1.

Introduction to Water Resources

• Water as a Basic Need: Water is fundamental to all forms of life and is essential
for sustaining ecosystems. It is used for a wide range of purposes, including
drinking, sanitation, agriculture, industrial processes, power generation, and
transportation.

• Distribution of Water Resources: The Earth's water is unevenly distributed.

Approximately 97% of the total water on Earth is saline and found in oceans,
leaving only 3% as freshwater. Out of this 3%, a significant portion is locked in
glaciers and ice caps, leaving a very small percentage readily accessible as
surface water (in rivers, lakes, etc.) and groundwater.

2. Surface and Groundwater Resources

• Surface Water: Surface water includes all water bodies that are found above
ground, such as rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and wetlands. This water is replenished
by precipitation and runoff and is a key resource for drinking, irrigation, and
industrial use.

• Groundwater: Groundwater refers to water stored beneath the Earth's surface in

aquifers. It is accessed through wells and springs and serves as a vital source of
water for both rural and urban populations, especially during periods of surface
water scarcity.

3. Uses of Water

1. Domestic Use: Water is indispensable for household activities such as drinking,

cooking, cleaning, bathing, and sanitation.

2. Agricultural Use: Agriculture is the largest consumer of water globally. Irrigation

systems rely heavily on surface and groundwater to support the growth of crops,
particularly in arid and semi-arid regions.

3. Industrial Use: Industries use water for various purposes, including as a

coolant, solvent, and raw material. Major water-consuming industries include
power plants, paper mills, textile production units, and chemical factories.
 4. Energy Production: Water plays a critical role in generating energy, particularly
through hydropower plants and in cooling systems for thermal and nuclear power
stations.

5. Recreation and Ecosystem Support: Water bodies support biodiversity and

provide opportunities for recreational activities such as fishing, boating, and
swimming.

4. Over-Exploitation of Water Resources

• Surface Water Over-Exploitation:

o Surface water is overdrawn for various purposes, including irrigation,

industrial operations, and urbanization.

o For example, the construction of large dams and reservoirs often leads to
reduced water availability downstream, adversely affecting local
ecosystems and communities.

o Over-extraction can result in the drying up of rivers, loss of biodiversity,

and water disputes between regions or countries.

• Groundwater Over-Exploitation:

o Groundwater is often overused due to its accessibility and reliability during

dry seasons.

o Excessive pumping of groundwater, particularly for irrigation in states like

Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan, has led to significant depletion of
aquifers.

o The consequences include a lowering of the water table, increased costs

of water extraction, contamination of water supplies with arsenic or
fluoride, saltwater intrusion in coastal regions, and land subsidence in
areas with heavy groundwater extraction.

5. Floods

• Definition: Floods occur when water overflows onto land that is typically dry,
often resulting from heavy rainfall, rapid snowmelt, storms, or human-induced
factors.
• Causes:

1. Heavy Rainfall: Prolonged or intense rainfall can overwhelm natural

drainage systems, leading to floods.

2. Rapid Snowmelt: The melting of large volumes of snow in a short period

can contribute to rising water levels in rivers.

3. Cyclones and Storms: Strong cyclonic activity can bring heavy rains and
storm surges, especially in coastal areas.

4. Dam Failures: Sudden release of water from dams due to structural

failure or emergency conditions can inundate downstream areas.

5. Urbanization: The expansion of urban areas reduces natural infiltration of

water into the soil, increasing surface runoff and flood risks.

• Impacts:

o Floods can cause massive loss of life and property, displacement of

populations, and destruction of infrastructure.

o Agricultural fields are submerged, leading to crop losses and food

shortages.

o Contamination of water sources during floods can lead to waterborne

diseases.

o Long-term effects include economic disruptions and challenges in

rebuilding affected communities.

• Management Strategies:

1. Structural Measures: Construction of dams, reservoirs, levees, and

embankments to control and redirect floodwaters.

2. Non-Structural Measures: Implementation of flood forecasting and early

warning systems, improved land-use planning, and effective urban
drainage systems.

