MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Module III

Presenter: Dr R. Sule
OUTLINE
❖ Wave at Interfaces
❖ Energy and power of waves
❖ I-D Waves Equation
❖ 2-D and 3-D Waves Equation
❖ Phase and group of velocities
 WAVE AT INTERFACE
❖ An interface is a boundary shared by two media.

❖ What is boundary: A boundary is the end, edge or face of a

finite medium.

❖ A rigid boundary is known as a fixed end or closed end.

❖ A loose boundary is known as a free end or open end.

❖ When a wave entering a medium with a slower wave speed,

the interface is more like a fixed end than a free end.
 REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION AT INTERFACE
❖ When a wave strikes an interface between two materials with
differing physical properties, it is partially reflected and
partially transmitted.

❖ In our previous class on travelling wave, we assumed our

cords, rails, etc were very long so we did not have to deal
with what happened when our wave hit the other end.

❖ Let consider a long cord under tension ’S’ as shown in Fig. 1

with single pulse travelling to the right.
 Figure 1 shown a single pulse travelling to the right.

Fixed End Reflection

❖ Assumed that the other end is tightly tied to a strong post.

❖ Figure 2 (a-d) shows the cord at different times before and
after the pulse hits the tied-down point.
❖ Figure 2 shows that the pulse reflected and turned upside
down with the same shape and moving at the same speed
towards the left.

❖ The amplitude of the pulse will be the same (there will be

energy losses along the cord and at the end which may
impact on the amplitude). However, we ignore it for simplicity
and the scope of this study.

❖ Reflection can be defined as the change in the direction of a

pulse at an interface between two different media so that the
wave return to the medium it was originated from.
❖ Figure 2 shows that the pulse reflected and turned upside
down with the same shape and moving at the same speed
towards the left.

❖ The amplitude of the pulse will be the same (there will be

energy losses along the cord and at the end which may
impact on the amplitude). However, we ignore it for simplicity
and the scope of this study.

❖ Reflection can be defined as the change in the direction of a

pulse at an interface between two different media so that the
wave return to the medium it was originated from. Common
examples are reflection of light, sound and water waves.
❖ When the pulse travels from a light medium (fast) to a heavier
medium (slow) the reflected pulse is turns upside down.

❖When the incident wave travels from a heavier medium to a

lighter one the reflected wave will not turn upside down.

Characteristics of reflected pulse at an Interface

➢Th speed of a wave or pulse is dependent on the medium
through which it travels.
➢ Frequency depend on the source: Frequency of the reflected
pulse remain constant.
➢ The reflected pulse has the same wavelength as incident and
depends on speed and frequency.
 Free End Reflection
❖ Let consider that the far end of the cord was not tied
down, but ended with a light frictionless loop around a
greased pole which was free to move up and down.
❖ The reflected pulse would not be upside down.
Figure 3 shows the
Reflection of pulse at
a loose boundary.

(a) As the pulse reaches the

end, there is no more
cord to pick up the momentum
and energy of the pulse, so the
(b) End of the cord overextends
upward (c) before whipped back down. (d) the net effect give up-down pulse
❖ For the two of the cases discussed: In fixed end reflection is
180o out of phase. At tied down end, upside down reflection
for the pulse would be equivalent to a half wavelength or 180o
upon reflection in the travelling wave.

❖ In free end, the reflection is in phase since the pulse or the

sinusoida wave just reflects back without flip-over.
 Transmission
❖ Consider the case of two long ropes A and B of linear density
(m/l) 𝜇𝑎 and 𝜇𝑏 respectively attached as shown in Figure 4a. A
attached to B under tension ‘S’ and a pulse travelling to the
right from the first rope.
❖ Figure 4b shows what happen after the pulse hit the interface.

An upside down reflected pulse was obtained on rope A (180o out

of phase) and part of the pulse was transmitted to the rope B
❖ Figure 5 shows what happen when we assure that the pulse
travelling from more dense rope B to less dense rope A.

❖ The amplitude of each pulse reduced.

❖ Reflected wave will travel to the left with the same magnitude velocity
𝑆 1/2
as the incoming pulse . The transmitted wave will travel to the
𝜇
right with a greater velocity.
❖ The wave speed is always greatest in the least dense rope.
Class work
Consider a pulse travelling in a more dense medium towards the interface with a less
dense medium.

