CHAPTER 2: THE MORAL EXPERIENCE

In the first lesson, we have discussed how ethics and morality are defined. We also
drew a line between moral and non-moral standards. These standards provide structure to
moral experience. Have you ever asked yourself: “Am I good?” “If so, why am I doing things
that are morally wrong?” “If man is basically good, why do I have the tendency to do bad
things?” “Why should I consider others even when they are mean and uncomprehending?”
These questions make you reflect critically to find out the goodness of your experience as a
moral being; and that’s what ethics is all about—to have a rational understanding of the
goodness of your experience.

The poem tells us to love others and forgive

them with their wrong doings. In your overall
life experience, is it easy to forgive? What
makes you say it is or it isn’t?
Photo A

Source: en.wikipedia.com

The Moral Experience

We can't promote the good without morals. We learnt in Module 1 that becoming morally
upright is in your best interests. Moral experience is made up of you and your deeds. According
to Thomas Hobbes (see Pojman, 2005), each of us has our own personal interests. Hence, in
order to avoid conflicts, the society must formulate contracts or moral codes that must be
adhered to so that everything will be in order; otherwise, there will be “war against all.” Imagine
if people can just do whatever they want without
MORAL EXPERIENCE restrictions. They can fight over a slice of bread
and kill each other. Your neighbor, without
A moral experience has two elements: permission, can butcher your pig for the fiesta and
the moral agent who is the doer of the you will take his cow as a form of revenge.
action and the moral act that comprises Without morality, life will be in chaos.
the things done by the agent. Moral
experience is seen in the different The moral experience has two elements:
ethical frameworks called the moral moral agent and moral act. The moral agent is
theories. the doer of the act—you. Only humans have the
concept of morality. Non-human animals might
have morally upright behaviors similar to humans (e.g. caring for the young) but they do not
have the ability to reason out or judge their actions based on moral principles. These human-
like moral behaviors of animals are called protomoral behaviors (see Skutch, 2007). In this
sense, the moral agent—Humans—it is thought that they have this ability. to make sound moral
judgment through his reasoning ability.
Moral acts are the things that moral agents do. These behaviors to be considered as
moral acts should be inside the ethical domain or within moral standards discussed in Module 1.
Each moral act has an object who receives the action, an intention that motivates the action,
and the situation that provides the context of the action. For example, you stole your
classmate’s pen before taking the final exam because you have no money to buy one and you
are in desperate need to take the test or else you will fail the course. The act is stealing. The
object of the act is your classmate; the intention is for you to pass the course; and the situation
is that you don’t have the money to buy for a pen.
The Nature of Prohibited Acts
By their very nature, prohibited acts cannot be habitual and enduring, if they do, they
cease to become prohibited (Skutch, 2007) and thus become a norm.
For example, if stealing becomes habitual and enduring, then no one will produce a
merchandize, save money in the bank, or hold on to earned wealth. People will live a hand to
mouth existence like the primitive times. With that, it would be impossible to steal because
there is nothing more to steal. Another, when lying becomes a norm, then It will be a strange
thing to do if you reveal the truth.. In reality, liars succeed in deceiving us because most people
tell the truth than they lie. Hence, moral codes prohibit acts that in themselves cannot be
sustained and maintained (Skutch, 2007).
The Innate Foundation of Moral Experience
There are two impulses or motives that the moral experience is anchored. First, those
that are directed towards self-preservation and second, those that are directed to others. We
said that a moral act has intentions. These intentions or motives urge us to perform acts that
benefit ourselves and those that promote the welfare of others be it to our own blood or others
who are unrelated to us (Skutch, 2007).
Self-regarding motives or virtues
1. Prudence. The rational self-love; it forbids us to
overly indulge with pleasure without thinking of the Anybody can
future (Skutch, 2007). Prudence is defined as doing
the right thing at the right moment, with the right become angry
person, for the right reason, and to the appropriate
degree. —that is easy.
2. Temperance. It’s standing firm to have only what But to be angry is
enough despite great enticement or opposing drive
and works together with prudence (Skutch, 2007). In with the right
Filipino, we call it pagtitimpi.
person and to
3. Fortitude. Perseverance even in the face of
challenges so to achieve a very important goal. the right
4. Patience. It is not acting on impulse. It is about
taking time to think through a certain act before doing
degree and at it.
the right time
and for the
right purpose,
“Being patient does not imply allowing ourselves to be constantly mistreated, enduring hostility,
or allowing others to use us,” Pope Francis wrote in Amoris Laetitia. Patience grows when I
acknowledge that other people have the right to live in this world as well.”Other-regarding
motives or virtues
Altruism is the act of helping others. Altruism and all other-regarding virtues can all be
called as benevolence. The fact that we become happy when we are able to help others
unselfishly may, at the surface, seem a selfish act. However, if you look deeper, you would see
that benevolence is not derived from self-interest because both exists separately on their own
and does not require each other in order to exist. Moreover, it is only when one has reached a
high self-awareness that he is able to become mindful about the needs of other and satisfy them
(Skutch, 2007). Simply put, one must gain himself first before he can deny it.
That is why, even if it is hard for you to forgive someone who has done you wrong, you
take time to reflect on your experience and pattern in out because it is innate for a person to be
benevolent.
Source: pintenest.phil

