computing, and as Moore’s
law pushes computing to new limits, spintronics could play a role in quantum processors,
offering a route for faster, more stable quantum bits(qubits) and enabling quantum
computing breakthroughs.[9]
In short, Moore’s law remains relevant in spintronics because it helps to drive the ongoing
miniaturization and performance improvements that are essential for the success and
integration of spintronic technologies in next-generation devices. [4]
FAILURE:
Moore’s law, which predicted that the number of transistors on a microchip would double
approximately every two years, has been driving force behind the exponential growth
in computing power over the past several decades. However, as technology advances,
there are growing signs that Moore’s law is reaching its limits. This “failure” of Moore’s
law is not an abrupt collapse but rather a gradual slowdown in the pace of progress. [16]
COMPLEXITY:

Complex Chip Design and Power Loss: -

In spintronics, chip design and power loss present unique challenges due to the nature of
spin-based technologies. Spintronics leverages the electron spin (in addition to charge) to
store, process and transmit information, enabling potential breakthroughs in power-
efficient and high-speed devices. However, incorporating spintronics into chip design
brings a range of complexities, especially when considering power consumption and
power loss. Spintronic devices require materials with specific magnetic properties (e.g.,
ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, or topologically insulating materials). Choosing the
right material that can efficiently manipulate electron spin is complex and requires precise

12
fabrication techniques. Spintronic devices often need to interface with traditional
semiconductors materials like silicon. Achieving compatibility between magnetic and
non-magnetic materials (e.g., integrating ferromagnetic layers with semiconductors)
while maintaining efficient spin manipulation is a major challenge. The integration of
spintronic elements into traditional CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor)
systems requires overcoming different physical and electrical properties. [15]
In spintronics, efficiently injecting spin into non-magnetic materials (such as a
semiconductor) from magnetic material is challenging. For spintronic devices to function
efficiently, a high degree of spin polarization must be injected and transported across
materials, which requires overcoming materials mismatches and interface issues. Spin
relaxations, where the electron’s spin orientation become randomized over time due to
interactions with the material, can occur quickly, especially at room temperature. Long
spin lifetimes and maintaining spin coherence are crucial for the different functioning of
spintronic devices but are difficult to achieve in practice. Controlling and minimizing spin
relaxation and dephasing adds design complexity. As with conventional semiconductors,
miniaturizing spintronic devices to fit more densely on a chip while maintaining
performance and functionality is a key challenge. As device shrink, maintaining spin
coherence and overcoming challenges like spin scattering become more difficult, which
can hinder performance at smaller scales. [3]
Power loss is a major concern in modern chip design, and it can manifest in several
forms. Understanding the sources of power loss is critical to designing more efficient
chips. [6]
While spintronic devices theoretically offer the potential for low-power operation due to
their reliance on electron spin (which doesn’t require large amount of charge movement),
there is still energy loss during the spin injection and switching process. For example,
during switching events in devices like MRAM (Magnetoresistive random access
memory), there are energy losses related to overcoming the magnetic anisotropy (energy
barrier) to flip the magnetization direction. In static power loss, even when there is no
activity or switching, chips still lose power due to leakage currents. This is especially
problematic in mobile and battery-powered devices, where energy efficiency is crucial.
Some chips are consuming a certain amount of power even when not actively processing
tasks (e.g., for maintaining a state or powering idle circuits). Designers used techniques
like power getting to shut down unused sections of the chip to minimize this form of
static power loss. [8]

WORKING

Spintronics is a new and emerging field, which can be considered as an offshoot of

electrons. It is based on the spin of electrons for the flow of current, and not on the
movement of electrons, which is the case with electronics. [7]
Spintronics works by utilizing the spin of electrons, in addition to their charge, to store,
process, and transfer information in electronic devices. This approach provides new

13
opportunities for creating faster, more efficient, and more versatile devices compared to
conventional electronics, which only rely on the charge of electrons. Works of spintronics
are—
Spin is a fundamental property of electrons, much like charge or mass. It has two
orientations i.e., “up” or “down” (often referred to as +1/2 or -1/2). [9]

The magnetic moment associated with an electron’s spin can interact with external
magnetic fields, which is a central concept in spintronics. When electrons move through a
magnetic material, they can become spin-polarized, meaning the electrons’ spins align in
a particular direction (either up or down). In magnetic materials like ferromagnets, the
spins of electrons tend to align in specific direction, creating regions of magnetization. In
a spintronic device. A current of spin-polarized electrons is used. The direction of the spin
can be controlled, and this spin polarization is crucial for the operation of many spintronic
devices. [15]
External magnetic fields or electrical currents can manipulate the spin orientation of
electrons. By applying a magnetic field, we can align or flip the electron spins in a desired
direction. This allows for the control of electron spin in a spintronic device.
Magnetoresistance is a phenomenon in which the electrical resistance of a material
changes in response to an external magnetic field. Two important types of
magnetoresistances in spintronics are:
Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR):- Found in layered materials (such as alternating
ferromagnetic and non-magnetic layers). The resistances change dramatically depending
on whether the magnetic moments of adjacent layers are aligned or anti-aligned. This
effect is used in hard drives and sensors. [12]

Spintronics developed from the discovery of the magnetoresistance phenomena. The

principle of changes in metal resistance due to external magnetic fields is attributed to the
interaction between spin and orbit, leading to the scattering and polarization of electrons.
[15]
Spintronics fundamentally differs from traditional electronics in that, in addition to charge
state, electron spins are used as a further degree of freedom, with implications in the
efficiency of data storage and transfer. Spintronic systems are most often realised in dilute
magnetic semiconductors (DMS) and Heusler alloys and are of particular interest in the
field of quantum computing and neuromorphic computing, upon which leads to integrated
research requirements around Hyperdimensional Computation. [10]

14
Spintronics is a rapidly evolving field, with ongoing research aimed to overcoming these
challenges and exploring new applications. [15]

Chapter-3
FUNDAMENTALS OF SPIN

Spin is a fundamental property of elementary particles, most notably electrons, protons,

and neutrons. It’s a form of intrinsic angular momentum, but unlike physical objects that
spin around an axis, “spin” is a quantum mechanical property of particles. [1]
Spins are also the generator of rotation. [9]
Spin is a form of angular momentum that is inherent to particles. It is not due to physical
rotation but is a quantum mechanical property that quantifies how particles interact with
magnetic fields and other quantum systems. Spin is quantized, meaning it can only take
on specific discrete values. For elementary particles like electrons, the spin quantum
number (s) can take values like 1/2, 1, 3/2, etc., and it determines the possible spin states.
The spin quantum number, s, describes the intrinsic spin of a particle. For example: •
Electron, proton, and neutron: These particles have spin s = 1/2. • Photon: A photon has
spin s = 1, but it's different from massive particles because photons are massless. [10]
The projection of the spin along a specific axis (usually the 2-axis) is described by the
magnetic quantum number ms This projection can take values from -s to +s in integer
steps. For a particle with spin 1/2, m s can take the values +1/2 and-1/2, often referred to
as "spin-up" and "spin-down" states is called spin projection. The Pauli Exclusion
Principle is an important rule related to spin. It states that no two fermions (particles with
half-integer spin like electrons, protons, and neutrons) can occupy the same quantum state
simultaneously. This principle is fundamental to understanding atomic structure, electron
configuration, and chemical bonding. Particles with spin have a magnetic moment, which
is proportional to their spin. For example, an electron with spin 1/2 has a magnetic
moment that interacts with external magnetic fields, a phenomenon central to techniques
like Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). [6]
In quantum mechanics, spin is described by operators. The spin operators obey certain
commutation relations, which are crucial for predicting the outcomes of measurements
related to spin. The spin operator is associated with a matrix that acts on the quantum
state of the particle. [11]
The spin of the quantum mechanics is a spin of a small particle like an electron. The
water, which we daily drink is made of
hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms. With
respect to hydrogen atoms, an electron
revolves around a proton. It is very
difficult for us to imagine the atom