1. The reflected pulse in medium 1 ________ be inverted because _______.

2. The speed of the transmitted pulse will be ___________ the speed of the incident
pulse.
3. The speed of the reflected pulse will be ______________ the speed of the incident
pulse.
4. The wavelength of the transmitted pulse will be ___________ the wavelength of
the incident pulse.
 ENERGY AND POWER OF WAVES
❖ When a wave travels in a medium it carries energy.

❖To calculate the energy in a given wave and the rate at which energy
transfer (power) from one point to another in the medium require the
knowledge of the wave and the medium it propagate.

❖ For transverse sinusoidal wave travelling in a cord or string the energy

per unit length and the power transfer across any point or cross-
section can be determined.
𝑚
❖ Consider the case of the wave in a cord of linear density 𝜇 = .
𝑙
As the wave travels, all the molecules any length L of the cord are
executing SHM of amplitude 𝐴 and angular frequency 𝜔
❖ The total energy of SHM equals the maximum kinetic which for a
particle of mass 𝑚;
1 2
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
Where 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum transverse velocity = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔𝐴
1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2
2
𝑚
Recall that 𝜇 = and make 𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
𝑙
1
𝐸= 𝜇𝑙𝜔2 𝐴2
2
𝐸
The energy per unit length = =𝜀
𝑙
1
𝜀= 𝜇𝜔2 𝐴2
2
❖ To find the power, or energy per unit time passing a point in the cord.

❖ Assuming that the wave travel at a speed 𝑣𝑝 so that in time 𝑡 a length

(𝑙) = 𝑣𝑝 t of wave passes any point.

The total energy passing a point in time 𝑡 is thus;

1
𝐸 = 𝜇𝑙𝜔2 𝐴2 …………………………1
2
1 2 2
𝐸 2 𝜇𝑙𝜔 𝐴
P= = ………………………………….2
𝑡 𝑡
Recall that 𝑙 = 𝑣𝑝 t … … … … … … … … … . . 3
Subst. equ. 3 into 2
1 2 2
𝐸 2 𝜇𝜔 𝐴 𝑣𝑝 t 1 2 2
P= = = 𝜇𝜔 𝐴 𝑣𝑝
𝑡 𝑡 2
❖ Example 1:
Consider a two-meter-long string with a mass of 70.00 g attached to a
string vibrator. The tension in the string is 90.0 N When the string vibrator
is turned on and it oscillates with a frequency of 60 Hz and produces a
sinusoidal wave on the string with an amplitude of 4.00 cm and a
constant wave speed. What is the time-averaged power supplied to the
wave by the string vibrator?

Solution

First determine the linear density to find the wave speed

𝑚 0.07
𝜇= = = 0.035 𝑘𝑔/𝑚
𝑙 2
 𝑆 1/2
Recall that the magnitude velocity of the incoming wave =
𝜇

𝑆 90
v= =
𝜇 0.035
v = 50.71 m/s

The angular frequency 𝜔 = 2π𝑓 = 2 × π × 60 = 377.40 𝑆 −1

The time-averaged power

1 2 2
𝜇𝜔 𝐴 𝑣𝑝 = 0.5 × 0.035 × 0.042 × 377.42 × 50.71 = 202.2 𝑊
2
Example 3:

A string of length 5 m and a mass of 90 g is held under a tension of

100N. A wave travels down the string that is modelled
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0.01 𝑚 sin(0.40 𝑚−1 𝑥 − 1170.12 𝑠 −1 ). What is the power over
one wavelength.
Solution
𝑆 1/2
Recall that the magnitude velocity of the incoming wave =
𝜇
𝑆 100
v= = v = 54.54 m/s
𝜇 0.018
The angular frequency 𝜔 = 2π𝑓 = 1170.12 𝑆 −1
The time-averaged power
1 2 2
𝜇𝜔 𝐴 𝑣𝑝 = 0.5 × 0.018 × 0.012 × 1170.122 × 54.54 = 91.85 𝑊
2
Example 3:
Assume that a travelling sinusoida wave of amplitude A = 0.40 cm,
frequency f= 40 Hz and wavelength λ = 0.50 m is moving to the right in
rope A of Fig. 4a. Rope B has a linear density twice that of rope A.
Assume that we have a finite wave train many wavelength long but still
small in length compared to the length of the ropes, and that it has not
yet reached the interface. The common tension the ropes is S = 200 N.
(a) Find the velocity of propagation in rope A. (b) Find the linear density
of rope A. (c) Find the velocity of propagation of a wave in rope B.
(d) When the wave train of Figure 4a hits the interface, what is the
frequency and wavelength of the transmitted wave.
Solution
Solution
(a) v = λ × 𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 𝒎 𝟒𝟎𝑯𝒛 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒎/𝒔