CHAPTER 3
WHAT ARE MORAL DILEMMAS

This module is focused on moral dilemmas specifically on its definition, situations

cases where moral dilemmas are present, and it's three (3) levels namely:
individual, organizational, and structural. In the three levels of moral dilemma,
common ethical issues in the organization will be highlighted, several factors that
an individual is facing such as peer pressure, personal financial position, and
economic and social status which cause dilemma to an individual and the concepts
to consider in the individual moral dilemma.

2.0 DEFINITION OF MORAL DILEMMAS

Various authors presented their respective definition of moral dilemma or

ethical dilemma and these are the following:

In the definition of Kvalnes (2019), a moral dilemma is a situation in which a

decision- maker must give preference to one moral principle over another.
Dilemmas occur when, confronted with a challenging situation (e.g. equal
treatment for some versus job protection for others), two or more of that
kind of values disagree with the understanding of the decision-maker, or
when one assesses the moral option of another. A person experienced with a
dilemma must decide whether the moral duty will be given priority;
"whatever action is taken will offend an important moral value."

In addition, Kvalnes explained that (2019) a moral dilemma may arise as a

result of a prior personal mistake. It's called a self-inflicted dilemma. In a
strict sense, a moral dilemma is a situation in which moral values are of
equal importance. In a broader sense, there may be moral dilemmas in
which a person has strong moral reasons for acting which are described to
be as remarkable, nonetheless, not equally strong moral reasons for acting
in another way. (https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.18-3-030-15191-
1_2.pdf)

According to Kurie & Albin (2007), a moral dilemma is a situation in which

people assume that they should morally do one thing and that they should
morally do another thing, and occasionally a third thing or even a fourth
thing, but they're not doing any of these mutually contradictory choices
together.

The ethical dilemma or a moral dilemma as expounded by Figar & Dordevic, (2016)
is a situation whereby a person has to make a decision. Among competing
alternatives, which is the right (ethical) alternative and which is the best?
(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ _Managing_an_Ethical_Dilemma)

The above definitions characterized moral dilemma or ethical dilemma as:

1. (1) Making an option to one moral value over the other;

2. (2) A situation where moral values are equally significant;
3. (3) A scenario where a person has a strong moral reason in action, but not
equally strong moral reason in acting in another way;
4. (4) A state where a person should morally do one, two, or more and have
difficulty in deciding any of those conflicting choices.

Every human being, experience struggling to make a decision especially if there is

an urgency to make a choice. Weighing what is good and moral. Thinking which is
the best between and among choices, and perhaps at stake or in a hot sit when
choosing. The choice may be favorable to some, however, not favorable to others. It
gets individual stress of judging as to whether the decision is good or not in
travailing circumstances. A moral dilemma or ethical dilemma applies to our
personal life, in a job, in a profession, education, and some others. In any decision,
an individual must analyze every aspect, scrutinize the pros and cons, and after
several evaluations then finally decide. That is the most challenging part,
nonetheless, makes an individual more mature in handling obstinate situations.

The sample photos below exemplify a moral dilemma. The first picture on the left
side shows which arrow an individual will go, right or wrong. The second pic on the
right side reveals four different arrows: respect, ethics, integrity, and honesty, these
are all positive terms and regarded as values. In deciding, consider the
aforementioned virtues. The third photo below the left side seems to be ambiguous
and the last photo on the right side below with three choices for a decision, right,
wrong and it depends which also mean uncertainty.
Retrieved from: https://www.apa.org/pubs/highlights/peeps/issue-110,
https://www.shutterstock.com/search/moral+dilemma,
https://www.slaphappylarry.com/moral-dilemmas-

childrens-stories/, https://medium.com/thrive-global/moral-dilemma-stories-a-great-
way-to-educate- entertain-and-inspire-all-at-the-same-time-56ef4615b6ce

2.1 THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS

1. ORGANIZATIONAL ETHICAL OR MORAL DILEMMA

As discussed by Lamberto et. al(2013), an organizational ethical dilemma refers to a

situation that causes an organization to respond negatively or positively to an
ethical issue that affects staff, shareholders, and society, as well as corporate ethics
and customers. It includes also the leaders' ethical actions in preserving financial
reporting integrity.

