Chapter 2

Sensors
Sensors and actuators are two critical components of every closed loop control system. Such a
system is also called a mechatronics system.

Fig. 2.1 Mechatronics System

A sensing unit can be as simple as a single sensor or can consist of additional components such
as filters, amplifiers, modulators, and other signal conditioners. The controller accepts the
information from the sensing unit, makes decisions based on the control algorithm, and outputs
commands to the actuating unit. The actuating unit consists of an actuator and optionally a power
supply and a coupling mechanism.

Sensor – Is a device that detects a change in one variable and gives an output signal which
depends on the change in that variable. Sensors are generally applied in process monitoring.

Transducer – Is a device that converts a change in a physical variable into a related change in
another physical variable.

Actuators are basically the muscle behind a mechatronics system that accepts a control command
(mostly in the form of an electrical signal) and produces a change in the physical system by
generating force, motion, heat, flow, etc.

Sensor/transducers specifications

Sensor specifications inform the user to the about deviations from the ideal behavior
of the sensors. Following are the various specifications of a sensor/transducer system.

1. Range

The range of a sensor indicates the limits between which the input can vary. For
example, a thermocouple for the measurement of temperature might have a range of
25-225 °C.
2. Span

The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input. Thus,
the above-mentioned thermocouple will have a span of 200 °C.

3. Error

Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of the
quantity being measured. A sensor might give a displacement reading of 29.8 mm,
when the actual displacement had been 30 mm, then the error is –0.2 mm.

4. Accuracy

The accuracy defines the closeness of the agreement between the actual measurement
result and a true value of the measurand. It is often expressed as a percentage of the
full range output or full–scale deflection. A piezoelectric transducer used to evaluate
dynamic pressure phenomena associated with explosions, pulsations, or dynamic
pressure conditions in motors, rocket engines, compressors, and other pressurized
devices is capable to detect pressures between 0.1 and 10,000 psig (0.7 KPa to 70
MPa). If it is specified with the accuracy of about ±1% full scale, then the reading
given can be expected to be within ± 0.7 MPa.

5. Sensitivity

Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change in output value of a sensor to

the per unit change in input value that causes the output change. For example, a
general purpose thermocouple may have a sensitivity of 41 µV/°C.

6. Nonlinearity

The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the actual measured curve of a sensor
from the ideal curve.

Fig. 2.2 Non-Linearity Error

The figure 1.2 shows a somewhat exaggerated relationship between the ideal, or least
squares fit, line and the actual measured or calibration line. Linearity is often
specified in terms of percentage of nonlinearity, which is defined as:

Nonlinearity (%) = Maximum deviation in input ⁄ Maximum full- scale input (1.1)

The static nonlinearity defined by the above equation is dependent upon

environmental factors, including temperature, vibration, acoustic noise level,
and humidity. Therefore it is important to know under what conditions the
specification is valid.

7. Hysteresis

The hysteresis is an error of a sensor, which is defined as the maximum difference in

output at any measurement value within the sensor’s specified range when
approaching the point first with increasing and then with decreasing the input
parameter. Figure 1.3 shows the hysteresis error might have occurred during
measurement of temperature using a thermocouple. The hysteresis error value is
normally specified as a positive or negative percentage of the specified input range.

Fig. 2.3 Hysteresis Error Curve

8. Resolution

Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can
be detected in the output signal. Resolution can be expressed either as a proportion of
the full-scale reading or in absolute terms. For example, if a LVDT sensor measures a
displacement up to 20 mm and it provides an output as a number between 1 and 100
then the resolution of the sensor device is 0.2 mm.

9. Stability

Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output when used to measure a
constant input over a period of time. The term ‘drift’ is used to indicate the change in
output that occurs over a period of time. It is expressed as the percentage of full range
output.

10. Dead band/time

The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for which
there is no output. The dead time of a sensor device is the time duration from the
application of an input until the output begins to respond or change.

11. Repeatability

It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated applications of
same input value. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the full range output:

Repeatability = (maximum – minimum values given) X 100 ⁄ full range (1.2)

12. Response time

Response time describes the speed of change in the output on a step-wise change of
the measurand. It is always specified with an indication of input step and the output
range for which the response time is defined.
 Types of Sensors

Sensors can be classified into various groups according to the factors such as mesurand,
application fields, conversion principle, energy domain of the measurand and thermodynamic
consideration.

2.1 Temperature Sensors

Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical system in terms of expansion or contraction of
solids, liquids or gases, change in electrical resistance of conductors, semiconductors and
thermoelectric emfs. Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples, thermistors
are widely used in monitoring of manufacturing processes such as casting, molding, metal
cutting etc.

