Introduction to IoT

UNIT 1

The Internet of Things refers to the rapidly growing network of connected objects that

can collect and exchange data in real-time using embedded sensors.

Cars, lights, refrigerators, and appliances can all be connected to the IoT.

The Internet of things is a connecting bridge between the physical world and the cyber
world and Machine to Machine communication

Any physical object can be transformed into an IoT device if it can be connected to the
internet to be controlled or communicate information. A lightbulb that can be switched on
using a smartphone app is an IoT device, as is a motion sensor

📖What is a Sensor?A Sensor is a device that is able to detect changes in an environment. Sensors are hardware
components that can detect events or changes in their surroundings, and then provide a corresponding output.
Sensors are the eyes and ears of any IoT Project.

📖 What is Actuator?An Actuator is a device that converts energy into motion. It is usually used to apply force on
something.
Advantages & Disadvantages of IoT

Characteristics of the Internet of Things:

1. Connectivity — Connectivity is an important requirement of the IoT infrastructure.
Things of IoT should be connected to the IoT infrastructure. Anyone, anywhere,
anytime can connect, this should be guaranteed at all times. For example, the
connection between people through internet devices like mobile phones, and other
gadgets, also a connection between Internet devices such as routers, gateways,
sensors, etc.

2. Intelligence and Identity — The extraction of knowledge from the generated data is
very important. For example, a sensor generates data, but that data will only be useful
if it is interpreted properly. Each IoT device has a unique identity. This identification
is helpful in tracking the equipment and at times for querying its status.
3. Scalability — The number of elements connected to the IoT zone is increasing day by
day. Hence, an IoT setup should be capable of handling the massive expansion. The
data generated as an outcome is enormous, and it should be handled appropriately.

4. Dynamic and Self-Adapting (Complexity) –IoT devices should dynamically adapt

themselves to changing contexts and scenarios. Assume a camera meant for
surveillance. It should be adaptable to work in different conditions and different light
situations (morning, afternoon, and night).

5. Architecture — IoT architecture cannot be homogeneous in nature. It should be

hybrid, supporting different manufacturers ‘ products to function in the IoT network.
IoT is not owned by anyone engineering branch. IoT is a reality when multiple
domains come together.

6. Safety — There is a danger of the sensitive personal details of the users getting
compromised when all his/her devices are connected to the internet. This can cause a
loss to the user. Hence, data security is the major challenge. Besides, the equipment
involved is huge. IoT networks may also be at the risk. Therefore, equipment safety is
also critical.
Physical and Logical Design of the Internet of Things

Difference Between Physical and Logical Design of IoT

Physical Design of IoT

A physical design of an IoT system refers to the individual node devices and their
protocols that are utilized to create a functional IoT ecosystem.

Each node device can perform tasks such as remote sensing, actuating, monitoring, etc.,
by relying on physically connected devices. It may also be capable of transmitting
information through different types of wireless or wired connections.

The things/devices in the IoT system are used for:

 Building connections

 Data processing

 Providing storage

 Providing interfaces

 Providing graphical interfaces

The devices generate data, and the data is used to perform analysis and do operations for
improving the system. For instance, a moisture sensor is used to obtain the moisture data
from a location, and the system analyses it to give an output.

Things/Devices
Things/Devices are used to build a connection, process data, provide interfaces, provide
storage, and provide graphics interfaces in an IoT system. all these generate data in a form
that can be analyzed by an analytical system and program to perform operations and used
to improve the system.

For example temperature sensor that is used to analyze the temperature generates the data
from a location and is then determined by algorithms.

Connectivity: Devices like USB hosts and ETHERNET are used for connectivity
between the devices and the server.

Processor: A processor like a CPU and other units are used to process the data. these data
are further used to improve the decision quality of an IoT system.
Audio/Video Interfaces: An interface like HDMI and RCA devices is used to record
audio and videos in a system.

Input/Output interface: To give input and output signals to sensors, and actuators we
use things like UART, SPI, CAN, etc.

Storage Interfaces: Things like SD, MMC, and SDIO are used to store the data generated
from an IoT device.

Other things like DDR and GPU are used to control the activity of an IoT system.

IoT Protocols
These protocols are used to establish communication between a node device and a server
over the internet. it helps to send commands to an IoT device and receive data from
an IoT device over the internet. we use different types of protocols that are present on both
the server and client side and these protocols are managed by network layers like
application, transport, network, and link layer.
Application Layer protocol

In this layer, protocols define how the data can be sent over the network with the lower
layer protocols using the application interface. these protocols include HTTP, WebSocket,
XMPP, MQTT, DDS, and AMQP protocols.

HTTP

Hypertext transfer protocol is a protocol that presents in an application layer for

transmitting media documents. it is used to communicate between web browsers and
servers. it makes a request to a server and then waits till it receives a response and in
between the request server does not keep any data between the two requests.

WebSocket

This protocol enables two-way communication between a client and a host that can be run
on an untrusted code in a controlled environment. This protocol is commonly used by web
browsers.

MQTT

It is a machine-to-machine connectivity protocol that was designed as a publish/subscribe

messaging transport. and it is used for remote locations where a small code footprint is
required.
Transport Layer

This layer is used to control the flow of data segments and handle error control. also, these
layer protocols provide end-to-end message transfer capability independent of the
underlying network.

TCP

The transmission control protocol is a protocol that defines how to establish and maintain
a network that can exchange data in a proper manner using the internet protocol.

UDP

a user datagram protocol is a part of an internet protocol called the connectionless

protocol. this protocol is not required to establish the connection to transfer data.

Network Layer

This layer is used to send datagrams from the source network to the destination network.
we use IPv4 and IPv6 protocols as host identification that transfers data in packets.

IPv4

This is a protocol address that is a unique and numerical label assigned to each device
connected to the network. an IP address performs two main functions host and location
addressing. IPv4 is an IP address that is 32-bit long.

IPv6
It is a successor of IPv4 that uses 128 bits for an IP address. it is developed by the IETF
task force to deal with long-anticipated problems.