Based on the article of Michigan State University online.com (2020) and Small
Business Chron.com (2019), there are common ethical issues in the organization
such as

1. (1) Unethical leadership/bad leadership behavior. A leader of the

organization must act with candor, be an example to his subordinates, with
upright moral values. He or she doesn’t engage in abuse of leadership
authority, accepting inappropriate gifts and other related unethical
leadership.
2. (2) Toxic workplace culture. A leader of the organization must focus on the
development of work culture. He makes sure that his subordinates have
work-life balance, motivated and happy working in the organization, If not
then the performance and productivity of the employees will be affected.

3. (3) Discrimination and harassment/ Peril of employee favoritism. A leader

must treat fairly his or her subordinates and avoid any form of discrimination
and harassment.

4. (4) Unrealistic and conflicting goals. A leader must have realistic and very
clear goals so that his or her subordinates understand what the organization
 is going through, hence, they can work together thoroughly until they reach
the goals of the organization.

5. (5) Use of the organization’s technology, social media use, technology, and
privacy concerns. It is ethical that the technology of the organization must
only use for the organization’s transactions Social media use while in the
office must be avoided as much as possible so that important dealings with
the clients must be prioritized.

6. (6) Business travel ethics. There are times that a leader and an employee
are in official business and in doing that, they have per diem every meal and
must use the fund of the organization appropriately.

2. INDIVIDUAL MORAL DILEMMA

As mentioned by Smith (2018), individual ethical or moral dilemma pertains

to a situation where individuals confront with a number of factors such as
peer pressure, personal financial position, an economic and social status
which may influence all individual ethical standards.
(https://yourbusiness.azcentral.com/three-levels-ethical-standards-business-
organization- 15897.html)

Socialization is part of every individual's life. It is just a query as to whether

an individual remains aware of doing what is good and what is right. There
are times that due to peer pressure, an individual engages in a certain
scenario in which may change their behavior and attitude. For instance,
before that young people, A is a responsible and obedient child to his
parents. When he met young people B and young people C, young people A
tremendously transform as a human being, his character shifted to an
irresponsible, hard-headed, and a trouble-maker. The reason is that his
friend young people B and young people C taught him to take illegal drugs.
Others, however, are affected by the financial standing position, the social
and economic status of others that even he is not capable, forcing him or her
that he or she is at the same level as them, portrays that he or she belongs
to the group, and called to be as social climbers. A human being should bear
in mind that living in this world is not easy. He must be strong enough to
stand still independently and not be influenced by undesirable pressures. It
is alright to enjoy life as long as a person knows his boundaries and
limitations and others will not be affected by what he or she does specifically
the unwanted acts. Human beings must not be confused nor ambiguous and
put himself or herself in a dilemma where he doesn't know what to do and
decide to what is good and what is right.

3. STRUCTURAL MORAL DILEMMA

The structural moral dilemma is that selecting a proper system of
responsibilities and
relationships, which is a continuing universal challenge.

There are five concepts in the structural moral dilemma to consider namely:

1. Differentiation vs. Integration

The conflict between the distribution of jobs and the organization of

numerous activities generates a classic dilemma. The more
complicated a task structure, the more difficult it is to sustain a
centered, tightly coupled organization. When complexity grows, the
company needs more complicated and expensive management
techniques. Laws, regulations, and directives need to be balanced by
lateral approaches.

2. Gap vs Overlap

When the main tasks are not explicitly defined, the critical job will slip
through gaps. In a similar manner, functions and activities can overlap,
causing conflict, wasting time, and unintended duplication of
responsibilities.

3. Lack of Clarity vs. Lack of Creativity

When employees are not clear about what they are expected to do, they
often adapt their tasks to personal interests instead of system-wide goals
that often lead to problems. Yet when people 's duties are over defined, they
comply with their positions and procedures in a bureaucratic manner. They
specifically follow job requirements as to how much the service or product
fails.

4. Excessive Autonomy vs. Excessive Interdependence

When individuals or groups are too independent, they are always isolated. On
the other hand, if the units and responsibilities are too closely connected,
people are absentminded from work and waste time or excessive
coordination. (http://www.humancapitalreview.org/content/default.asp?
Article_ID=528)

Based on the discussion above, to avoid structural moral dilemma then

followingcharacteristics must be maintained:

(1) Must have well-distributed jobs and the laws, policies, rules, and
regulations must be balanced through lateral approaches.
(2) Must have an implicitly defined job description, roles, and duties to evade
from gaps and overlaps.
(3) Must have a clear-cut expectation of the tasks in a wide range of goals
(4) Must have a well-balanced interdependence and co0rdination