𝑆 200
(b) 𝑣𝒂 = =
𝜇𝒂 𝜇𝒂
200
𝟐𝟎 = 𝜇 = 0.50𝑘𝑔/𝑚
𝜇
(c) From given:
𝜇𝒃 = 𝟐 𝜇𝒂
𝑆 200
𝑣𝒃 = = 𝑣𝒃 = 14.1 m/s
𝜇𝒃 𝟐×𝟎.𝟓

(d) The frequency will not change = 40Hz

14.1
λ𝒃 = = 0.35 𝑚
40
 I-D Waves Equation
❖ In the previous topics we observed that the crest of a wave passing
along a one-dimensional string moves along a line.

❖ As a wave passes through any element on a stretched string, the

element moves perpendicularly to the wave’s direction of travel.

❖ Let consider a snapshot of a string element of mass dm and length 𝑙

as a wave travels along a string of linear density m that is stretched
along a horizontal x axis as shown in figure below.

(See Fundamentals of Physics 10th edition)

❖ Assume that the wave amplitude is small so that the element can have
only slightly tilted from the x axis as the wave passes.
❖ The Newton’s second law can be written for y components as:
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦
𝑑2𝑦
Recall that 𝑚 = 𝜇𝑙 (𝑙 = 𝑑𝑥), 𝑚 = 𝜇𝑑𝑥 ; 𝑎𝑦 =
𝑑𝑡 2
❖ By applying Newton’s second law to the element’s motion, we can
derive a general differential equation, called the wave equation, that
governs the travel of waves of any type.
𝜕2 𝑦 𝜇 𝜕2 𝑦
= ; where 𝜏 is tension in
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜏 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2 𝑦 1 𝜕2 𝑦
=
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2
The partial differential equation is called the characteristic equation of
wave motion in one dimension. (See Fundamentals of Physics 10th edition for the
calculation).
 TWO AND THREE DIMENSION WAVES EQUATION

❖ Let consider transverse waves on a two dimensional membrane.

❖ If the equilibrium position of the membrane is the (x-y) plane and z is

the transverse direction.

❖ Its configuration at any time t is a function of z(x, y, t).

❖ The two dimension is similar to that of one dimension string. The only
difference is the double effect because the membrane is two
dimensional.
By applying Newton’s second law to x and y direction, we have:
 TWO AND THREE DIMENSION WAVES EQUATION

𝜕2 𝑧 𝜕2 𝑧 1 𝜕2 𝑦
+ =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2
The above equation have partial derivatives with respect to two spatial
coordinates.

For the three dimension, its configuration at any time t is a function of

f(x, y, z, t).

𝜕2𝑓 𝜕2𝑓 𝜕2𝑓 1 𝜕2𝑦

2
+ 2
+ 2 = 2 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑣 𝜕𝑡
Or The sum of all the partial differentials
2
2
1 𝜕 𝑦
∇ 𝑓= 2 2
𝑣 𝜕𝑡
ENERGY AND POWER ON TWO AND THREE DIMENSION

❖ The example of two-dimensional wave is the ripple effect when a

stone is tossed into the still water of a pond. The disturbance of the
water surface at the point of contact send circular ripples moving out
at the appropriate wave propagation speed of this system.

❖ The fact that the ripples are circular revealed that the disturbance is
traveling at equal speed in all directions.

❖ If we draw an imaginary line through the crest (or trough) of one of the
ripples at a given instant of time, we are looking at the same phase of
the disturbance at all different locations on the water surface. Such a
line is called a wave-front.
❖ If a given point in our pond were disturbed with a constant frequency
vibrator, the wave would consist of a continuous train of circular
ripples and corresponding wave-fronts with crests and troughs spaced
equally from one another Figure (a).

Figure 6 (a) shows a pictorial display of the wave-fronts with Figure 6 (b)
the origin as the location of the vibrator. A sound wave travels from a point source S through a three
-dimensional medium. The wavefronts form spheres centered
on S the rays are radial to S.
❖ Taking water ripples for example, the energy of the wave in any small
wavefront region, and the associated power transmitted through a unit
length parallel to the wave-front are being diluted as the circular wave-
front expands to larger circumference.