15
because it is very small. Therefore, atoms are expressed in the unit system “daily unit
system.” [14]

In the above figure, though the radius of the electron is 390 femtometres (daily unit:39
centimetres). However, it is not correct in fact, because it is experimentally confirmed
that the electron is smaller than 1 femtometre (daily unit: 1 millimetre). [10]
The proton and the electron are spinning. In quantum mechanics, we call it spin. The
particle neither speed up, nor slow down the rotational velocity of the spin. The angular
momentum of the spin is fixed. [9]
In order to explain the spin, we consider the spin of a mu particle. The mu particle is a
particle like an electron. The mass is 106 MeV (daily unit: 106g), and the lifetime is two
microseconds (daily unit: 700 million years). The mu particle decays into two neutrinos
and an electron. [2] The axis of rotation of the spin
has any direction without magnetic field. We
will find the direction of the axis of rotation
of the spin by observing the electron popping
from the mu particle because the electron
pops in the opposite direction of the spin
of the mu particle. [2]
On the other hand, the spin has only two
directions with magnetic field. The state of the
spin is a superposition of the state that
the direction of the spin is the same direction of the magnetic field and the direction of the
spin is the opposite direction of the magnetic field. [4] The direction of the popping
electron from the mu particle is only the two directions. In other words, the magnetic field
breaks the rotational symmetry. [7]
Particles are classified into two types based on their spin:
• Fermions: Particles with half-integer spin (e.g., electrons, protons, neutrons). They obey
Fermi-Dirac statistics and follow the Pauli Exclusion Principle.
• Bosons: Particles with integer spin (e.g., photons, W/Z bosons, and helium-4 atoms).
They obey Bose-Einstein statistics and can occupy the same quantum state, leading to
phenomena like Bose-Einstein condensates.

16
Spin is also consistent with special relativity. It's an intrinsic property that doesn't depend
on an object's motion through space, but it interacts with the particle's velocity in
relativistic contexts. The Dirac equation, for example, describes relativistic particles like
electrons, accounting for both spin and relativistic effects.
Spin is fundamental to the behaviour of particles, their interactions, and the structure of
matter. It plays a crucial role in quantum mechanics, quantum field theory, and many
areas of physics like condensed matter, particle physics, and cosmology. [9]

SPIN HALL EFFECT

Spin Hall effects are a collection of relativistic spin-orbit coupling phenomena in which
electrical currents can generate transverse spin currents and vice versa. Although first
observed only a decade ago, these effects are already ubiquitous within spintronics as
standard spin-current generators and detectors. [5]
Spintronics is a field that jointly utilizes the spin and charge degrees of freedom to control

equilibrium and non-equilibrium properties of materials and devices. The generation,

manipulation, and detection of spin-currents is one of the key aspects of the field of
spintronics. Among the several possibilities to create and control spin-currents the spin
Hall effect (SHE) has gained its distinct place since its first observation a decade ago. [5]
Spin Hall Effect (SHE) refers to the phenomenon where an electric current induces a
transverse spin polarization in a material, which is different from the usual charge current
flow. This effect occurs in materials that lack inversion symmetry, such as certain
semiconductors or metals. [8]

In simpler terms, when a charge current flows through a material exhibiting the Spin Hall
Effect, the electrons (or other charge carriers) start to accumulate spins in opposite

17
directions on either side of the material, even though there is no net flow of spin. This
separation of spins creates a spin current that is transverse to the applied electric field,
rather than the typical charge current. [3]
How it works:
When an electric field is applied to a material, it accelerates charge carriers (electrons). In
materials with spin-orbit coupling, the motion of the charge carriers causes them to
experience a force that is dependent on their spin orientation. The charge carriers with
spin up and spin down (perpendicular to the transverse separation of different directions
current), resulting in a transverse separation of spin. [1]
In materials exhibiting the Spin Hall Effect, the spin-orbit coupling is a key feature. Spin-
orbit coupling is the interaction between the electron's spin (an intrinsic property of the
electron) and its orbital motion (movement around the nucleus). In a material with spin-
orbit coupling, as electrons move through the material, their spin gets influenced by their
motion. This coupling causes an effective force to act on the electron's spin, which can
cause it to "flip" or move in a direction that is perpendicular to the direction of motion of
the charge carrier. [7]
As the current flows, the electrons' spins are deflected to opposite sides of the material.
Specifically:
• Electrons with spin-up (relative to the direction of motion) accumulate on one side of
the material.
• Electrons with spin-down accumulate on the opposite side. [2]
• This phenomenon creates a transverse spin polarization or spin accumulation at the
edges of the material, perpendicular to the direction of the charge current. Importantly,
this accumulation of spins occurs without any net charge flow along the transverse
direction.[15]
While the charge current flows in one direction (say, along the x-axis), the spin current
(which is the flow of spins) flows perpendicular to the charge current, typically along the
y-axis in the two-dimensional plane. Thus, the material experiences a separation of charge
and spin currents. This is one of the defining features of the Spin Hall Effect. [14]
The transverse spin accumulation can be detected by measuring the spin current using various
techniques like spin-polarized scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM), magnetoresistance
measurements, or through the inverse Spin Hall Effect (ISHE), where the accumulated
spins generate a measurable voltage when they are converted into a charge current. [4]
Importance:
The Spin Hall Effect is important for a variety of reason, particularly in the fields of
spintronics, quantum computing, and energy-efficient technologies. Here's a breakdown
of its significance:
The Spin Hall Effect is foundational for spintronic technologies, which use the electron
spin, in addition to its charge, to encode, process, and store information. By controlling
electron spins rather than just charges, these devices can offer several advantages. [6]