1. Bimetallic strips

Fig. 2.4 Construction and working of Bi-metallic strip

Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in controlling the temperature or heat in a
manufacturing process or system. It contains two different metal strips bonded together. The
metals have different coefficients of expansion. On heating the strips bend into curved strips with
the metal with higher coefficient of expansion on the outside of the curve. Figure 1.4 shows a
typical arrangement of a bimetallic strip used with a setting-up magnet. As the strips bend, the
soft iron comes in closer proximity of the small magnet and further touches. Then the electric
circuit completes and generates an alarm. In this way bimetallic strips help to protect the desired
application from heating above the pre-set value of temperature.
2. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to change in its
temperature. On heating up metals, their resistance increases and follows a linear relationship as
shown in Figure 1.5. The correlation is:

(1.3)

Where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (°C) and R0 is the temperature at 0°C and α is the
constant for the metal termed as temperature coefficient of resistance. The sensor is usually made
to have a resistance of 100 Ω at 0°C

Fig. 2.5 Behavior of RTD materials

Fig. 2.6 Construction of a Resistance temperature detector (RTD)

Figure 1.6 shows the construction of a RTD. It has a resistor element connected to a Wheatstone
bridge. The element and the connection leads are insulated and protected by a sheath. A small
amount of current is continuously passing though the coil. As the temperature changes the
resistance of the coil changes which is detected at the Wheatstone bridge.
RTDs are used in the form of thin films, wire wound or coil. They are generally made of metals
such as platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys. Platinum wire held by a high-temperature glass
adhesive in a ceramic tube is used to measure the temperature in a metal furnace. Other
applications are:

Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing

Food Processing
Stoves and grills
Textile production
Plastics processing
Petrochemical processing
Micro electronics
Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and tanks
Exhaust gas temperature measurement

3. Thermistors

Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with increasing temperature. The
material used in thermistor is generally a semiconductor material such as a sintered metal oxide
(mixtures of metal oxides, chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel) ordoped
polycrystalline ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) and other compounds. As the
temperature of semiconductor material increases the number of electrons able to move about
increases which results in more current in the material and reduced resistance.Thermistors are
rugged and small in dimensions. They exhibit nonlinear response characteristics.

Thermistors are available in the form of a bead (pressed disc), probe or chip. Figure 1.7 shows
the construction of a bead type thermistor. It has a small bead of dimension from 0.5 mm to 5
mm coated with ceramic or glass material. The bead is connected to an electric circuit through
two leads. To protect from the environment, the leads are contained in a stainless steel tube.

Fig. 2.7 Schematic of a thermistor

Applications of Thermistors

To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine
To monitor the temperature of an incubator
Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats
 To monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging
To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers
To maintain correct temperature in the food Handling and processing industry
equipments.
To control the operations of consumer appliances such as toasters, coffee makers,
refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc.

4. Thermocouple

Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals heated, it produces
an electric potential related to temperature. As per Thomas Seebeck (1821), when two wires
composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the ends is heated, then
there is a continuous current which flows in the thermoelectric circuit. Figure 1.8 shows the
schematic of thermocouple circuit. The net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a
function of junction temperature and composition of two metals. It is given by,

ΔVAB = αΔT (1.4)

Where α, the Seebeck coefficient, is the constant of proportionality.

Fig. 2.8 Schematic of thermocouple circuit

Generally, Chromel(90% nickel and 10% chromium)–Alumel(95% nickel, 2% manganese,

2% aluminium and 1% silicon) are used in the manufacture of a thermocouple. Table 1.1
shows the various other materials, their combinations and application temperature ranges.
 Table 2.1 Thermocouple materials and temperature ranges

Applications of Thermocouples

To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process

Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical production and petroleum
refineries
Testing of heating appliance safety
Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts
Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and smelting process in the steel, iron
and aluminum industry
2.2 Displacement Sensors and Position Sensors

1. Potentiometer

The potentiometer can be of linear or angular type. It works on the principle of conversion of
mechanical displacement into an electrical signal. The sensor has a resistive element and a
sliding contact (wiper). The slider moves along this conductive body, acting as a movable
electric contact.

The object of whose displacement is to be measured is connected to the slider by either using a
rotating shaft for angular displacement or a moving rod for linear displacement.
During the sensing operation, a voltage VS is applied across the resistive element. A voltage
divider circuit is formed when slider comes into contact with the wire. The output voltage (VA) is
measured as shown in the figure 2.1. The output voltage is proportional to the displacement of
the slider over the wire. Then the output parameter displacement is calibrated against the output
voltage VA.

RB
Fig. 2.9 Potentiometer: Electric Circuit

VA=IRA
But

Therefore

As we know that R = ρL /A where ρ is electrical resistivity, L is length of resistor and A is area

of cross section. Hence,
Applications of potentiometer
These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop to ensure that the
moving member or component reaches its commanded position.