❖ Since the circumference of a ripple increases in proportion to its

growing radius R, the power per unit wave-front length would
decrease as 1/R.

❖ For SHM sound waves in three dimensions, the energy and power of
the wave, per unit area perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
𝟏
the wave now fall off as 𝟐 .
𝑹
❖ The power per unit area perpendicular to the direction of propagation
𝑷
is called the intensity, I , and is given by: I =
𝑨
❖ where P is the power transmitted through a “window” concentric to the
wave-front and of cross sectional area A.
❖ The SI unit for intensity is watts per square meter (W/m2 )
❖ Another example of spherical wave is sound speaker mounted on
post. It produce sound waves that move away from the source as a
spherical wave.

❖ The farther you are from the speaker, the less intense the sound you
hear. As a spherical wave moves out from a source, the surface area
of the wave increases as the radius increases (A = 4𝜋𝑟 2 ). The
𝑷
intensity for a spherical wave is therefore: I =
4𝜋𝑟 2

❖ If there are no dissipative forces, the energy will remain constant as

the spherical wave moves away from the source, but the intensity will
decrease as the surface area increases.
❖ Example:

A spherical sound wave emanates from a small whistle suspended from

a ceiling of a very large room, emitting a single frequency simple
harmonic wave. If the power generated by the whistle is 0.0020 W , find
the intensity of the spherical wave of 1.0 m, 2.0 m, and 3.0 m from the
source.
Solution
All the power must pass through any imaginary concentric spherical
shell, and by symmetry will flow out with equal intensity in all directions.
At r = 𝟏
𝑷 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐 2
I= = I = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟖 𝑾/𝑚
4𝜋𝑟 2 4×3.142×12
r=𝟐
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐 2
I= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟖 𝑾/𝑚
4×3.142×22
 PHASE AND GROUP VELOCITIES
❖ Phase and group velocities are two important concepts in wave
mechanics.

❖ Phase velocity is define as the velocity with which the phase of a wave
travels
❖ Figure 7 shows a one-dimensional harmonic wave describe by
P 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕) Where ∅ = 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕
 𝟐𝝅
𝒌= 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅f
λ
The phase of the wave at (x, t) can be express as:
∅ = 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕 ………………1
𝒌𝒙 = ∅ + 𝝎𝒕 ………………2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕∅
𝑘 = + 𝝎 ………………3
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝒕
𝜕∅
For a point of constant phase =𝟎
𝜕𝒕
This, equation 3 becomes;
𝜕𝑥 𝝎
=
𝜕𝑡 𝒌
The phase velocity is the derivative of space x with respect to t
𝝎
𝒗𝒑 =
𝒌
 GROUP VELOCITY
❖ Wave group consists of a superposition of several waves with different
frequencies, wavelengths and amplitudes. It should not be confused
with interference that arises when superimposing waves with the same
frequencies.

❖ Consider the superposition of two harmonic waves with the same

amplitude but different angular frequency and wavelength describe by:
𝑨 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝟏 𝒙 − 𝝎𝟏 𝒕 + 𝑨 𝑪𝒐𝒔(𝒌𝟐 𝒙 − 𝝎𝟐 𝒕)
Using trigonometric function of Cos C + Cos D = 2Cos (C+D)/2 Cos(C-D)/2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟐𝑨 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐 𝒙 − 𝝎𝟏 + 𝝎𝟐 𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒔[ 𝒌𝟏 − 𝒌𝟐 𝒙 − 𝝎𝟏 + 𝝎𝟐 𝒕]
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

❖ The first cosine factor represent a wave whose angular frequency and
wave number are average of those of the original wave.
❖ It wave velocity is
𝝎𝟏 + 𝝎𝟐
𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐
The second cosine factor represent a wave whose wave velocity is

𝝎𝟏 − 𝝎𝟐
𝒌𝟏 − 𝒌𝟐
Figure 8 illustrate the two cosine factors:
The second cosine factor is denoted by envelope (green line) and it travel
with group velocity
𝝎𝟏 − 𝝎𝟐 𝒅𝝎
𝒗𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 = =
𝒌𝟏 − 𝒌𝟐 𝒅𝒌

❖ The combination of two or more wave in this manner is called wave

group or packet wave.
GROUP VELOCITY
Reference Materials

❖ University Physics

❖ Fundamentals of Physics 10th edition

❖ Cutnel and Johnson 9th edition

❖ Open source materials