3. Community Involvement: Public awareness campaigns and training in

flood preparedness.
6. Droughts

• Definition: Droughts are prolonged periods of below-average precipitation,

resulting in water scarcity for various uses, including agriculture, drinking, and
industrial processes.

• Types of Droughts:

1. Meteorological Drought: Defined by a significant deficiency in rainfall

compared to normal levels.

2. Agricultural Drought: Occurs when insufficient soil moisture affects crop

production.

3. Hydrological Drought: Characterized by reduced water levels in rivers,

reservoirs, and groundwater systems.

4. Socioeconomic Drought: Arises when water scarcity impacts human

activities and the economy.

• Causes:

o Natural climatic variability, such as the El Niño effect.

o Anthropogenic activities, including over-extraction of water, deforestation,

and land degradation.

o Climate change exacerbating the frequency and intensity of extreme

weather events.

• Impacts:

o Droughts can lead to crop failures, loss of livestock, and food shortages,
particularly in agrarian economies.

o Prolonged droughts exacerbate poverty, force migration, and contribute to

social and political instability.

o Environmental effects include desertification, loss of biodiversity, and

increased vulnerability to wildfires.

• Management Strategies:

1. Water Conservation: Rainwater harvesting, construction of check dams,

and efficient irrigation practices such as drip irrigation.
 2. Afforestation: Planting trees to improve soil moisture retention and
prevent desertification.

3. Drought-Resistant Crops: Developing and promoting the cultivation of

crops that require less water.

4. Government Policies: Implementation of drought relief programs, crop

insurance schemes, and water management policies.

7. Sustainable Management of Water Resources

• Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM): A holistic approach to

managing water, land, and related resources to maximize economic and social
welfare without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems.

• Legislation and Policies in India:

1. The Environment Protection Act, 1986 provides a framework for

protecting and improving the environment, including water resources.

2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 aims to

prevent and control water pollution and maintain water quality.

3. The National Water Policy emphasizes the conservation of water,

equitable distribution, and integrated planning.

• Community Participation:

o Involvement of local communities in watershed management and water

conservation initiatives.

o Promotion of traditional practices such as tank irrigation and step wells.

• Technological Interventions:

o Installation of desalination plants for areas facing acute water scarcity.

o Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for better planning and

management of water resources.
8. Conflicts Over Water (International & Inter-State)

• International Conflicts:

o Water disputes arise when rivers or water bodies cross international

borders, leading to competing claims over water use.

o Example: The Indus Water Treaty (1960) between India and Pakistan
governs the sharing of the Indus River system. Despite the treaty,
tensions persist due to differing interpretations and allegations of
violations.

o Example: The Nile River Dispute involves Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia.
Ethiopia’s construction of the Grand Renaissance Dam has raised
concerns in downstream countries about reduced water availability.

• Inter-State Conflicts in India:

o Disputes over river water sharing between states are common due to
uneven distribution and competing demands.

o Example: The Cauvery Water Dispute between Tamil Nadu and

Karnataka involves competing agricultural and domestic water needs.

o Example: The Krishna River Water Dispute involves Maharashtra,

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana over equitable water
distribution.

o Resolution mechanisms include tribunals, negotiations, and judicial

interventions, but long-term solutions often require cooperation and
sustainable management practices.

9. Case Studies

• Floods:

o 2018 Kerala Floods: The state of Kerala experienced unprecedented

flooding due to heavy monsoon rains and improper dam management.
The disaster caused significant loss of life and property and displaced
millions. Post-disaster measures included better dam coordination and
flood risk assessment.
 • Droughts:

o Marathwada Drought, Maharashtra (2012-2016): Severe water scarcity

arose from consecutive years of deficient rainfall combined with
unsustainable groundwater extraction. The crisis led to widespread farmer
distress, migration, and economic losses. Measures such as the Jalyukt
Shivar Abhiyan were introduced to promote water conservation.

10. Conclusion

Water is a precious and limited resource that needs to be managed sustainably to

ensure its availability for future generations. Over-exploitation, floods, and droughts
highlight the urgent need for integrated water resource management, effective policies,
and community involvement to address water-related challenges and achieve
sustainable development.