18
Spin-based devices can potentially operate faster than traditional electronic devices that
rely solely on charge transport. Spintronic devices often require less energy because
manipulating spins can be more efficient than moving charges over long distances. The
Spin Hall Effect can help develop spin-based memory (e.g., MRAM-Magnetoresistive
Random Access Memory), which retains information even when power is turned off,
leading to low-energy consumption and faster data access. [13]
The Spin Hall Effect provides a way to generate spin currents without the need for strong
magnetic fields or external spins, which helps reduce energy losses in electronics. Since
no charge current needs to be transported perpendicular to the applied electric field, it
offers the possibility of reducing Joule heating, a major source of energy loss in
conventional electronics.[6]
Quantum Bits (Qubits): The Spin Hall Effect may contribute to the development of
quantum computers, which rely on quantum bits (qubits). The ability to manipulate spins
(rather than charge) could make quantum gates more efficient and robust, leading to
better quantum information processing. Spin currents can be used to control the state of
qubits, which is essential for building reliable quantum computing systems. [8]
The Spin Hall Effect can be used to create spin-based logic devices, where information is
processed using the orientation of electron spins instead of traditional charge-based logic.
These devices can potentially be smaller, faster, and more power-efficient than current
semiconductor-based systems. [10]
The Spin Hall Effect has driven the search for new materials with strong spin-orbit
coupling that can efficiently generate spin currents. This has led to the discovery of new
materials like topological insulators, heavy metals (e.g., platinum), and two-dimensional
materials, which are essential for future technological advancements in electronics and
materials science. [11]
The inverse Spin Hall Effect (ISHE), where a spin current is converted into a charge
current, can be used for sensing applications. This is useful in magnetic sensors or
magnetometers, where detecting spin currents can help. measure magnetic fields or detect
small magnetic signals, which is essential for various applications in industrial,
healthcare, and consumer technologies. [12]
The Spin Hall Effect has opened up new areas of research in condensed matter physics,
materials science, and quantum mechanics, encouraging scientists to explore novel
physical effects, including topological effects, and to design materials with specific
properties for spin-based technologies. [6]
The Spin Hall Effect holds great potential to revolutionize electronics by enabling faster,
more energy efficient, and more robust devices that operate based on the manipulation of
the electron spin. [4]

19
 Family of Hall Effects:

Ordinary Hall Effect (OHE) Anomalous Hall Effect Spin Hall Effect (SHE)
(AHE)
 Discovered by Edwin  The Anomalous Hall  The spin hall effect
Hall in 1879. Effect occurs in occurs when an
 When a magnetic ferromagnetic electric current
field is applied materials and is an induces a transverse
perpendicular in the extension of the spin polarization in a
direction of current Ordinary Hall Effect. material, creating a
flow in a conductor It results from the spin current without
or semiconductor, it spin-orbit a net charge current.
causes the moving Interaction and the This is a result of
charge carriers to intrinsic spin-orbit coupling,
experience a Lorentz magnetization of the where charge
force. This results in materials. carriers with the
a transverse voltage  In addition to the different spin
across the conductor, Lorentz force acting orientations
known as the Hall on charge carriers, accumulate on
Voltage. the magnetization of opposite sides of the
 The Hall Voltage VH the material also material.
is given by: affects the motion of  When an electric
VH = BId /ne the charge carriers, field is applied, the
Where leading to an spin-polarized
B is the magnetic enhanced transverse charge carriers are
field, voltage. deflected in opposite
I is the electric  The Hall resistance directions, creating a
current, in AHE is given by: spin current that is
d is the thickness of RH = R 0 + R S transverse to the
the conductor, Where applied current.
n is the carrier R0 is the Ordinary  The SHE is critical
concentration, Hall Resistance, for spintronics,
e is the charge of RS is the quantum computing,
carriers, anomalous non-volatile
 OHE used in Hall component, related to memory, and low-
sensors to measure the magnetization. power devices.
magnetic fields, in  AHE used in
current sensors, and spintronic devices,
for determining the magnetic properties
type of charge of materials.
carriers (electrons or
holes) in a material.

20
 Chapter-4
ELECTRONICS V/s SPINTRONICS

Spintronics and electronics are both fields that deal with the manipulation of electric
charge and current, but they differ significantly in terms of the physical principles and
mechanisms they use. [5]

ELECTRONICS SPINTRONICS
 Traditional electronics is based on  Spintronics (short for spin transport
the electronics) goes beyond charge
 manipulation and control of electric manipulation and also exploits the
charge (specifically the movement of spin of electrons (an intrinsic
electrons) through materials. Devices quantum property) in addition to
in electronics, like transistors, their charge. It involves the use of
diodes, and capacitors, primarily rely electron spin and magnetic moments
on the flow of charge carriers to store, process, and transfer
(electrons or holes) and their information.
interactions with electric and
magnetic fields.
 It Primarily deals with the charge of  It Focuses on the spin and magnetic
electrons. The flow of charge carriers moment of electrons, which are
(electrons or holes) creates electric quantum mechanical properties. The

21
 currents, and the behaviour of these spin state (up or down) of an electron
carriers is governed by classical can be used to represent data. In
physics, with quantum effects spintronics, devices may not only
becoming relevant at the smallest control the charge current but also
scales (e.g., in semiconductors). the spin current, allowing for new
types of information processing and
storage.
 In electronic devices, the flow of  In spintronic devices, the movement
electrons or holes in response to of spin-polarized charge carriers is
electric fields (via Ohm's law) forms manipulated. Spin Hall Effect,
the basis of traditional electronic magnetoresistance, and spin transfer
devices like resistors, capacitors, and torque are some of the mechanisms
transistors. The information is stored utilized to control the spin states and
and manipulated by the movement of spin currents, as well as their
electric charge. interaction with the charge carriers.
 Traditional electronic devices,  Spintronic devices, by utilizing the
particularly as they shrink in size, spin degree of freedom, are typically
suffer from Joule heating and high more energy-efficient than their
energy consumption due to the purely electronic counterparts. Spin-
movement of charge. As transistors based memory (such as MRAM)
continue to get smaller, power consumes less power because it
dissipation becomes a critical issue. manipulates spin without needing to
move large amounts of charge,
thereby reducing power dissipation.
 In electronic devices, Memory  In spintronic memory (e.g., MRAM-
devices like RAM, Flash, and hard Magnetoresistive RAM), data is
drives store information as electric stored by manipulating the
charge in capacitors or through magnetization of a material (which is
current-driven changes in material related to the spin state of electrons).
states (e.g., charge in a floating gate). Spin transfer torque allows for the
switching of magnetic states with
very low energy, and it can retain
information even without power
(non-volatile).
 Electronics have high speeds due to  Spintronic devices have the potential
the fast response of charge carriers to for even faster data manipulation
electric fields. Modern transistors because spin switching can occur
(like those in CPUs) can switch on rapidly with minimal energy loss.
and off extremely quickly, enabling Devices like spin-based transistors
fast processing speeds. can theoretically switch faster than
traditional charge-based transistors.
 Electronics: Traditional electronics  Spintronics is primarily used in data
dominate many aspects of modern storage and memory devices, such as
technology, including computers, MRAM (Magnetoresistive Random
smartphones, televisions, digital Access Memory), spin valves, hard
cameras, and most consumer disk drives, and spin-based sensors.
electronics. Electronic circuits are It is also being explored for quantum
also widely used in communication, computing and low-power
power systems, and industrial control electronics.
systems.

