TN 221: DIGITAL ELECTRONICS 1

Unit 1: Design of combinational logic circuits:

Boolean Algebra
 In Boolean algebra, a variable is a symbol used to
represent an action, a condition, or data. A single
variable can only have a value of 1 or 0.
 Operations in Boolean algebra include AND, OR and NOT.
 Algebra is needed to express the output in terms of the
input when construct a network of gates
Boolean Algebra
Boolean Addition
 Addition is equivalent to the OR operation. The sum
term is 1 if one or more of the literals are 1. The sum
term is zero only if each literal is 0.
Boolean Multiplication
 In Boolean algebra, multiplication is equivalent to the
AND operation. The product of literals forms a product
term. The product term will be 1 only if all of the literals
are 1.
Boolean Algebra
Rules and Laws of Boolean Algebra
Commutative Law
 For addition, the commutative law states in terms of the
result, the order in which variables are ORed makes no
difference.
𝐴+𝐵 =𝐵+𝐴

 For multiplication, the commutative law states in terms

of the result, the order in which variables are ANDed
makes no difference.
𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝐴
 Rules and Laws of Boolean Algebra
Associative law
 For addition: The associative laws states that when
ORing more than two variables, the result is the same
regardless of the grouping of the variables.
𝐴+ 𝐵+𝐶 = 𝐴+𝐵 +𝐶

 For multiplication: the associative law states when

ANDing more than two variables, the result is the same
regardless of the grouping of the variables.
𝐴 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 𝐶
Rules and Laws of Boolean Algebra
Distributive Law
 This law states that ORing two or more variables and
then ANDing the result with a single variable is
equivalent to ANDing the single variable with each of the
two or more variables and then ORing the products.

𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴 𝐵 + 𝐶
and
𝐴 + 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 (𝐴 + 𝐶)
Rules and Laws of Boolean Algebra
Distributive Law
 The distributive law is the factoring law. A common
variable can be factored from an expression just as in
ordinary algebra. That is

𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴 𝐵 + 𝐶
and
𝐴 + 𝐶 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴 + (𝐵𝐶)
Rules and Laws of Boolean Algebra
Rules of Boolean algebra
 Table below shows 13 basic rules that are useful in
manipulating and simplifying Boolean expressions.

1. 𝐴+0=𝐴 8. 𝐴. 𝐴̅ = 0
2. 𝐴+1=1 9. 𝐴̿ = 𝐴
3. 𝐴. 0 = 0 10. 𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴
4. 𝐴. 1 = 𝐴 11. 𝐴 + 𝐴̅𝐵 = 𝐴 + 𝐵
5. 𝐴+𝐴=𝐴 12. 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝐴 + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝐶
6. 𝐴 + 𝐴̅ = 1 13. AB + AC = (A + C)(𝐴̅ + B)
7. 𝐴. 𝐴 = 𝐴
Rules and Laws of Boolean Algebra
De Morgan’s Theorem
 De Morgan’s 1st Theorem states that the complement of
a product of variables is equal to the sum of the
complemented variables
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴̅ + 𝐵

 De Morgan’s 2nd Theorem states that The complement

of a sum of variables is equal to the product of the
complemented variables.
𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴̅. 𝐵
Boolean formulas and functions
 A Boolean function is an expression formed with binary
variables, the two binary operators AND and OR, one
unary operator NOT, parentheses and equal sign.
 Boolean functions can also be represented by truth
tables.
 A Boolean function from an algebraic expression can be
realized to a logic diagram composed of logic gates
 Example
Boolean formulas and functions
Example:
 Examine whether the following expression are
equivalent.
,
.
Sum of Products Form (SOP)
 SOP form the Boolean expression is written either as
single product term or as a sum of product terms.
 A product term consists of either a single literal or a
product of more than one literals.
 Example:
Product of Sum (POS)
 In POS form the Boolean expression is written either as a
single sum or as a product of sum terms.
 A sum term consists of either a single literal or a sum of
more than one literals.
 Example:
Standard form
 An expanded form of Boolean expression, where each
term contains all Boolean variables in their true or
complemented form, is also known as the canonical
form of the expression.
 This form is useful for constructing truth tables or for
implementing logic
 Two standard forms
◦ minterm and
◦ maxterm
Standard form
Minterm Standard form
 Minterms are product terms where all variables appear
once either in complemented or uncomplemented form.
 Expression constructed by minterms are said to be in
minterm canonical form or standard sum of product.
 m-Notation ( ): is used to simplify writing functions in
minterm canonical forms.
◦ stands for the row number for which the function evaluates
to one.
 Standard form
Minterm Standard form
 Example: write the function represented in the table as an
expression in minterm canonical form as well as in m-
notation.
a b c f 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒎𝒊
0 0 0 0 𝑎𝑏𝑐̅ 𝑚 𝑓 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐̅ + 𝑎𝑏𝑐 + abc
𝑓 =𝑚 +𝑚 +𝑚
0 0 1 0 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑚
0 1 0 1 𝑎𝑏𝑐̅ 𝑚 𝑓= 𝑚(2,5,7)