Link Layer

Link-layer protocols are used to send data over the network’s physical layer. it also
determines how the packets are coded and signaled by the devices.

Ethernet

It is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs. it defines the
physical layer and the medium access control for wired ethernet networks.

WiFi

It is a set of LAN protocols and specifies the set of media access control and physical
layer protocols for implementing wireless local area networks.

Logical Design of IoT

A logical design for an IoT system is the actual design of how its components (computers,
sensors, and actuators) should be arranged to complete a particular function. It doesn’t go
into the depth of describing how each component will be built with low-level
programming specifics.

IoT logical design includes:

1. IoT functional blocks

2. IoT communications models

3. IoT communication APIs

1. IoT functional blocks

IoT systems include several functional blocks such as Devices, communication, security,
services, and application.

The functional blocks provide sensing, identification, actuation, management, and

communication capability. These functional blocks consist of devices that handle the
communication between the server and the host, enable monitoring control functions,
manage the data transfer, secure the IoT system using authentication and different
functions, and provide an interface for controlling and monitoring various terms.

The Functional blocks are:

Device: An IoT system comprises of devices that provide sensing, actuation, monitoring,
and control functions.

Communication: Handles the communication for the IoT system.

Services: services for device monitoring, device control service, data publishing services,
and services for device discovery.

Management: this block provides various functions to govern the IoT system.

Security: This block secures the IoT system and by providing functions such as
authentication, authorization, message and content integrity, and data security.
Application: This is an interface that the users can use to control and monitor various
aspects of the IoT system. The application also allows users to view the system status and
view or analyze the processed data.

2. IoT Communication Models

There are multiple kinds of models available in an Internet of Things system that is used
for communicating between the system and server, such as:

 Request-Response Model

Request-response model is a communication model in which the client sends requests to

the server and the server responds to the requests. When the server receives a request, it
decides how to respond, fetches the data, retrieves resource representation, prepares the
response, and then sends the response to the client. Request-response is a stateless
communication model and each request-response pair is independent of the others.
HTTP works as a request-response protocol between a client and a server. A web browser
may be the client, and an application on a computer that hosts a website may be the server.

Example: A client (browser) submits an HTTP request to the server; then the server
returns a response to the client. The response contains status information about the request
and may also contain the requested content.

 Publisher-Subscriber Model — This model comprises three entities: Publishers,

Brokers, and Consumers.

Publishers are the source of data. It sends the data to the topic which is managed by the
broker. They are not aware of consumers.

Consumers subscribe to the topics which are managed by the broker.

Brokers' responsibility is to accept data from publishers and send it to the appropriate
consumers. The broker only has the information regarding the consumer to which a
particular topic belongs which the publisher is unaware.
  Push-Pull Model — The push-pull model constitutes data publishers, data
consumers, and data queues.

Publishers and Consumers are not aware of each other.

Publishers publish the message/data and push it into the queue. The consumers, present on
the other side, pull the data out of the queue. Thus, the queue acts as the buffer for the
message when the difference occurs in the rate of push or pull of data on the side of a
publisher and consumer.

Queues help in decoupling the messaging between the producer and consumer. Queues
also act as a buffer which helps in situations where there is a mismatch between the rate at
which the producers push the data and consumers pull the data.
  Exclusive Pair –

Exclusive Pair is the bi-directional model, including full-duplex communication between

client and server. The connection is constant and remains open till the client sends a
request to close the connection.

The Server has the record of all the connections which has been opened.

This is a state-full connection model and the server is aware of all open connections.

WebSocket-based communication API is fully based on this model.

3. IoT communication API
In IoT, there are 2 communication APIs –

 REST — based Communication APIs

 Web Socket — based Communication APIs

Web service can either be implemented using REST principles or using Web Socket
Protocol –

1. REST-Based Communication API:

REpresentational State Transfer (REST) is a set of architectural principles by which you

can design web services and web APIs that focus on a system’s resources and how
resource states are addressed and transferred. REST APIs follow the request-response
communication model. The REST architectural constraints apply to the components,
connectors, and data elements, within a distributed hypermedia system.

2. Web Socket-Based Communication APIs:

Web Socket APIs allow bi-directional, full-duplex communication between clients and
servers. It follows the exclusive pair communication model. This Communication API
does not require a new connection to be set up for each message to be sent between clients
and servers. Once the connection is set up the messages can be sent and received
continuously without any interruption. WebSocket APIs are suitable for IoT Applications
with low latency or high throughput requirements.

Difference between Rest API and Web Socket API :

IoT Enabling Technologies
IoT-enabling technologies primarily focus on converting a standalone device into an IoT
device by giving it the additional possibility of connecting to the internet and exchanging
information with it.

IoT(internet of things) enabling technologies are

1. Wireless Sensor Network

2. Cloud Computing

3. Big Data Analytics

4. Communications Protocols

5. Embedded System

1. Wireless Sensor Network(WSN): A WSN comprises distributed devices with sensors

that are used to monitor environmental and physical conditions. A wireless sensor
network consists of end nodes, routers, and coordinators. End nodes have several sensors
attached to them and the data is passed to a coordinator with the help of routers. The
coordinator also acts as the gateway that connects WSNs to the internet.

Example –

 Weather monitoring system

 Indoor air quality monitoring system

 Soil moisture monitoring system

 Surveillance system
  Health monitoring system

2. Cloud Computing: It provides us the means by which we can access applications as

utilities over the internet. Cloud means something which is present in remote locations.
With Cloud computing, users can access any resources from anywhere like databases, web
servers, storage, any device, and any software over the internet.

Characteristics –

1. Broad network access

2. On-demand self-service

3. Rapid scalability

4. Measured service

5. Pay-per-use

Provides different services, such as –

 IaaS (Infrastructure as a service) Infrastructure as a service provides online

services such as physical machines, virtual machines, servers, networking, storage,
and data center space on a pay-per-use basis. Major IaaS providers are Google
Compute Engine, Amazon Web Services, and Microsoft Azure, etc. Ex: Web
Hosting, Virtual Machine, etc.