22
  The Moore's Law that governed the  Spintronics holds promise for
growth of semiconductor devices is scalable, energy-efficient devices that
becoming more challenging as may help extend Moore's Law
physical limits of miniaturization are beyond traditional electronics.
reached. Issues like heat dissipation Because spin does not suffer from
and quantum tunnelling at smaller the same issues as charge (e.g.,
scales complicate the continued heating or leakage current), it allows
scaling of charge-based devices. for the creation of smaller, more
efficient devices that can function at
even smaller scales.
 Electronics is limited by the bandgap  Spintronics faces challenges related
of materials, heat generation, and the to spin coherence and the ability to
inability to efficiently store generate and maintain spin-polarized
information without a charge. currents over long distances, as well
as the complexity of integrating spin-
based devices with traditional
electronics.
[8,1,5]

APPLICATIONS

Spintronics (Spin Transport Electronics) is an advanced field that exploits the spin of
electrons in addition to their charge to develop new technologies. The use of electron
spins in various devices allows for higher efficiency, faster speeds, and more innovative
applications compared to traditional electronics. [5] Some key applications of spintronics
are:

SPIN TRANSISTOR
A spin transistor is a type of transistor that uses both the charge and spin of electrons to
control the flow of electrical current. Traditional transistors rely solely on the movement
of electric charge to function, but spin transistors leverage an additional quantum property
of electrons: spin. [7]
In addition to the charge, electrons also possess an intrinsic angular momentum called
spin, which can have two possible orientations: up or down. In spintronic devices like
spin transistors, the spin orientation of electrons plays a crucial role in the operation of the
device. In a spin transistor, electrons are typically injected with a specific spin
polarization (meaning most of the electrons have the same spin orientation, either "up" or

23
"down"). This spin-polarized current is then manipulated by external magnetic fields or
the spin-orbit interaction in the transistor. The behaviour of the spin-polarized electrons is
influenced by the magnetic properties of the material in the transistor. The spin-dependent
resistance of materials plays a key role. When the electron spins are aligned (parallel)
with the magnetization direction of the material, current flows more easily. When the
spins are in opposition (antiparallel), the resistance flow is reduced. [8]
Working:
Electrons with a specific spin orientation are injected into the semiconductor or metallic
material of the transistor. This process typically uses a ferromagnetic material (which has
inherent magnetization) as the source for the spin-polarized electrons. The injected spin-
polarized electrons travel through the transistor material. Depending on the alignment of
the spins with the material's magnetization (or an external magnetic field), the current can
be modulated. [6]
The spins of the electrons are manipulated by a magnetic field or through spin-orbit
coupling. In spin transistors, the spins can be aligned or misaligned, which results in a
change in the current passing through the device (known as spin-dependent resistance). At
the output of the transistor, the spin configuration affects how easily current flows. If the
spin orientation is aligned with the output material's magnetization, the current is high
(low resistance), and if they are opposite, the current is lower (high resistance). This
variation can be used to control the transistor. [4]

Types:
1. Spin Field-Effect Transistor (Spin-FET): A type of spin transistor that operates
similarly to a conventional field-effect transistor (FET), but uses electron spin to
modulate the current flow. In a Spin-FET, the spin orientation of electrons controls the
flow of current between the source and drain electrodes. The gate voltage controls the
spin alignment, allowing for faster switching and lower energy consumption than
traditional transistors. [2]
2. Spin-Polarized Transistor: This is a more general term for transistors that use spin-
polarized currents for their operation, often using ferromagnetic materials as electrodes to
inject spin-polarized electrons into the channel. [4]
Advantages:
Spintronic devices can achieve efficient switching without the need to move large
amounts of charge, reducing power dissipation compared to conventional charge-based
devices. Spin-based transistors can switch faster than traditional ones because of the
additional degree of freedom provided by spin. Spin transistors can retain information
even without power, offering potential applications in non-volatile memory. By
combining charge and spin, spintronic devices can enable new functionalities that are not
possible with charge-based electronics alone, such as spin-based logic. [16]
Applications:

24
1. Spin-based logic circuits: Spin transistors could be used to create faster, more energy-
efficient logic gates for computing systems.
2. Non-volatile memory: Spintronic memory devices, such as MRAM (Magnetoresistive
RAM), could use spin transistors to store data without consuming power.
3. Quantum computing: Spin-based transistors could be used in quantum computers,
where the spin states of electrons are used as quantum bits (qubits) to perform complex
calculations. [1]

Challenges:
Not all materials are suitable for spin-based transistors, and maintaining spin coherence
over long distances is difficult in many materials. Spin-based devices require precise
fabrication techniques, particularly for controlling spin injection and detection.
Integrating spintronic devices with existing semiconductor technologies remains a
challenge due to the differences in the underlying physics. [5]

Conclusion:
A spin transistor is a next-generation device that utilizes both electron charge and electron
spin to control electrical current. It holds promise for faster, more energy-efficient
electronics and has potential applications in fields like quantum computing, spin-based
memory, and logic circuits. However, the technology still faces challenges in materials,
fabrication, and integration with existing electronics. [8]

Magneto Resistive Random Access Memory (MRAM):

You hit the power button on your television and it instantly comes to life. But do the same
thing with your computer and you have to wait a few minutes while it goes through its
boot up sequence. Why can't we have a computer that turns on as instantly as a television
or radio? IBM, in cooperation with Infineon, is promising to launch a new technology in
the next few years that will eliminate the boot-up process. Magnetic random-access
memory (MRAM) has the potential to store more data, access that data faster and use less
power than current memory technologies. [11] The key to MRAM is that, as its name
suggests, it uses magnetism rather than electrical power to store data. This is a major leap
from dynamic RAM (DRAM), the most common type of memory in use today, which
requires a continuous supply of electricity and is terribly inefficient. Twenty-five years
ago, DRAM overtook ferrite core memory in the race to rule the PC memory market.
Now it looks like ferromagnetic technology could be making a comeback, with IBM

25
Corp. and Infineon Technologies charging a joint team of 80 engineers and scientists with
the task of making magnetic RAM (MRAM). [1]
All modern hard disks are equipped with two different heads, one for writing and the
other for reading. The principle of the writing head is quite simple, i.e., generation of a
magnetic field as electricity passes through the head. The head focuses this magnetic field
generated to the area on the disk surface where the bit is to be written. Conceptually the
technique for reading is the reverse of that of writing, i.e., using electromagnetic
induction and it was the technique used in earlier hard disks. But as the storage density
increased, it became very difficult to read a bit from the disk surface as there was the
interference of magnetic fields from the neighbouring bits. A small electrical current is
kept flowing through the reading head. When a bit passes under the head, due to the
presence of the magnetic field associated with the bit, the electrical resistance of head
changes which alters the current flowing through it. This change in the current flow is so
significant that it can be easily detected. [8]
Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory (MRAM) is a non-volatile computer memory
(NVRAM) technology, which has been under development since the 1990s. Continued
increases in density of existing memory technologies -- notably Flash RAM and DRAM
-- kept MRAM in a niche role in the market, but its proponents believe that the
advantages are so overwhelming that MRAM will eventually become dominant. Unlike
conventional RAM chip technologies, in MRAM data is not stored as electric charge or
current flows, but by magnetic storage elements. [13]
The elements are formed from two ferromagnetic plates, each of which can hold a
magnetic field, separated by a thin insulating layer. One of the two plates is a permanent
magnet set to a particular polarity; the other's field will change to match that of an
external field. [3] A memory device is built from a grid of such "cells". Reading is
accomplished by measuring the electrical resistance of the cell. A particular cell is
(typically) selected by powering an associated transistor which switches current from a
supply line through the cell to ground. Due to the magnetic tunnel effect, the electrical
resistance of the cell changes due to the orientation of the fields in the two plates. By
measuring the resulting current, the resistance inside any particular cell can be
determined, and from this the polarity of the writable plate. Typically, if the two plates
have the same polarity this is considered to mean "0", while if the two plates are of
opposite polarity the resistance will be higher and this means "1". On comparison with
existing memory technologies, MRAM is faster than SRAM, have a higher storage
density than DRAM, the power requirement is less than that of DRAM and it is faster
than FLASH. MRAM is the Memory of the future. If the researches turn up, it will
replace both Volatile and Non-Volatile Primary memories. [2]

History:
2000- IBM and Infineon established a joint MRAM development program.
2000- Spintec laboratory's first Spin Torque Transfer patent.