0 1 1 0 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑚
1 0 0 0 𝑎𝑏𝑐̅ 𝑚
1 0 1 1 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑚
1 1 0 0 𝑎𝑏𝑐̅ 𝑚
1 1 1 1 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑚
 Standard form
Maxterm Standard form
 Maxterms are sum terms where all variables appear once
either in complemented or uncomplemented forms.
 Expression constructed by maxterms are said to be in
maxterm canonical form or standard product of sum.
 Functions in maxterm canonical form are constructed by
rows which the function evaluates to 0.
Standard form
Maxterm Standard form
 The M-notation ( ): is used to simplify writing in
maxterm canonical form.
◦ stands for row number for which the function evaluates to 0.
Example: Write function represented in the table below as
an expression in maxterm canonical form as in M-notation
Standard form
Maxterm Standard form
𝒙 𝒚 𝒛 𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑴𝒊
0 0 0 1 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑀
0 0 1 1 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐̅ 𝑀
0 1 0 0 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑀
0 1 1 1 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐̅ 𝑀
1 0 0 1 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑀
1 0 1 0 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐̅ 𝑀
1 1 0 0 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑀
1 1 1 1 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐̅ 𝑀

𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)(𝑥̅ + 𝑦 + 𝑧̅)(𝑥̅ + 𝑦 + 𝑧)
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑀 𝑀 𝑀
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑀(2,5,6)
Combinational logic circuits
 Combinational circuit is an interconnection of gates
where the logic level of the outputs at any time depends
only on the inputs at that time.
 A logic circuit with no interconnection between output
terminals and input terminals are called combinational
circuits.
Combinational logic circuits
Analysis of combinational circuits
 During analysis it assumed that the inputs are at one of
either two possible values.
 While analyzing combinational circuits start with the
gate at which the input are connected and continue until
the output is reached.
Combinational logic circuits
Analysis of combinational circuits
 Example: analyze the circuits below by writing its
Boolean expression.
b
c
e
d
a b
b
e
Combinational logic circuits
Constructing a truth table for a logic circuit.
 Once the Boolean expression for a given circuit has been
determined a truth table that show the output for all
possible values of the input variables can be developed.
Combinational logic circuits
Synthesis of combinational Circuits
 This involve the design of combinational circuit resulting
in its schematic diagram or gate diagram.
 Example: synthesize the following Boolean expressions:
Combinational logic circuits
Combinational Logic Design
 Logic design involves the generation of the schematic
diagram given the specifications.
 Procedure for logic design
1. Construct truth table
2. Determine a minterm/ maxterm from truth table
3. Draw a schematic diagram of expression obtained from step
2.
Combinational logic circuits
Combinational Logic Design
Examples
 Design a system which accepts four input a, b, c and d
and outputs a 1 whenever the number of 1s in the input
exceeds 2
 Design a system which accepts four inputs w, x, y and z
outputs 1 whenever the least significant input or the
most significant inputs goes high.
Combinational logic circuits
Realization using NAND gate
 If given an expression in SOP form the final expression is
an OR operation
◦ Apply de Morgan’s theorem
◦ Implement
Combinational logic circuits
Realization using NAND gate
 If given expression is in POS form where the final
operation is a AND operation
◦ Apply the De Morgan’s theorem and
◦ Implement the complement of the function
◦ Invert using a NAND gate configured as an inverter.
Combinational logic circuits
Realization using NAND gate
Examples
1. Realize the following Boolean expression using only
NAND gates
a.
Combinational logic circuits
Realization using NOR gate
 If given an expression in POS form the final expression is
an AND operation and the expression can be
implemented right away.
Combinational logic circuits
Realization using NOR gate
 If given expression is in SOP form we need to
◦ Apply the De Morgan’s theorem and
◦ Implement the complement of the function and,
◦ Place a NOR gate configured as an inverter.
Combinational logic circuits
Realization using NOR gate
Example
 Implement the following expressions using only NOR
gates.
Tutorials
 Prove the following identities.

 Establish equivalence of expression

, and

 For the truth table shown on next slide write the

minterm and maxterm canonical form using m-notation
and M-notation respectively of Boolean expression
represented.
Tutorials
a b c f
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

• Using theorem and Boolean Algebra simplify the following.

Tutorials
 Convert the following to its minterm canonical form.

 Convert the following to its maxterm canonical form

Tutorial
 Write the expression in algebraic form for the function

 Design a circuit to square a two bit number.

 Design a circuit to generate the even parity bit for a
system with four input a, b, c and d. Hint. The output
should be such that there must be an even number of 1s
with the inputs and outputs put together for each row.
Tutorials
 Apply suitable Boolean laws and theorems to modify the
expression for a two-input EX-OR gate in such a way as to
implement a two-input EX-OR gate by using the
minimum number of two-input NAND gates only.
 Problems unit 3 By Morris Mano-Boolean Algebra
 Problems unit 1 Introduction to Digital Electronics By
John Crowe et al
Homework
 Write step of realizing Boolean expression using NAND
and NOR by graphical approach. Then use graphical
approach to realize the following function using
multilevel NAND-NAND network and NOR-NOR network.