 PaaS (Platform as a service) Provides a cloud-based environment with a very

thing required to support the complete life cycle of building and delivering West
web-based (cloud) applications — without the cost and complexity of buying and
managing the underlying hardware, software provisioning, and hosting. Computing
 platforms such as hardware, operating systems, libraries, etc. Basically, it provides
a platform to develop applications. Ex: App Cloud, Google app engine

 SaaS (Software as a service): it is a way of delivering applications over the

internet as a service. Instead of installing and maintaining software, you simply
access it via the internet, freeing yourself from complex software and hardware
management. SaaS Applications are sometimes called web-based software on-
demand software or hosted software. SaaS applications run on a SaaS provider’s
service and they manage security availability and performance. Ex: Google Docs,
Gmail, office, etc.

3. Big Data Analytics: It refers to the method of studying massive volumes of data or big
data. Collection of data whose volume, velocity, or variety is simply too massive and
tough to store, control, process and examine the data using traditional databases. Big data
is gathered from a variety of sources including social network videos, digital images,
sensors, and sales transaction records. Several steps are involved in analyzing big data –

1. Data cleaning

2. Munging

3. Processing

4. Visualization

Examples –

 Bank transactions

 Data generated by IoT systems for location and tracking of vehicles

 E-commerce and in Big-Basket

  Health and fitness data generated by IoT systems such as fitness bands

4. Communications Protocols: They are the backbone of IoT systems and enable
network connectivity and linking to applications. Communication protocols allow devices
to exchange data over the network. Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a
single communication. A group of protocols designed to work together is known as a
protocol suite; when implemented in software they are a protocol stack. They are used in

1. Data encoding

2. Addressing schemes

5. Embedded Systems: It is a combination of hardware and software used to perform

special tasks. It includes microcontroller and microprocessor memory, networking units
(Ethernet Wi-Fi adapters), input-output units (display keyword, etc. ), and storage devices
(flash memory).It collects the data and sends it to the internet. Embedded systems used in.

Examples –

1. Digital camera

2. DVD player, music player

3. Industrial robots

4. Wireless Routers etc.

IoT Levels and Deployment Templates

Developing an IoT Level Template system consists of the following components:
 1. Device: These may be sensors or actuators capable of identifying, remote sensing,
or monitoring.

2. Resources: These are software components on IoT devices for accessing and
processing. Storing software components or controlling actuators connected to the
device. Resources also include software components that enable network access.

3. Controller Service: It is a service that runs on the device and interacts with web
services. The controller service sends data from the device to the web service and
receives commands from the application via web services for controlling the
device.

4. Database: Stores data generated from the device

5. Web Service: It provides a link between IoT devices, applications, databases, and
analysis components.

6. Analysis Component: It performs an analysis of the data generated by the lol

device and generates results in a form which are easy for the user to understand.

7. Application: It provides a system for the user to view the system status and view
product data. It also allows users to control and monitor various aspects of the IoT
system.

IoT Levels

IoT level 1
 A level-1 IoT system has a single node/device that performs sensing and/or
actuation, stores data, performs analysis, and hosts the application • It is suitable for
modeling low-cost and low-complexity solutions where the data involved are not
big and the analysis requirements are not computationally intensive.
IoT Level-2
 It has a single node that performs sensing and/or actuation and local analysis (IoT
Device and collected data).

 At this, IoT Level Databases and applications establish in Cloud.

 It is useful for solutions where the data involved is big, however, the primary
analysis requirement is not computationally intensive and can be done locally itself.

IoT Level-3
  It has a single node. Database and applications established in the cloud.

 It is suitable for solutions where the data involved is big and the analysis
requirements are computationally intensive.

IoT Level-4
 It has multiple nodes that perform local analysis. It has a Cloud-based application
and database. This IoT System contains local and cloud-based observer nodes
which can subscribe to and receive information collected in the cloud from IoT
node devices.

 It is suitable for solutions where we are using multiple nodes, the data involved is
big and the analysis requirements are computationally intensive.
IoT Level-5
 It has multiple end nodes and one coordinator node. The end nodes use for sensing
and/or actuation.

 In this model, the Coordinator node collects data from the end nodes and transfers it
to the cloud. In this model, we used a Cloud-based Database for storing and
Analyzing data.

 It is suitable for solutions based on wireless sensor networks, in which the data
involved is big and the analysis requirements are computationally intensive.
IoT Level-6
 It has multiple independent end nodes that are used for sensing and/or actuation and
transferring data to the cloud. We used a Cloud-based database.

 The analytics component analyzes the data and stores the results in the cloud
database and the results are visualized with the cloud-based application.

 The centralized controller is aware of the status of all the end nodes and sends
control commands to the nodes
 Unit 2

Actuators in IoT




An IoT device is made up of a Physical object (“thing”) + Controller (“brain”) + Sensors + Actuators +
Networks (Internet). An actuator is a machine component or system that moves or controls the
mechanism of the system. Sensors in the device sense the environment, then control signals are
generated for the actuators according to the actions needed to perform.
A servo motor is an example of an actuator. They are linear or rotatory actuators, can move to a given
specified angular or linear position. We can use servo motors for IoT applications and make the motor
rotate to 90 degrees, 180 degrees, etc., as per our need.
The following diagram shows what actuators do, the controller directs the actuator based on the sensor
data to do the work.