These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies, forklift
trucks, automobile throttle controls. In manufacturing, these are used in control of injection
molding machines, woodworking machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc. These are also
used in computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment.

2. Strain Gauges

The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length in the direction of applied load to the
original length of an element. The strain changes the resistance R of the element. Therefore, we
can say,

Resistance strain gauge follows the principle of change in resistance as per the equation:

where G is the constant of proportionality and is called as gauge factor. In general, the value of G
is considered in between 2 to 4 and the resistances are taken of the order of 100 Ω.

It comprises of a pattern of resistive foil arranged as shown in the figure below:

Fig. 2.11 A pattern of resistive foils

These foils are made of Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45% alloy) and are bonded to a
backing material plastic (polyimide), epoxy or glass fiber reinforced epoxy. The strain gauges
are secured to the workpiece by using epoxy.

As the workpiece undergoes change in its shape due to external loading, the resistance of
strain gauge element changes. This change in resistance can be detected by a using a
Wheatstone’s resistance bridge shown below:
 Fig. 2.10 Wheatstone's bridge
In the balanced bridge we can have a relation,

R2/R1 = RX/R3

where Rx is resistance of strain gauge element, R2 is balancing/adjustable resistor, R1 and R3 are

known constant value resistors. The measured deformation or displacement by the stain gauge is
calibrated against change in resistance of adjustable resistor R2 which makes the voltage across
nodes A and B equal to zero.

Applications of strain gauges

Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis on machines and
failure analysis. They are basically used for multi-axial stress fatigue testing, proof testing,
residual stress and vibration measurement, torque measurement, bending and deflection
measurement, compression and tension measurement and strain measurement.

Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine tools and safety in automotives. In
particular, they are employed for force measurement in machine tools, hydraulic or pneumatic
press and as impact sensors in aerospace vehicles.

3. Capacitive element based sensor

Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to measure the linear
displacements from few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters. It comprises of three plates, with
the upper pair forming one capacitor and the lower pair another. The linear displacement might
take in two forms:

(a) one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation changes

(b) area of overlap changes due to the displacement.

Figure below shows the schematic of three-plate capacitive element sensor and displacement
measurement of a mechanical element connected to the plate 2.
 Fig. 2.12 Displacement measurement using capacitive element sensor

The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by,

where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates, εo permittivity of free
space, A area of overlap between two plates and d the plate separation.

As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one due to the movement of the
element/workpiece of which displacement is to be measured, separation in between the plate
changes. This can be given as,

When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatstone’s bridge, then the resulting out-of-balance
voltage would be in proportion to displacement x.

Capacitive elements can also be used as proximity sensor. The approach of the object towards
the sensor plate is used for induction of change in plate separation. This changes the capacitance
which is used to detect the object.

Applications of capacitive element sensors

• Feed hopper level monitoring

• Small vessel pump control
• Grease level monitoring
• Level control of liquids
4. Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used for measurement
of linear displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to ± 400 mm in general. It has non-
linearity error ± 0.25% of full range.

It has three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. The central coil is primary coil
and the other two are secondary coils. Secondary coils are connected in series in such a way that
their outputs oppose each other. A magnetic core attached to the element of which displacement
is to be monitored is placed inside the insulated tube.

Fig. 2.13 Working of LVDT sensor

Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating electro-magnetic forces (emfs)
are generated in secondary coils. When the magnetic core is centrally placed with its half portion
in each of the secondary coil regions then the resultant voltage is zero. If the core is displaced
from the central position as shown in figure 2.5, say, more in secondary coil 1 than in coil 2, then
more emf is generated in one coil i.e. coil 1 than the other, and there is a resultant voltage from
the coils. If the magnetic core is further displaced, then the value of resultant voltage increases in
proportion with the displacement.

Applications of LVDT sensors

Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications

To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for dispatch
To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction welding process
To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM
5. Optical Encoders
Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular displacement. These are widely used in the
Servo motors to measure the rotation of shafts.

Fig 2.14 Construction and working of optical encoder

The figure above shows the construction of an optical encoder. It comprises of a disc with three concentric
tracks of equally spaced holes. Three light sensors are employed to detect the light passing thru the holes. These
sensors produce electric pulses which give the angular displacement of the mechanical element e.g. shaft on
which the Optical encoder is mounted.

The inner track has just one hole which is used locate the ‘home’ position of the disc. The holes on the middle
track offset from the holes of the outer track by one-half of the width of the hole. This arrangement provides
the direction of rotation to be determined. When the disc rotates in clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer
track lead those in the inner; in counter clockwise direction they lag behind. The resolution can be determined
by the number of holes on disc. With 100 holes in one revolution, the resolution would be,
360⁰/100 = 3.6⁰.