26
2002- NVE Announces Technology Exchange with Cypress Semiconductor.
2003 - A 128 kbit MRAM chip was introduced, manufactured with a 180 nm lithographic
process
2004 - Infineon unveiled a 16-Mbit prototype 2005 - Sony announced the first lab-
produced spin-torque-transfer MRAM
2007 - Tohoku University and Hitachi developed a prototype 2 Mbit Non-Volatile RAM
Chip employing spin-transfer torque switching
2008 - Scientists in Germany have developed next-generation MRAM that is said to
operate with write cycles under 1 ns.
2009 - Hitachi and Tohoku University demonstrated a 32-Mbit spin-transfer torque RAM.
[4]

How MRAM Works:

MRAM (Magnetoresistive Random Access
Memory) uses electron spin to store data.
Memory cells are integrated on an
integrated circuit chip, and the function of
the resulting device is like a semiconductor
static RAM (SRAM) chip, with potentially
higher density and the added feature that the
data are non-volatile, that is data are
retained with power off. Typical “classic” or
“conventional” MRAM uses spin-dependent
tunnel junction memory cells and magnetic
row and column write lines as illustrated. The spin-dependent tunnel junction produces a
large change in resistance depending on the predominant electron spin in a storage layer.
The tunnel barrier is as thin as a few atomic layers--so thin that electrons can “tunnel”
through the normally insulating material, causing a resistance change. Row and column
magnetic write lines allow data to be written to a selected cell in a two-dimensional array.
[9]
Data are written by small electrical currents in the
write lines that create a magnetic field, which flip
electron spins in the spin-dependent tunnel junction
storage layer, thus changing the junction’s
resistance. Data is read by the tunnelling current or
resistance through the tunnel junction. Next
generation MRAM could reduce cell size and
power consumption. Potential next-generation
designs include Spin Momentum Transfer,
Magneto-Thermal MRAM, and Vertical Transport
MRAM. Spin-Momentum Transfer (also “Spin-

27
Transfer,” “Spin Injection,” or “Spin Torque Transfer”) MRAM is based on changing the
spin of storage electrons directly with an electrical current rather than an induced
magnetic field. This method has the potential to significantly reduce MRAM write
currents, especially with lithographic feature sizes less than 100 nanometres. M-T MRAM
uses a combination of magnetic fields and ultra-fast heating from electrical current pulses
to reduce the energy required to write data. [15]

MRAM is a combination of the advantages of existing technologies

28
 Giant Magneto Resistance (GMR)

DISCOVERY: -
GMR was independently discovered in 1988 in Fe/Cr/Fe Tri layers by a research team led
by Peter Grunberg, who owns the patent, and in Fe/Cr multilayers by the group of Albert
Fert of the University of Paris-Sud, who first saw the large effect in multilayers (up to
50% change in resistance) that led to its naming, and first correctly explained the
underlying physics. The discovery of GMR is considered as the birth of Spintronics.
Grunberg and Fert have received a number of prestigious prizes and awards for their
discovery and contributions to the field of Spintronics, including the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 2007. [5]

THEORY: -
Like other magneto resistive effects, giant magnetoresistance (GMR) is the change in
electrical resistance of some materials in response
to an applied magnetic field. It was discovered that
the application of a magnetic field to magnetic
metallic multilayers such as Fe/Cr and Co/Cu, in
which ferromagnetic layers are separated by
nonmagnetic spacer layers of a few nm thick,
results in a significant reduction of the electrical
resistance of the multilayer. This effect was found
to be much larger than other magneto resistive 10 effects that had ever been observed in
metals and was, therefore, called “giant magnetoresistance”. In Fe/Cr and Co/Cu
multilayers the magnitude of GMR can be higher than 100% at low temperatures. [3]
The change in the resistance of the multilayer arises
when the applied field aligns the magnetic moments of
the successive ferromagnetic layers, as is illustrated
schematically in the figure below. In the absence of the
magnetic field the magnetizations of the ferromagnetic
layers are antiparallel. Applying the magnetic field,
which aligns the magnetic moments and saturates the
magnetization of the multilayer, leads to a drop in the
electrical resistance of the multilayer. Usually, resistance of multilayer is measured with
the Current in Plane (CIP). For instance, read back magnetic heads uses this property.
But this suffers from several drawbacks such as; shunting and channelling, particularly
for uncoupled multilayers and for thick spaced layers diminish the CIP magneto
resistance. Diffusive surface scattering reduces the magneto resistance for sandwiches and
thin multilayers. [13]

29
To erase these problems, we measure with Current
Perpendicular to the Plane (CPP), mainly because
electrons cross all magnetic layers, but a practical
difficulty is encountered the perpendicular resistance of
ultra-thin multilayers is too small to be measured by
ordinary techniques. The use of Micro fabrication
techniques for CPP measurements, from 4.2 to 300k
was first shown for Fe/Cr multilayers, where the
multilayers were etched into micropillars to obtain a
relatively large resistance (a few milli ohms). These types of measurements have
confirmed the larger MR for the CPP configuration, but they suffer from general
complexity of realisation and measurement techniques. Experiments using electro
deposited nanowires showed CPP MR up to 15% at room temperature. [9]

TYPES OF GMR: -

Multilayer:
Two or more ferromagnetic layers are separated by a very thin (about 1 nm) non
ferromagnetic spacer (e.g. Fe/Cr/Fe). At certain thicknesses the RKKY l coupling between
adjacent ferromagnetic layers becomes anti ferromagnetic, making it energetically
preferable for the magnetizations of adjacent layers to align in anti-parallel. The electrical
resistance of the device is normally higher in the anti-parallel case and the difference can
reach more than 10% at room temperature. The interlayer spacing in these devices
typically corresponds to the second anti ferromagnetic peak in the AFM-FM oscillation in
the RKKY coupling. The GMR effect was first observed in the multilayer configuration,
with much early research into GMR focusing on multilayer stacks of 10 or more layers.
[7]
Granular:
Granular GMR is an effect that occurs in solid precipitates of a magnetic material in a
non-magnetic matrix. In practice, granular GMR is only observed in matrices of copper
containing cobalt granules. The reason for this is that copper and cobalt are immiscible,
and so it is possible to create the solid precipitate by rapidly cooling a molten mixture of
copper and cobalt. Granule sizes vary depending on the cooling rate and amount of
subsequent annealing. Granular GMR materials have not been able to produce the high
GMR ratios found in the multilayer counterparts. [5]
Pseudo Spin Valve:
Pseudo-spin valve devices are very similar to the spin valve structures. The significant
difference is the coercivities of the ferromagnetic layers. In a pseudo-spin valve structure,
a soft magnet will be used for one layer; where as a hard ferromagnet will be used for the
other. This allows an applied field to flip the magnetization of the hard ferromagnet layer.
For pseudo-spin valves, the non-magnetic layer thickness must be great enough so that