Working of IoT devices and use of Actuators

The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a source of energy and a
control signal. When it receives a control signal, it converts the source of energy to a mechanical
operation. On this basis, on which form of energy it uses, it has different types given below.
Types of Actuators :
1. Hydraulic Actuators –
A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation. They are actuated by a
cylinder or fluid motor. The mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear, or oscillatory motion,
according to the need of the IoT device. Ex- construction equipment uses hydraulic actuators because
hydraulic actuators can generate a large amount of force.
Advantages :
 Hydraulic actuators can produce a large magnitude of force and high speed.
 Used in welding, clamping, etc.
 Used for lowering or raising the vehicles in car transport carriers.
Disadvantages :
 Hydraulic fluid leaks can cause efficiency loss and issues of cleaning.
 It is expensive.
 It requires noise reduction equipment, heat exchangers, and high maintenance systems.
2. Pneumatic Actuators –
A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure to convert into
either linear or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors that work like human fingers by
using compressed air.
Advantages :
 They are a low-cost option and are used at extreme temperatures where using air is a safer option
than chemicals.
 They need low maintenance, are durable, and have a long operational life.
 It is very quick in starting and stopping the motion.
Disadvantages :
 Loss of pressure can make it less efficient.
 The air compressor should be running continuously.
 Air can be polluted, and it needs maintenance.
3. Electrical Actuators –
An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that converts electrical energy
into mechanical torque. An example of an electric actuator is a solenoid based electric bell.
Advantages :
 It has many applications in various industries as it can automate industrial valves.
 It produces less noise and is safe to use since there are no fluid leakages.
 It can be re-programmed and it provides the highest control precision positioning.
Disadvantages :
 It is expensive.
 It depends a lot on environmental conditions.
Other actuators are –
 Thermal/Magnetic Actuators –
These are actuated by thermal or mechanical energy. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) or Magnetic
Shape‐Memory Alloys (MSMAs) are used by these actuators. An example of a thermal/magnetic
actuator can be a piezo motor using SMA.
 Mechanical Actuators –
A mechanical actuator executes movement by converting rotary motion into linear motion. It
involves pulleys, chains, gears, rails, and other devices to operate. Example – A crankshaft.
 Soft Actuators
 Shape Memory Polymers
 Light Activated Polymers
 With the expanding world of IoT, sensors and actuators will find more usage in commercial and
domestic applications along with the pre-existing use in industry.


What Are Sensors?
Sensors or transducers represent physical devices that convert one form of energy into
another. Sensors convert a physical device into an electrical impulse to take the desired
action. For instance, sensors in an ambient light system will measure the brightness of the
light by turning it into an electrical signal.
These sensors have a wide array of applications in the IoT network. As they obtain the
parameters of a physical object, the output of their observation is converted into resistance,
capacitance, impedance, etc.

Types of Sensors

1. Temperature: Beginning with the most common type of sensor, the temperate sensor
records the amount of heat in a given setting. It can be a machine, a room, a car, a lab, etc.
This information can be used to take the desired action, like changing the temperature to
optimal settings. The same can be automated according to some specific environmental
conditions and settings.
2. Moisture: Where temperature sensors record the heat, moisture sensors record the amount
of humidity. They have a wide array of applications in the environment, food supply chains,
medicinal labs, agriculture, etc. Moisture sensors either have a hair tension moisture element
or a psychrometer to record the moisture content.
3. Light: Light sensors record and assess the ambient light settings in a defined area and
recommend actions to change the same. In your smartphone, when the brightness is adjusted
according to the exposure to light, the light sensor and the electrical actuator play their part.
In the modern homes that have automated light settings, these sensors are used.
4. Motion: Motion sensors are usually installed in security systems and help detect
unauthorized activity. Upon sensing activity either by changes in the heat or weight, the
sensor activates an alarm system sending notifications to the right people. Motion IoT
sensors use radar, infrared, or ultrasonic waves to detect activity in their vicinity.
5. Noise: Noise sensors, as the name suggests, record the noise levels in the given
environment. It can be an entire city, a room, a car, etc. In IoT, these sensors are used to
build safe working and living environments for people. They are also used to send warning
notifications to the right people when noise levels go beyond the stipulated threshold limit.
6. Proximity: Motion sensors and proximity sensors can be kept in the same basket, as the
majority of their functions are similar. These sensors record activity nearby with the help of
electromagnetic waves, including infrared. They are used in cars, parking lots, retail stores,
stadiums, airports, and in several other places to notify the people about their proximity to
different components.
7. Level: From granular materials to semi-solid liquids, level sensors detect the quantity or
level of different substances. Manufacturing industries, particularly beverage, water
treatment, and waste management organizations, have the best use of level sensors.
8. Accelerometers: Accelerometers are an impressive type of IoT sensor used to record and
measure an object’s acceleration. These types of sensors record the rate of change of an
object’s speed in relation to time. Plus, they have the added advantage of recording changes
in gravity. They can be popularly used in driving fleets and smart pedometers or to detect
movement in a stationary object, helping to identify theft.
9. Gas: Gas sensors are used to detect changes in air quality. These sensors are built to
detect the presence of toxic, combustible, and other hazardous gasses in a given area. Most
of the time, we see the installation of this type of sensor in mining, oil, gas, and energy
organizations. However, they are also installed in smart homes and buildings to detect levels
of CO2, carbon monoxide, particulate matter, etc.
10. Optical: Optical sensors have several use cases but have become an important part of
driverless cars. These sensors are used to detect signals and signs to provide information
about the surrounding environment. In a driverless car, these sensors are used to detect
objects and signs on the road, send the signals to the central control unit and dictate a change
in behavior if required.
11. Gyroscope: These sensors are used to measure the velocity of a moving object. Velocity
refers to the speed and rotation of an object around its axis. Gyroscope sensors are
commonly used in car navigation systems and in stability control systems.
12. Chemical: We can put chemical sensors and gas sensors in the same category. With
these sensors, we can expect measurements and detection of several types of chemicals. To
build IoT solutions in a factory setting, these sensors can play an important role in ensuring
workers' safety and that of the environment.
Sensors measure and record the elements they are built to do based on their sensitivity, drift,
linearity, resolution, range, precision, and accuracy. The IoT sensors built with these
characteristics can provide accurate information.

