Chapter 5

Measurement and Scaling

 Chapter Index
S. No Reference Slide
Particulars
No From-To

1 Learning Objectives 3

2 Topic 1 The Concept of Measurement 4-12

3 Topic 2 The Concept of Scaling Techniques 13-23

 Learning Objectives

 Explain the concept of measurement

 Discuss the scaling techniques
 Explain the various types of scales
 The Concept of Measurement

Measurement means using a yardstick to determine the characteristics

of a physical object.

Both qualitative and quantitative concepts can be measured.

However, measuring qualitative concepts is a comparatively difficult
task because numbers cannot be easily assigned to them.

Quantitative Object - Qualitative Object –

Example Example
The weight of an measuring a song for its
object or a subject is good composition, which
10 kg. difficult to say that the song
is 10% good or so.
Measurement Scales

A measurement scale refers to a classification that defines the nature of

information within the numerals assigned to variables.

Types of Measurement Scales/Levels of Measurement

Interval Scale
Named and ordered
variables having
Nominal Scale proportionate interval
Named variables between them

Ordinal Scale Ratio Scale

Named and ordered Named and ordered
variables variables having
proportionate interval
between them. It can
also accommodate
absolute zero
 Nominal Scale

• In this scale, the variables are named or labelled in no specific order.

• Here, the numbers are assigned to things, beings or events to classify or identify or
label them.
• All of the nominal scales are mutually exclusive & bear no numerical significance.
• Example: The assignment of different numbers (1, 2, 3, ...) to cricket players in a
team; books in a library; and computers in the Internet café.

Ordinal Scale

• This is the scale that only implies greater than or less than but does not answer
how much greater or less.
• Only inequalities can be set up with respect to ordinal scale and other arithmetic
operations cannot be performed.
• Example: The ordering of colour preferences of Mr. A are: 1 – Silver; 2 – White;
3 – Black; 4 – Red.
 Interval Scale

• This is the scale in which the interval between successive positions is equal.
• The positions are separated by equally spaced intervals or basis.
• The limitations of the interval scale is that it does not contain an absolute zero.
• Example: The scale of temperature in which absolute zero is unattainable
theoretically.
• More arithmetic operations, such as addition and subtraction can be performed.

Ratio Scale

• This is the scale that contains absolute or true zero, which implies the absence of
any trait. Example: On a centimeter scale, zero implies the absence of length or
height.
• In the ratio scale, it is possible to take ratio of two observations. Example: It can be
stated that the weight of Ram is twice that of Shyam.
• One can calculate mean, median, mode (if it exists) and take ratios.
Developing the Measurement Tools

Any tool used to measure or collect data is called

measurement tool, which is also known as assessment tool.

The four stages of developing measurement tools

Stage 1: Concept development

• At this stage, the researcher develops a good understanding of the topic he/she
wants related to his research study.
• Example: A research on the pros and cons of the multiparty political system
requires a proper understanding of the concept behind this system

Stage 2: Specification of concept dimension

• Next, the researcher is required to clearly identify the dimensions of the concept.
• Example: When a researcher wants to conduct a study related to image of a
company, he/she may relate image of the company to dimensions or factors such
as customer service level, customer treatment, product quality, employee
treatment, social responsibility, corporate leadership, etc.
Stage 3: Selection of indicators
• At this stage, indicators for the research subject are selected.
• Indicators help in measuring the elements of a concept such as knowledge,
opinion, choices, expectations and feelings of respondents.
• Example: the effectiveness of a medicine (concept) used for treating a chronic
disease is related to indicators such as changes in the mortality rate,
recurrence of that disease, etc.

Stage 4: Formation of index

• After determining multiple elements of a particular concept and selecting
suitable indicators for the research, the researcher needs to combine all the
indicators into a summated scale because separate indicators cannot give a
certain measurement of the concept.
• Example, a prices index is based on weighted sum of prices
Basic Criteria of a Good Measurement Tools

The measurement tool should clearly and accurately indicate what the
researcher intends to measure.

The good measurement tool should be easy to use and should give reliable
results.

Criteria of a Good
Measurement
Tool

Reliability Validity
Reliability

It refers to the degree of confidence with which the measurement tool can
be used to derive consistent results upon repeated application.

A reliable instrument is not necessarily a valid instrument. However, a valid

instrument must be reliable.

Example: Let a scale is used to measure the weight of objects consistently

shows all objects to be overweight by 2 kg. In that case, the scale can said
to be reliable because it is consistent, but it is not valid at all.

Reliability can be assessed by four methods viz. test-retest, alternative-

form test, split-halves test or internal consistency tests.
Validity

Validity refers to the degree to which a measurement tool succeeds in

measuring what is expected to be measured.

There can be reliability without validity; however, there can be no validity

without reliability.

Validity is assessed by all three methods: content validation, criterion-related

validation and construct validation.
 The Concept of Scaling Techniques

Scaling is a method to assign quantitative numbers to abstract concepts

Usually, in a scale, there are highest and lowest points with several
intermediate points between these two.