30
 exchange coupling minimized. This reduces the chance that the alignment of the
magnetization of adjacent layers will spontaneously change at a later time. [4]

Quantum Computing

ABSTRACT:
A quantum computer is a computation device that makes direct use of quantum mechanical
phenomena, such as the superposition and entanglement of atoms, photons, electrons etc., to
perform operations on data. Quantum computers are different from digital computers based
on transistors. Whereas digital computers require data to be encoded into binary digits (bits),
quantum computation uses quantum properties to represent data and perform operations on
these data. A theoretical model is the quantum Turing machine, also known as the universal
quantum computer. Quantum computers shared theoretical similarities with non-deterministic
and probabilistic computers. It has the potential to perform calculations, billions of times
faster than any silicon-based computer. [22]

INTRODUCTION:
Civilization has advanced as people discovered new ways of exploiting various physical
resources such as materials, forces and energies. In the twentieth century information was
added to the list when the invention of computers allowed complex information processing to
be performed outside human brains. The history of computer technology has involved a
sequence of changes from one type of physical realization to another --- from gears to relays
to valves to transistors to integrated circuits and so on. [19]
Today’s computers are classical, a fact which is actually not entirely obvious. A basis of
modern computers rests on semiconductor technology. Transistors, which are the “neurons”
of all computers, work by exploiting properties of semiconductors. Classical computers are in
a certain, restricted, sense quantum mechanical, because, as far as we understand today,
everything is quantum mechanical. No, classical computers, although based on quantum
physics, are not fully quantum, because they do not use “quantum Ness” of matter at the
information-theoretical level, what it really matters. [17]
Gordon Moore proposed Moore’s law in 1965, which originally stated that processor power
and speed would double in size every eighteen months (this was later revised to two years).
This law still holds but is starting to falter, and components are getting smaller. Soon they
will be so small, being made up of a few atoms that quantum effects will become
unavoidable, possibly ending Moore’s law. There are ways in which we can use quantum
effects to our advantage in a classical sense, but by fully utilizing those effects we can
achieve much more. This approach is the basis for quantum computing. [22]

31
HISTORY:
The fled of quantum computation is largely a body of theoretical promises for some
impressively fast algorithms which could be executed on quantum computers. However, since
the first significant algorithm was proposed in 1994 experimental progress has been rapid
with several schemes yielding two and three quantum bit manipulations. [18]
Quantum computers were first discussed by Paul Benioff in the context of simulating
classical Turing machines (very elementary conventional computers) with quantum unitary
evolution. Feynman considered the converse question of how well classical computers can
simulate quantum systems. He concluded that classical computers invariably super from an
exponential slow-down in trying to simulate quantum systems, but that quantum systems
could, in principle, simulate each other without this slowdown. It was Deutsch, however, who
first suggested that quantum superposition might allow quantum evolution to perform many
classical computations in parallel. [20]

ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM COMPUTING

The basic element of quantum computing includes the qubits, the quantum gates, quantum
circuits and quantum algorithms. [21]

THE QUBIT: -
The qubit is the quantum analogue of the bit, the classical fundamental unit of information. It
is a mathematical object with specific properties that can be realized physically in many
different ways as an actual physical system. Just as the classical bit has a state (either 0 or 1),
a qubit also has a state. Yet contrary to the classical bit, 0 and 1 are but two possible states of
the qubit, and any linear combination (superposition) thereof is also physically possible. In
general, thus, the physical state of a qubit is the superposition. [19]
ψ = α0 + β1
(Where α and β are complex numbers). The state of a qubit can be described as a vector in a
two-dimensional Hilbert space, a complex vector space. The special states 0 and 1 are known
as the computational basis states, and form an orthonormal basis for this vector space.
According to quantum theory, when we try to measure the qubit in this basis in order to
determine its state, we get either 0 with probability α² or 1 with probability β². Since α² + β² =
1 (i.e., the qubit is a unit vector in the aforementioned two-dimensional Hilbert state), we
may (ignoring the overall phase factor) effectively write its state as ψ = cos(θ)0 + e iφ sin(θ)1,
where the numbers θ and φ define a point on the
unit three- dimensional sphere, as
shown here. This sphere is often called the
Bloch sphere, and it provides a useful means to
visualize the state of a single qubit. [17]
Theoretically, a single qubit can store an
infinite amount of information, yet when

32
measured it yields only the classical result (0 or 1) with certain probabilities that are specified
by the quantum state. In other words, the measurement changes the state of the qubit,
“collapsing” it from the superposition to one of its terms. The crucial point is that unless the
qubit is measured, the amount of “hidden” information it stores is conserved under the
dynamic evolution (namely, Schrödinger's equation). This feature of quantum mechanics
allows one to manipulate the information stored in unmeasured qubit with quantum gates, and
is one of the sources for the putative power of quantum computer. [19]

The Bloch Sphere

To see why, let us suppose we have two qubits with us. If these were classical bits, then they
could be in four possible states (00, 01, 10, and 11). Correspondingly, a pair of qubits has
four computational basis states (00,01, 10 and 11). But while a single classical two-bit
register can store these numbers only one at a time, a pair of qubits can also exist in a
superposition of these four basis states, each of which with its own complex coefficient
(whose mod square, being interpreted as probability, is normalized). As long as the quantum
system evolves unitarily and is unmeasured, all four possible states are simultaneously
“stored” in a single two-qubit quantum register. More generally, the amount of information
that can be stored in a system of n unmeasured qubits grows exponentially in n. The difficult
tasks, however, is to retrieve this information efficiently. [21]

QUANTUM GATES: -
Classical computational gates are Boolean logic gates that perform manipulations of the
information stored in the bits. In quantum computing these gates are represented by matrices,
and can be visualized as rotations of the quantum state on the Bloch sphere. This
visualization represents the fact that quantum gates are unitary operators, i.e., they preserve
the norm of the quantum state (if U is a matrix describing a single qubit gate, then U † U=I,
where U † is the ad joint of U, obtained by transposing and then complex-conjugation. [22]
As in the case of classical computing, where there exists a universal gate (the combinations of
which can be used to compute any computable function), namely, the NAND gate which
results from performing an AND gate and then a NOT gate, in quantum computing it was
shown that any multiple qubit logic gate may be composed from a quantum CNOT gate

33
(which operates on a multiple qubit by flipping or preserving the target bit given the state of
the control bit, an operation analogous to the classical XOR, i.e., the exclusive OR gate) and
single qubit gates. One feature of quantum gates that distinguishes it from classical gates is
that they are reversible: the inverse of a unitary matrix is also a unitary matrix, and thus a
quantum gate can always be inverted by another quantum gate. [20]