How Do Actuators and Sensors Connect in the IoT

Network?
IoT-based Sensors and actuators are vital cogs in the connected technology realm. As IoT
and Industrial IoT are gaining prominence, actuators and sensors help streamline operations
making organizations more efficient, productive, accurate, and intelligent.
With the help of IoT software solutions, the actuators and sensors connect with each other.
IoT Sensors are used to record and monitor processes plus the equipment by extracting data
and information.
So they can collect a device’s performance data, analyze the output and provide
recommendations. Actuators, on the other hand, are used to automate tasks in the workplace,
saving human labor.
Both these components connect to build effective IoT solutions. In manufacturing, when a
robot is working to paint a car or arrange pills, it is working with the information and actions
provided by actuators and sensors.
Different types of sensors and actuators are used to implement the desired functions. Let’s
find out about them.
What are humidity sensors?

Humidity sensors are electronic devices that can measure the amount of moisture or humidity in specific
environments. These sensors can take the gathered signals and transform them into data; where an IoT device,
software or app reads the information. Usually this technology is used to monitor humidity in a city
(meteorology), but they are also used in HVAC systems, smart buildings, wearables, industries, medical
devices, and IoT products.

Types of humidity sensors and applications

There are several types of humidity sensors that can be used for Internet of Things products. Among the most
popular, we can find capacitive, resistive, and infrared sensors, since they are cost-effective, reliable and
accurate.

Capacitive humidity sensors:

This type of sensor uses a capacitive element that changes its capacitance in response to changes in humidity.
Its main characteristics are ease of use, low-cost, high accuracy, and long-term stability.

For example, this humidity sensor can be used for measuring and checking liquid levels in specific containers.

Resistive humidity sensors:

Also known as electrical conductivity sensors. They use a thin polymer film that changes its resistance in
response to changes in humidity. They present the same benefits of the capacitive sensors, that is, low-cost, and
high accuracy, however, these humidity sensors have a shorter lifespan than capacitive sensors.

Resistive humidity sensors are commonly used in the automotive industry, and smart food packaging
businesses.

Infrared humidity sensors:

This type of humidity sensor uses infrared radiation to measure humidity. They are highly accurate and fast.
However, they are expensive.

Some applications of these sensors include HVAC systems, and industrial processes.

Optical humidity sensors:

These devices measure humidity through the absorption of light. These types of sensors are highly accurate,
they are fast, and they have a lower price compared to infrared humidity sensors.
IoT Humidity sensor examples

Maybe you already know what is IoT, but perhaps, you don’t know humidity sensors in the Internet of Things
devices are quite popular. For example, some smartphones bring these kinds of sensors to measure the level of
humidity in the phone to guarantee a safe charging of the device.

Through a good programming of IoT protocols and humidity sensors, wearable devices like smartwatches can
monitor humidity of the environment or air around the user. This is useful for providing information on local
weather conditions.

For instance, there are smart baby monitors that can measure the humidity of the bedroom where the baby is
sleeping. You can find more details in our article about IoT devices examples.

What are the benefits of humidity sensors in IoT?

Humidity sensors can provide a great number of benefits for IoT analytics, since they gather important
information for decision makers. And not only that, if you are looking forward for electronic product design,
you need to consider all features a humidity sensor can give your device to make it more useful for your
customers.

If we talk about healthcare, which represents a big market. The monitoring of humidity can help hospitals, labs
and other facilities to take care of people that work there, as well as the patients that are being treated.

How do humidity sensors take care of people?

By monitoring the environment of the rooms, the risk of bacterial and fungal growth can be reduced, thus, the
lower the risk of germs spreading, diseases and potential deaths.

Agriculture:

Humidity monitors are very important in agriculture, since they can analyze the moisture content of the soil, and
thus, irrigation processes can be optimized to improve crop yields.

Smartbuilding:

Smart buildings include temperature and IoT humidity sensors, which are useful for monitoring and controlling
HVAC systems. Through this, air quality can be monitored, and reduce the risk of respiratory infections and
allergies. Also, good programming and setup (firmware vs software) of humidity sensors throughout the
building help to reduce energy consumption and provide a comfortable environment inside it.

Smart home systems:

Smart thermostats and smart home systems are another example of devices that use IoT
humidity sensors, which are used to control the humidity level in a room.
These applications of humidity sensors are a great ally to home energy management systems,
since they contribute to reduce the energy consumption levels at home through automated
processes.

Through automation, homeowners don’t have to worry about turning on or off the smart
thermostat, since it will automatically analyze the humidity levels in a room and act accordingly

What are Ultrasonic Sensors?

Ultrasonic sensors are electronic devices that determine a target’s distance. They work by emitting
ultrasonic sound waves and converting those waves into electrical signals. Furthermore, ultrasonic
travel at a faster rate than audible sounds. Therefore, ultrasonic sensor work involves sound waves
to find the distance to an item. A transducer is also there to transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses.
These pulses help to communicate information about an object within range. Further, this detail
can be applied in various applications including industrial. Let’s discuss in detail how ultrasonic
sensor works.

Working of an Ultrasonic Sensor

Ultrasonic sensors operate by emitting sound waves at frequencies that are too high for humans to
hear. The sensor’s transducer serves as a microphone to receive and transmit ultrasonic sound.
They also use a single transducer to send and receive pulses. Further, the sensor measures the total
time taken to deliver and receive an ultrasonic pulse and calculates the target’s distance.

Ultrasonic Sensor Working Principle

The working principle of an ultrasonic sensor revolves around the emission and reception of high-
frequency sound waves. These waves range from 20 kHz which is beyond the range of human
hearing. Here’s a simplified explanation of ultrasonic sensor operation:

 Emitting Sound Waves: The ultrasonic sensor generates a burst of ultrasonic sound waves,
usually in the range of 20 kHz to 65 kHz. These sound waves travel through the air towards
the target object.

 Bouncing Off Objects: When the sound waves encounter an object in their path, they
bounce off the surface of the object.

 Measuring the Return Time: The sensor measures the time it takes for the emitted sound
waves to bounce back after hitting the object. This time interval is extremely short, typically
measured in microseconds.