In the scale, from the lowest to the highest points, all points exhibit an
increasing or decreasing degree of a characteristic.
Types of Scaling Techniques

A scale refers to a tool or mechanism through which individuals are distinguished

as to how they differ from one another on the variables of interest of research.

Types of scaling Techniques

Comparative scales

It include scales wherein the researchers ask the respondents for their relative
preference between two or more objects.
Examples of comparative scales include paired comparison, rank order, and
constant sum scale.

Ranking Scale
They are used to
make relative
judgements.

Paired comparison Rank order scale Constant sum scale

This approach of In this approach of Here, the respondents
ranking scale provides ranking scale, the are asked to rate the
a way to make respondents are asked different attributes of
comparisons among to rank their choices an object and assign
objects. according to their some number of units
preferences. to each attribute
 Paired comparison Rank order scale Constant sum scale
• If there are 8 Example: Example:
products, then the • Here, 6 items are • An HR professional
respondents needs shown. The may create a
to make (8(8–1/2)) = respondent was constant sum scale
28 comparisons. asked to rank the to know the relative
• If the number of items as per his/her importance of
comparisons preferences. different
becomes quite large, infrastructural
then there is a risk attributes in an
because the organisation such as
respondents may clean washroom,
show reluctance to sports room,
take part in the gymnasium,
research. canteen, etc.
• In such a case, • Item C is the most • The respondents
comparisons can be preferred and item must remember that
reduced by applying B is the least the sum of all the
the law of preferred by the allocated units must
transitivity. respondent. be equal to 100.
Non-comparative scales

Non-comparative scales are those scales wherein each object is measured

independently of the other objects under the same research study.

• Continuous rating scale: A continuous rating scale is a type of

scale wherein the respondents are asked to rate different
objects on a continuum according to certain criterion.
• A continuum is a line running from one extreme value of the
criterion to the other extreme value of the criterion.

• Itemised rating scale: Here, items are shown in the form of

ordered statements in and the respondents are required to
select the category that best describes the concerned item.
• The respondents are asked to select one of the choices
according to their preferences or opinions.
 Most commonly used itemised rating scales are:

Summated scale Semantic differential

Guttman scale
(Likert) scale

• Summated scales are constructed by using the item analysis approach.

• Such scales consist of a number of statements that express either positive
or adverse feelings toward any topic or idea.
• Example: Statement - The Internet is creating a positive impact on
Children. Strongly Agree (1); Agree (2); Neutral (3); Disagree (4); Strongly
Disagree (5).
• In the Likert scaling method, each statement is assigned a numerical
value.
• The total score for each respondent is calculated by considering his/her
response to each statement.
 Most commonly used itemised rating scales are:

Summated scale Semantic differential

Guttman scale
(Likert) scale

• The semantic differential scale is an example of factor scale which the

connotative meaning of objects, events and concepts.
• It has differential scale consists of bipolar adjectives, such as good-bad and
valuable-worthless. The respondent is asked to select his/her position
between these two adjectives.
• Example: Consider a
semantic differential scale
analysing candidates for a
managerial position
 Most commonly used itemised rating scales are:

Summated scale Semantic differential

Guttman scale
(Likert) scale

• The cumulative scale consists of a series of statements to which a

respondent expresses his/her agreement or disagreement.
• It is important to note that in the cumulative scale, statements appear in
the form of a cumulative series.
• Example: If there are seven statements and the respondent agrees with
statement 4, then he/she would also agree with statements 1, 2 and 3.
Bases of Scale Classifications

Some factors on the basis of which numbers are assigned are:

Subject In this basis of scaling, differences in the responses obtained from

Orientation different people are studied and examined.

Response It refers to the style according to which responses would be

Form represented on a scale. There are two types: categorical & comparative.

Degree of It refers to the process of estimating the staff turnover rates for
subjectivity predicting the future and reducing employee churn.

Scale In this basis of scale classification, scales can be classified as nominal,

properties ordinal, interval and ratio scales.

Number of Here, there are two types of scales – one-dimensional scales and
dimensions multidimensional scales.

Scale
construction It refers to the scale-classification on the basis of different approaches.
approach
Techniques of Scale Construction

Judgement Methods Factor analysis approach

(Arbitrary Approach, In this approach, a
Consensus Approach, Item correlation between
Analysis, Summated different items is
Scales) Techniques of established on the basis of
These methods usually Constructing a principal component.
require the responses of Example: A semantic
Scale
respondents that are based differential
on their perception of the scale.
subject and their
judgements
Judgement methods include the following approaches:

Arbitrary approach: In this approach, a scale is developed on an ad-

hoc basis. Arbitrary scales can also be developed in a manner that
they are highly specific and adequate about a particular topic if
designed by a person skilled in scale designing.

Consensus approach: In this approach, items included in the scale are

decided by a panel of experts who evaluate the items for attesting
their relevance to the research topic, and the level of attitude the scale
item represents

Item analysis approach or summmated scale approach: In item

analysis, the respondents’ responses to each individual item (question)
in the test are segregated based on the discriminating power of the
item.