Fig. The
CNOT Gate
Unitary gates manipulate the information stored in the quantum register, and in this sense
ordinary (unitary) quantum evolution can be regarded as computation (showed how a small
set of single-qubit gates and a two-qubit gate is universal, in the sense that a circuit combined
from this set can approximate to arbitrary accuracy any unitary transformation of n qubits). In
order to read the result of this computation, however, the quantum register must be measured.
The measurement gate is a non- unitary gate that “collapses” the quantum superposition in
the register onto one of its terms with the corresponding probability. Usually, this
measurement is done in the computational basis, but since quantum mechanics allows one to
express an arbitrary state as a linear combination of basis states, provided that the states are
orthonormal (a condition that ensures normalization) one can in principle measure the register
in any arbitrary orthonormal basis. This, however, doesn't mean that measurements in
different bases are efficiently equivalent. Indeed, one of the difficulties in constructing
efficient quantum algorithms stems exactly from the fact that measurement collapses the
state, and some measurements are much more complicated than others. [19]

QUANTUM CIRCITS:
Quantum circuits are similar to classical computer circuits in that they consist of wires and
logical gates. The wires are used to carry the information, while the gates manipulate it (note
that the wires do not correspond to physical wires; they may correspond to a physical particle,
a photon, moving from one location to another in space, or even to time-evolution).
Conventionally, the input of the quantum circuit is assumed to be a computational basis state,
usually the state consisting of all 0. The output state of the circuit is then measured in the

34
computational basis, or in any other arbitrary orthonormal basis. The first quantum
algorithms were constructed in this paradigm. [18] Additional paradigms for quantum
computing exist today that differ from the quantum circuit model in many interesting ways.
So far, however, they all have been demonstrated to be computationally equivalent to the
circuit model (see below), in the sense that any computational problem that can be solved by
the circuit model can be solved by these new models with only a polynomial overhead in
computational resources. [21]
Algorithm design is a highly complicated task, and in quantum computing it becomes even
more complicated due to the attempts to harness quantum mechanical features to reduce the
complexity of computational problems and to “speed-up” computation. Before attacking this
problem, we should first convince ourselves that quantum computers can be harnessed to
perform standard, classical, computation without any “speed-up”. In some sense this is
obvious, given the belief in the universal character of quantum mechanics, and the
observation that any quantum computation that is diagonal in the computational basis, i.e.,
involves no interference between the qubits, is effectively classical. Yet the demonstration
that quantum circuits can be used to simulate classical circuits is not straightforward (recall
that the former are reversible while the latter use gates which are inherently irreversible). [20]
Indeed, quantum circuits cannot be used directly to simulate classical computation, but the
latter can still be simulated on a quantum computer using an intermediate gate, namely the
Toffoli gate. This gate has three input bits and three output bits, two of which are control bits,
unaffected by the action of the gate. The third bit is a target bit that is flipped if both control
bits are set to 1, and otherwise is left alone. This gate is reversible (its inverse is itself), and
can be used to simulate all the elements of the classical irreversible circuit with a reversible
one. Consequently, using the quantum version of the Toffoli gate one can simulate, although
rather tediously, irreversible classical logic gates with quantum reversible ones. Quantum
computers are thus capable of performing any computation which a classical deterministic
computer can do. What about non-deterministic computation? Not surprisingly, a quantum
computer can simulate also this type of computation by using another famous quantum gate,
namely the Hadamard gate, which receives as an input the state 0 and produces the state (0 +
1)/√2. Measuring this output state yields 0 or 1 with 50/50 probability, which can be used to
stimulate a fair coin toss. [19]

Fig. The Hadamard Gate

35
QUANTUM COMPUTORS: -
A quantum computer looks like this, taking n input qubits, the register V, and producing n
output qubits, the resistor W:

The input register can be prepared as a

superposition of states, e.g. an equal
superposition of all integers from 0 to 2n:

The computer then calculates in parallel the function applied to all 2n integers
simultaneously. From QMP (Quantum Measurement Postulate), when we measure W, it will
choose a Boolean for each bit of the output register according to the resulting entangled wave
function of the output qubits. Design F so that it maximizes the probability that the output we
measure is the answer we want.[17]
Measuring the output collapses the wave function: get Boolean values for all the qubits in W.
The result is one of the possible outputs. Imagine that F is (integer) square root W =√V.
Prepare V as the superposition of all integers from 0 to 2n, run the computer, then measure W.
Result will square root of some number between 0 and 2n. The square root of any such
number, with equal probability. F calculates the square roots of all the integers in parallel, but
QMP says we can only find out about one. For real problems, arrange F so the probability
amplitudes of the output state strongly Favor the desired output from F. A quantum computer
is probabilistic: we may need to run it multiple times before we get the answer we want. [19]

Chapter-5
EXPECTATIONS FOR FUTURE

Spintronics, or spin electronics, is a field of study that focuses on the intrinsic spin of
electrons and its associated magnetic moment, in addition to the electron charge, for use in
information processing. As we move further into the 21st century, the future of spintronics
holds great promise in various areas, driven by advances in materials science, quantum
computing, and energy-efficient technologies. [5] Here are some key expectations for the
future of spintronics:
1. Integration with Quantum Computing:

36
Spintronics is expected to play a critical role in the development of quantum computers.
Quantum bits (qubits) can be realized using the spin of electrons in quantum dots or other
spin-based materials. These spin-based qubits could potentially offer a more scalable and
stable approach to quantum computation than other existing qubit technologies. This
integration could enable quantum computers with powerful processing capabilities for
solving problems in fields like cryptography, medicine, and complex simulations. [11]
2.Energy-Efficient Electronics:
Spintronics offers the potential for more energy-efficient devices. By utilizing the electron’s
spin, rather than its charge, in information storage and processing, spintronic devices could
require less power and generate less heat than conventional semiconductor-based devices.
This could lead to innovations in low-power memory and logic devices, which is especially
important for mobile devices, data centres, and the growing need for sustainable electronics.
[7]
3. Development of New Materials:
Advances in materials science will continue to drive spintronic technologies. New materials
like topological insulators, 2D materials (such as graphene and transition metal
dichalcogenides), and ferromagnetic semiconductors hold promise for improving the
efficiency and functionality of spintronic devices. These materials could enable faster, more
robust spintronic components, overcoming current limitations such as signal degradation and
the need for extreme cooling. [9]
4. Improved Magnetic Storage Devices:
Spintronics is already being used in hard drives, with technologies like Giant
Magnetoresistance (GMR) and Tunnel Magnetoresistance (TMR). Future spintronic-based
storage devices are expected to have higher data densities, faster read/write speeds, and lower
energy consumption. The next generation of memory technologies, such as spin-transfer
torque magnetic random-access memory (STT-MRAM), could replace traditional DRAM and
flash storage, offering faster speeds and greater durability. [2]

5. Neuromorphic Computing:
Spintronics could enable the development of neuromorphic computing systems, which mimic
the way the human brain processes information. By using spin-based logic and memory
components that are more closely aligned with neural network behaviour, spintronics could
help create faster and more efficient artificial intelligence (AI) systems. This could lead to
breakthroughs in machine learning, pattern recognition, and cognitive computing. [4]
6. Flexible and Wearable Electronics:
As flexible and wearable electronics continue to grow in popularity, spintronic devices could
play a role due to their potential for miniaturization and integration with flexible substrates.
Spintronic devices that are both lightweight and low-power could be key components in the
next generation of smartwatches, health-monitoring devices, and other wearable tech. [4]