 Calculating Distance: The sensor figures out how far an object is by using the speed of
sound in the air. It does this by multiplying the time it takes for sound waves to go to the
object and then coming back by the speed of sound.
  Output Data: Last, the sensor provides this distance information as an output, which can be
used in various applications, such as obstacle detection, object positioning, or navigation.

The above principle determines the ultrasonic sensor working. Now, let’s discuss the application
areas of these sensors.

Ultrasonic Sensor Application

Ultrasonic sensors are used in many areas of engineering. In automation, robotics, and
instrumentation, “no-contact” distance measuring is highly helpful. Below are the common uses
and functions of ultrasonic sensors:

 Distance Measurement: Ultrasonic sensors are commonly used to measure distances

between the sensor and an object. By emitting sound waves and measuring the time it takes
for them to bounce back, the sensor can calculate the distance accurately.

 Object Detection: In robotics and autonomous systems, ultrasonic sensors are crucial for
detecting obstacles in the environment. It can determine whether an object is present within a
specific range.

 Positioning and Navigation: Ultrasonic sensors are employed in robotics and autonomous
vehicles for accurate positioning and navigation. By continuously measuring distances to
surrounding objects, these systems can map their environment and make real-time decisions.

 Tank Level Monitoring: Ultrasonic sensor working seen in industries like agriculture. It is
used to monitor the levels of liquids in large tanks or silos.

 Collision Avoidance: In automotive safety systems, ultrasonic sensors assist in collision

avoidance by detecting nearby objects and providing warnings or assisting with parking.

Other Common Applications of Ultrasonic Sensors Include:

 Ultrasonic sensors can measure the coil/roll’s diameter.

 Useful in quality control.
 Applicable in the Detection of proximity.
 Helpful to position robotic arms through robotic sensing.
 Used in security system management.

Limitations of Ultrasonic Sensors

1. Displacement

The sensor (movement of a manipulator’s arm or mobile robot) may have an impact on how
measurements are captured. Thus, the displacement must be evaluated to do precise measurements
or high-speed robot displacement.

2. Atmospheric movements
Moving air in the atmosphere messes with the measurement and may limit the range. Noise, for
example, can disrupt work and cause detection errors.

3. Sound-absorbing materials are not detectable

Sound-absorbing materials are invisible to them. Thus, objects with angled surfaces deflect the
echo away from the sensor or permeable targets. For example, sponges, foam, and soft garments
may make it more difficult to detect them. They absorb most of the reflected ultrasonic energy and
disrupt ultrasonic sensor working.

4. Precision in detecting temperature changes

Temperature changes strongly affect ultrasonic sensors. However, using models with temperature
compensation will help you avoid this issue.
What is Arduino?
Arduino is a software as well as hardware platform that helps in making electronic
projects. It is an open source platform and has a variety of controllers and
microprocessors. There are various types of Arduino boards used for various purposes.

The Arduino is a single circuit board, which consists of different interfaces or parts. The
board consists of the set of digital and analog pins that are used to connect various
devices and components, which we want to use for the functioning of the electronic
devices.

Most of the Arduino consists of 14 digital I/O pins.

The analog pins in Arduino are mostly useful for fine-grained control. The pins in the
Arduino board are arranged in a specific pattern. The other devices on the Arduino board
are USB port, small components (voltage regulator or oscillator), microcontroller, power
connector, etc.

Features
The features of Arduino are listed below:

o Arduino programming is a simplified version of C++, which makes the learning process
easy.
o The Arduino IDE is used to control the functions of boards. It further sends the set of
specifications to the microcontroller.
o Arduino does not need an extra board or piece to load new code.
o Arduino can read analog and digital input signals.
o The hardware and software platform is easy to use and implement.

AD

History
The project began in the Interaction Design Institute in Ivrea, Italy. Under the supervision
of Casey Reas and Massimo Banzi, the Hernando Bar in 2003 created the Wiring (a
development platform). It was considered as the master thesis project at IDII. The Wiring
platform includes the PCB (Printed Circuit Board). The PCB is operated with
the ATmega168 Microcontroller.

The ATmega168 Microcontroller was an IDE. It was based on the library and processing
functions, which are used to easily program the microcontroller.

In 2005, Massimo Banzi, David Cuartielles, David Mellis, and another IDII student
supported the ATmega168 to the Wiring platform. They further named the project as
Arduino.
The project of Arduino was started in 2005 for students in Ivrea, Italy. It aimed to provide
an easy and low-cost method for hobbyists and professionals to interact with the
environment using the actuators and the sensors. The beginner devices were simple
motion detectors, robots, and thermostats.

AD

In mid-2011, the estimated production of Arduino commercially was 300,000. In 2013,

the Arduino boards in use were about 700,000.

Around April 2017, Massimo Banzi introduced the foundation of Arduino as the "new
beginning for Arduino". In July 2017, Musto continued to pull many Open Source licenses
and the code from the websites of the Arduino. In October 2017, Arduino introduced its
collaboration with the ARM Holdings. The Arduino continues to work with architectures
and technology vendors.

AD

Microcontroller
The most essential part of the Arduino is the Microcontroller, which is shown below:

o Microcontroller is small and low power computer. Most of the microcontrollers have a RAM
(Random Access Memory), CPU (Central Processing Unit), and a memory storage like other
computer systems.
o It has very small memory of 2KB (two Kilobytes). Due to less memory, some
microcontrollers are capable of running only one program at a time.
o It is a single chip that includes memory, Input/Output (I/O) peripherals, and a processor.
o The GPIO (General Purpose Input Output) pins present on the chip help us to control other
electronics or circuitry from the program.

Electronic devices around Us

We have many electronic devices around us. Most of the appliance consists of the
microcontroller for its functioning. Let's discuss some of the examples.

o Microcontroller present in Microwave Oven accepts the user input and controls the magnet
run that generate microwave rays to cook the food and displays the output timer.
 o Modern cars also contain dozens of microcontrollers working in tandem (one after another)
to control functions like lighting, radio interface, etc.

Projects
Let's consider a simple project of LED blink.

We need software to install our sketch or code to the Arduino board. The LED will blink
after the successful uploading of code. The software is called as Arduino IDE (Integrated
Development Environment).

There are various projects created with the help of the Arduino. Some of the projects are
listed below:

o Home Automation System using IOT (Internet of Things).

o Solar Power water trash collector.
o Fire Detector, etc.

Some projects require a list of components. So, for easy convenience and hands-on
projects, the Arduino kits are available easily in market.

Arduino Kits
We can easily start with our electronics projects using the complete kit. It also helps us
to create hand-on and engaging projects.

Some of the popular Arduino kits are listed below:

o Arduino Starter kit

o Robot Linking UNO kit for learning
o Arduino UNO 3 Ultimate starter kit
o UNO Super starter kit
o Mega 2560 Starter Kit

Arduino IDE
The IDE makes the traditional projects even easier and simpler. The USB cable is used to
load the program or sketch on the specific Arduino board.
The IDE application is suitable for Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. It supports the
programming language C and C++. We need to connect the Genuino and Arduino board
with the IDE to upload the sketch written in the Arduino IDE software.

Many other companies including Sparkfun Electronics, also make their own boards that
are compatible with Arduino IDE.

Arduino Boards
There are variety of Arduino board used for different purposes. The board varies in I/O
pins, size, etc. The various components present on the Arduino boards are
Microcontroller, Digital Input/Output pins, USB Interface and Connector, Analog Pins,
Reset Button, Power button, LED's, Crystal Oscillator, and Voltage Regulator. Some
components may differ depending on the type of board.

Let's discuss some of the popular Arduino boards.

o Arduino UNO
o Arduino Nano
o Arduino Mega
o Arduino Due
o Arduino Bluetooth

Shields
o Shields are defined as the hardware device that can be mounted over the board to
increase the capabilities of the projects.
 o The shield is shown below:

o The shield together with Arduino can make the projects even smarter and simpler. For
example, Ethernet shields are used to connect the Arduino board to the Internet.
o The shields can be easily attached and detached from the Arduino board. It does not
require any complex wiring.

What is a Raspberry Pi? Raspberry pi is the name of the “credit card-sized computer
board” developed by the Raspberry pi foundation, based in the U.K. It gets plugged in a TV
or monitor and provides a fully functional computer capability. It is aimed at imparting
knowledge about computing to even younger students at the cheapest possible price.
Although it is aimed at teaching computing to kids, but can be used by everyone willing to
learn programming, the basics of computing, and building different projects by utilizing its
versatility.
Raspberry Pi is developed by Raspberry Pi Foundation in the United Kingdom. The
Raspberry Pi is a series of powerful, small single-board computers.
Raspberry Pi is launched in 2012 and there have been several iterations and variations
released since then.
Various versions of Raspberry Pi have been out till date. All versions consist of a Broadcom
system on a chip (SoC) with an integrated ARM-compatible CPU and on-chip graphics
processing unit (GPU).
The original device had a single-core Processor speed of device ranges from 700 MHz to
1.2 GHz and a memory range from 256 MB to 1 GB RAM.
To store the operating system and program memory Secure Digital (SD) cards are used.
Raspbian OS which is a Linux operating system is recommended OS by Raspberry Pi
Foundation. Some other third party operating systems like RISC OS Pi. Diet Pi, Kali, Linux
can also be run on Raspberry Pi.
Used:
It also provides a set of general purpose input/output pins allowing you to control electronic
components for physical computing and explore the Internet of Things (IOT).
Raspberry pi Diagram:

Raspberry Pi model –

There have been many generations of raspberry Pi from Pi 1 to Pi 4.

There is generally a model A and model B.
Model A is a less expensive variant and it trends to have reduce RAM and dual cores such
as USB and Ethernet.

List of Raspberry pi models and releases year:

1. pi 1 model B – 2012
2. pi 1 model A – 2013
3. pi 1 model B+ -2014
4. pi 1 model A+ – 2014
5. Pi 2 Model B – 2015
6. Pi 3 Model B- 2016
7. Pi 3 Model B+ -2018
8. Pi 3 Model A+ -2019
9. Pi 4 Model A – 2019
10. Pi Model B – 2020
11. Pi 400 – 2021

Specs of the Computer: – The computer has a quad-core ARM processor that doesn’t
support the same instruction as an X86 desktop CPU. It has 1GB of RAM, One HDMI port,
four USB ports, one Ethernet connection, Micro SD slot for storage, one combined 3.5mm
audio/video port, and a Bluetooth connection. It has got a series of input and output pins
that are used for making projects like – home security cameras, Encrypted Door lock, etc.
Versatility of Raspberry Pi: – It is indeed a versatile computer and can be utilized by
people from all age groups, it can be used for watching videos on YouTube, watching
movies, and programming in languages like Python, Scratch, and many more. As mentioned
above it has a series of I/O pins that give this board the ability to interact with its
environment and hence can be utilized to build really cool and interactive projects.
IOT Operating Systems

Best IOT Operating Systems

1. Ubuntu Core OS

Ubuntu Core IOT Operating System

 There is no doubt that this is one of the most secure, robust, and lightweight distributions
of Linux. It provides you with a low-level framework of the Linux Kernel along with a host
of preinstalled tools that are incredible to use.
 The OS runs comfortably on the Unity Desktop environment, allowing it to perform
efficiently on mobile devices or computers without any modifications.
 It has security features such as full-disk encryption, a cryptographically authenticated
boot procedure, and manual and remote recovery modes. It may be used to create
secured embedded Linux for IOT devices.
2. Contitki OS

Contiki IOT Operating System

 Contiki is a free open-source operating system for IOT that particularly targets small IOT
devices with limited memory, power, bandwidth, and processing power. One of the
biggest concerns, perhaps, in IOT is data security.
 It is popular as an IOT OS suitable for low-powered internet connectivity, it runs
effectively with internet protocols such as IPV4, and IPV6.
 Contiki has multitasking capability coupled with a built-in internet protocols suite to
support wireless standard CoAP and RPL.
 In Contiki OS, there is one problem it doesn’t facilitate the deployment of real-time
applications, so no real-time process scheduling algorithms are included in this
operating system.
3. RIOT OS