37
7. Quantum Communication and Cryptography:
Spintronics is well-suited to developing secure quantum communication systems. Spin-based
qubits or spintronic-based entanglement could be used for ultra-secure quantum key
distribution, protecting data from hacking and eavesdropping. As quantum communication
systems become more viable, spintronics could offer the backbone for next-gen cryptographic
protocols. [4]
8. Spin-Orbitons and Topological Spintronics:
The study of spin-orbit coupling (the interaction between an electron's spin and its motion)
and topological phases in materials is likely to be a focal point in future research. These areas
could lead to new kinds of spintronic devices, such as topologically protected qubits, which
are more stable and less susceptible to environmental noise, thus improving the performance
and scalability of spin-based quantum computing systems. [2]
9. Increased Commercialization:
As research advances and prototypes for spintronic devices become more mature,
commercialization will likely follow. Companies are already exploring the potential for
spintronic-based technologies in sectors like data storage, healthcare, and AI. Over time, we
can expect spintronic devices to appear in consumer electronics, possibly in memory storage,
sensors, and processors. [6]
10. Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation:
Spintronics is a highly interdisciplinary field, bridging physics, materials science,
engineering, and computer science. This approach will continue to yield new insights and
breakthroughs, leading to innovations that could drive progress in multiple industries,
including semiconductor technology, energy, and computing. [9]

ADVANTAGES & LIMITATIONS

Advantages of Spintronics

1. Low Power Consumption:

o Spintronics devices often require less power than traditional
semiconductor devices because they exploit the spin of electrons, which
can be manipulated without relying heavily on the electron's charge.

38
 This is especially important for low-power applications like mobile
devices, portable electronics, and IoT (Internet of Things) devices. [5]
2. High Data Storage Density:
o Spintronic devices, particularly those used in magnetic memory (e.g.,
MRAM), can store data more densely than conventional semiconductor
memory. This allows for more efficient and compact storage solutions
with greater speed and lower power consumption. [7]
3. Non-Volatility:
o Many spintronic devices, such as MRAM, are non-volatile, meaning
they retain data even when power is lost. This characteristic makes
spintronics particularly useful for applications requiring long-term data
retention without the need for constant power. [3]
4. Faster Switching Speeds:
o Spintronic devices can exhibit faster switching speeds compared to
traditional electronic devices. For example, the ability to switch
magnetic states at high speeds can lead to faster memory read/write
operations and improved computational speeds. [1]
5. Increased Integration in Memory and Logic:
o Spintronic devices can integrate both memory and logic functions in a
single device. This could lead to the development of more efficient
systems where memory and computation occur closer together,
reducing latency and energy consumption. [1]

6. Resilience to Radiation:
o Spintronic devices are generally more resilient to radiation and
electromagnetic interference, making them ideal for use in space
exploration, military applications, and other environments where these
factors can cause failures in traditional electronic devices. [7]

7. Potential for Quantum Computing:

o Spintronics has strong potential for advancing quantum computing. The
quantum spin of electrons can be used to encode qubits, which are the
fundamental units of quantum computation. Spin-based qubits may be
more stable and scalable compared to other qubit types, such as those
based on photons or trapped ions. [3]
8. Scalability:

39
 o The use of spin for information processing, along with the
miniaturization of spintronic devices, could enable the development of
very small, high-density devices that are scalable for future applications
in computing and storage. [3]

Limitations of Spintronics

1. Material Challenges:
o A major limitation is the lack of suitable materials that exhibit strong spin-
related effects at room temperature. Many spintronic materials, such as
ferromagnetic semiconductors or topological insulators, require extremely low
temperatures to function efficiently. Room-temperature spintronic devices
remain an ongoing research challenge. [7]
2. Signal Loss and Damping:
o Spin-based information can suffer from signal loss and damping over time,
especially over long distances in a device. This can lead to a degradation of
signal integrity, making it difficult to maintain high performance in large,
complex systems. [2]
3. Manufacturing Complexity:
o Producing spintronic devices with the required precision and at a scale suitable
for mass production can be challenging. The fabrication processes for
spintronic materials and devices are often more complex than traditional
semiconductor manufacturing, making it harder to commercialize these
technologies at scale. [3]
4. Integration with Conventional Electronics:
o While spintronics offers many benefits, integrating spintronic devices with
traditional electronic systems (which rely on charge-based electronics)
remains difficult. The interface between spintronic and conventional devices
often presents challenges in terms of compatibility, control, and performance
optimization. [15]
5. Size and Device Compatibility:
o Though spintronic devices can be small, some of the existing technologies
(such as magnetic random-access memory - MRAM) are still relatively bulky
when compared to conventional memory types like DRAM or flash memory.
Also, the practical limitations of spintronics in terms of packaging and
integration with existing systems still need to be fully addressed. [16]

40
 6. Quantum Coherence Issues:
o Spin-based qubits for quantum computing face issues with quantum coherence
and decoherence. Spin states are highly sensitive to environmental noise and
can easily lose their quantum information, leading to errors in quantum
computation. [14]
7. Cost of Development:
o Spintronic research is still in the experimental and early commercial stages,
meaning that the cost of developing spintronic devices is high. The production
of high-quality spintronic materials and the development of specialized
equipment for spintronic manufacturing add to the overall cost. [15]
8. Limited Standardization:
o While there are promising spintronic-based memory and storage solutions
(like MRAM), there is a lack of standardization in spintronic devices across
industries. This makes it more difficult to build a broad ecosystem of
compatible products and hinders large-scale adoption. [11]
9. Heat Management:
o Although spintronic devices have the potential to reduce power consumption,
they can still generate heat due to losses during switching. Efficient heat
dissipation remains a challenge, especially for devices that are expected to
operate at higher speeds and density. [11]

CONCLUSION

Spintronics is a groundbreaking field that has the potential to revolutionize the way we
think about electronics, data storage, and computation. By leveraging the intrinsic spin of
electrons, in addition to their charge, spintronics opens up exciting possibilities for energy-
efficient, high-speed, and highly scalable technologies.

41
 Key advantages of spintronics include low power consumption, non-volatility, and
high data storage density, making it ideal for applications in memory devices, such as
MRAM, and in next-generation computing systems. Additionally, spintronics is poised to
play a crucial role in the advancement of quantum computing, quantum cryptography, and
neuromorphic computing, which could have significant implications for artificial intelligence
and secure communication.
However, challenges remain, particularly related to material limitations, integration
with conventional electronics, manufacturing complexity, and the need for better control over
quantum coherence in spin-based devices. Despite these obstacles, the field continues to
grow, and as research advances in materials science and device engineering, many of these
issues are likely to be addressed.
In conclusion, while spintronics is still in its developmental stages, its potential to
disrupt existing technologies and pave the way for new innovations is immense. The future of
spintronics will likely see a convergence of quantum computing, data storage, and low-power
electronics, leading to smarter, faster, and more energy-efficient devices. With ongoing
advancements, spintronics could become a cornerstone of next-generation electronics and
computing.

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