RIOT IOT Operating System

 RIOT (Real-Time Operating System ) is also a free open-source IOT Operating System
developed by a worldwide grassroots community of companies, academics, and
hobbyists.
 RIOT is a low-power operating system based on microkernel architecture and the C and
C++ programming languages.
 It is less dependent on hardware code and maintains energy efficiency.
 RIOT is the only operating system that has a large community across multiple channels
such as Twitter, Discourse, YouTubewireless devices, and device devicesGithub.
4. Tiny OS
 Tiny IOT Operating System

 Tiny is an embedded, component–based operating system and platform for low–

power wireless device devices –devices, such as those used in wireless sensor
networks (WSNs).
 It provides excellent support for networking and consumes low power for IOT operations.
 TinyOS supports network technologies such as WAP, AP, BRI,, and software–defined
networking(SD-WAN), and software-based mobile networks.
 It embedded the BLE library for the Bluetooth 4.2 wireless radio technology.

5. Tizen OS

Tizen IOT Operating System

 Tizen is Linux based free operating system for mobile and connected devices, and it
comes in versions for vehicles, smartphones, tablets, and Wearable devices.
 The Tizen offers a fast and secure user interface to allows applications to be
developed that run directly on the top of the hardware without requiring any modifications
or installation of custom ROMs.
 Tizen is an open and flexible OS built to address the needs of the connected device
ecosystem. It provides exceptional operations speed as compared to other platforms.
 Samsung has been projecting Tizen OS as UNIVERSAL OPERATING SYSTEM.

6. Android Things OS

Android Things IOT Operating System

 Android Things is an operating system developed by Google for IoT and embedded
devices.
 Android Things is a managed operating system, developed for IoT devices like smart
locks, smart thermostats, and more. It supports multitasking and virtual memory.
 It could also run on products like connected speakers, security cameras, routers, and so
on. The idea is that with Android things it would be easier for companies to start shipping
IoT hardware because they are using the same Android developer tools that they already
know.
 Android Things therefore target different IoT segments as compared to microcontroller-
based IOT devices.
7. LibreELEC OS

Libre ELEC IOT Operating System

 This Operating System was started as an open-source project to help users build a more
effortless, more enjoyable experience with their Kodi(XBMC) media central system.
 LibreELEC is free to use and provides an easy interface that allows you to navigate
through settings in a few clicks.
 It offers content from sources such as YouTube, Twitter, Netflix, Sky
Box, Dropbox, Hungama, drive, and Drop Box Google Drive.
 It offers plenty of settings and ways for users to get the most out of their hard
driveLinux space.
8. Linux OS

Embedded Linux IOT Operating System

 Linux slightly modified is an Embedded Linux build for embedded devices and it is a
slightly modified version of the Linux Kernel. The smaller size and power of Embedded
Linux facilitates the integration of all requirements of IoT devices, so you will find that it is
useful for navigation devices such as wireless routers.
 The OS takes up a mere 100kb of memory space, making it quick and dynamic, and it
also offers an unparalleled level of configuration in the IoT OS sense.
 It is another free open-source OS that enjoys the support of a large community.
Advantages of IoT Operating System
 Resource efficiency: The IoT operating system is designed to be simple and efficient,
providing resources such as memory, processing power, energy consumption, etc. This
for IoT devices can perform well within their hardware limits.
 Scalability and flexibility: IoT operating systems are designed to be modular and
scalable, supporting different devices, applications, and use cases Developers are given
flexibility to choose hardware platforms, programming languages , and development
 tools, thus accelerating IoT solutions prototyping, and enabling deployment has been
activated.
 Real-time capabilities: Many IoT operating systems provide real-time scheduling and
deterministic behavior, providing timely responses to events and ensuring critical tasks
are executed in real-time This is important for latency-intensive applications with low and
high reliability, such as industrial automation and control systems.
 Connectivity support: IoT operating systems provide built-in support for a wide range of
networking systems and communication technologies, enabling seamless interaction with
networks and devices This facilitates the exchange of performance and data between IoT
devices and backend systems . . . .
 Security Features: IoT operating systems incorporate security features such as
encryption, authentication, secure boot, and over-the-air (OTA) updates to protect
devices, data, and communication channels from unauthorized access, tampering, and
functionality so the overall security level is increased using IoT.
 Easy development: Many IoT service providers provide development frameworks,
software libraries, and tools that streamline the development process and accelerate time
to market for IoT service offerings
Disadvantages of IoT Operating System
 Limited Hardware Compatibility: IoT operating structures may additionally have
confined guides for specific hardware platforms, peripherals, and sensors, that may
constrain tool selection and customization alternatives. This may require builders to
apply specific hardware additives that might be well-matched with the selected operating
system.
 Complexity and Learning Curve: Some IoT working systems may have a steep
learning curve, particularly for builders who are unfamiliar with embedded systems
programming, real-time computing, and coffee-level hardware interactions. This can pose
demanding situations for green developers and require additional education and
knowledge.
 Fragmentation and Compatibility Issues: The variety of IoT running systems and
platforms can lead to fragmentation and compatibility issues, in particular, while
integrating IoT devices with present infrastructure, protocols, and requirements.
Interoperability challenges can also arise because of variations in communication
protocols, records formats, and software interfaces.
 Security Vulnerabilities: Despite incorporating protection capabilities, IoT running
systems may additionally nonetheless be liable to security vulnerabilities and exploits, in
particular, if now not frequently updated or patched. The proliferation of IoT devices and
the complexity of IoT ecosystems can create opportunities for attackers to make the most
of weaknesses in software, firmware, and network configurations.
 Performance Overhead: Certain safety and reliability capabilities carried out in IoT
operating systems may additionally impose overall performance overhead, impacting
machine responsiveness, throughput, and power performance. Developers need to
cautiously balance protection necessities with overall performance considerations to
ensure certain most suitable device operation.