Terms and Names: Who? What? Where? When?

A:

1) Aristocracy- style of government; a government in which power is in the hands of a

hereditary ruling class or nobility.
2) Aristotle- Author of Politics→ “Man is by nature a political animal; it is his nature to live
in a state. Examined the nature of the world and of human belief, thought, and
knowledge.

3) Athens: direct democracy- aristocratic ruled; A/ All citizens (male) could vote on laws
and own property. B. Women had limited freedom. They could not vote or own property.
C. Rich boys learned about reading, writing, math & music. D. Girls stayed at home &
learned household duties E. Culture of free speech and debate F. Boys served 2 yrs in
a small army
B:
1) jjk
C:
1) Cromwell: established a republic called the Commonwealth of England.
- opposed both by supporters of monarchy and by more extreme Puritans.
- he became unhappy with Parliament’s failure to enact his religious, social, and economic
reforms. In 1653 he dissolved Parliament and created a government called the
Protectorate. He named himself Lord Protector, in effect becoming a military dictator.
2) common law: a unified body of law formed from rulings of England’s royal judges that
serve as the basis for law in many English-speaking countries today, including the United
States; legacy of Henry II
3) Cleisthenes: Athenian leader; founder of democracy in Athen
4) Christianity- Most wide spread in Anatolia; spread through Rome. Constantine helps
Christians follow their faith without oppression.
D:
1) Direct democracy- a government in which citizens rule directly rather than through
representatives.
2) Divine Right- the idea that monarchs are God’s representatives on earth and therefore
answer only to God; The theory came to the fore in England under the reign of King
James I (1603–25); clashed with parliament due to lack of knowledge of the English laws
and constitution; Elizabeth I- James I (asked for money bc of elizabeth’s debt, and
believed in divine power)-Charles I (also asks for money , but this time, Parliament
demanded that he sign the Petition of Right, which limited the king's power.)
3) Denis Diderot:
E:
1) Enlightenment(an 18th-century European movement in which thinkers attempted to
apply the principles of reason and the scientific method to all aspects of society): The
Scientific Revolution caused thinkers to rely on rational thought rather than just accept
traditional beliefs. Enlightenment thinkers praised both Isaac Newton’s discovery of the
mechanical laws that govern the universe and the scientific method that made such a
discovery possible. These thinkers wanted to apply the scientific method, which relied on
observation and testing of theories, to human affairs. They hoped to use reason to
discover natural laws that governed society just as scientists had used it to discover
physical laws.
F:
1) French revolution: cause- Louis XVI became king at 19 in 1774. France's deeper
issues included the privileges of the clergy and nobility, who didn't pay taxes, while only
commoners bore the tax burden. This inequality caused a lot of anger and was a major
reason
2) Federalism
G:
1) government: a system for controlling the society.
H:
 1) Henry II(ruled from 1154 to 1189)- One of Henry’s greatest achievements was the
development of the jury trial as a means of administering royal justice.
I:
1) Isaac Newton(English mathematician and natural philosopher; he discovered the
law of gravity as well as laws on the physics of objects.)-desim:a belief held by
many scientists and philosophers during the Enlightenment that God created the
universe and then allowed it to run on its own following natural laws.
2) Islam(a monotheistic religion that developed in Arabia in the seventh century AD.)-
based on the teachings of Muhammad. Qur’an- holy book that revealed word of God.
J:
1) Justinian (Legal code)- In 528 CE, Justinian ordered a legal panel to review all Roman
laws.
2) Judaism- Israel. monotheists- believe in one god.

K: jkbh
L: jbk
M:
1) Monarchy
2) Martin Luther(figure of protestant reformation) - a monk and teacher named Martin
Luther criticized the Church’s practice of selling pardons for sins.
3) magna carta-What? a significant document that established certain political rights and
limited the power of the English monarch. Where? England. Who? King John of
England was involved in the Magna Carta because he was the king at the time, and his
actions caused a lot of anger among the English nobles. John lost land in France and
tried to raise taxes to pay for his wars, which made the nobles very unhappy. In 1215,
the nobles rebelled and forced John to agree to the Magna Carta. When? The Magna
Carta was signed in 1215 after a conflict between King John and the English nobles.
N:
1) National Assembly- This document guaranteed rights like liberty, property, and security
to all people. They also drafted a constitution that made France a limited monarchy and
reformed the Catholic Church and the court system. After completing this work, the
National Assembly disbanded in 1791, and a new Legislative Assembly took over.
2) Natural Rights(John Locke)-the rights human beings have by nature, such as life,
liberty and property.

O:
1) Oligarchy- style of government; a government in which power is in the hands of a few
people—especially one in which rule is based upon wealth.
P:
1) Pericles (direct democracy; strengthen greek democracy; began reform in Greece)
- After Persia’s defeat, Athens continued to develop democracy (eventually into direct
democracy). A wise and able statesman named Pericles led Athens for 32 years, from
461 to 429 BCE. He made democracy stronger by paying public officials and jurors,
 which allowed poorer citizens to participate in government. This increased citizen
involvement and helped Athens develop a direct democracy, where citizens directly
make decisions rather than electing representatives to do so.
2) Plato- (427–348 BCE) Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy.
Author of The Republic Perfect society would be governed by the wisest not the most
powerful → “philosopher kings”
3) Peloponnesian war: (Athens vs. Sparta) - Sparta wins!
4) polytheists-people who believed in more than one god.
Q: hb
R:
1) The Republic- In his famous work The Republic, Plato set forth his vision of a perfectly
governed society. He wanted society governed not by the richest and most powerful but
by the wisest, whom he called philosopher-kings.
2) Republic- Then, in 509 BCE, a group of Roman aristocrats overthrew a harsh king.
They set up a new government, calling it a republic. A republic is a form of government
in which power is in the hands of representatives and leaders are elected by citizens
who have the right to vote. It is an indirect democracy
3) the restoration- Cromwell resigned in 1659. In 1660, a new Parliament restored the
monarchy and invited Charles Stuart, the son of Charles I, to take the throne. This period
was called the Restoration because the monarchy was restored to the throne.
4) Reformation(16th century; started in Germany)- a 16th-century movement for
religious reform, leading to the founding of Christian churches that rejected the pope’s
authority; led to the reform of Catholic church; Martin Luther
5) Renaissance(之前他们把神当作中心文艺复兴就是把中心转移到人) - a period of
European history, lasting from about 1300 to 1600, during which renewed interest in
classical culture led to far-reaching changes in art, learning, and views of the world.
S:
1) Socrates- Philosopher, one of the great thinkers. Examine most closely held beliefs; Q &
A approach - Socratic method. Found guilty of not recognizing gods and corrupting
youth-- forced suicide by hemlock
2) Social Contract: Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s most famous work was The Social Contract
(1762). He viewed the social contract as an agreement among free individuals to create
a government that would respond to the people’s will. Unlike, Hobbes, who believed the
social contract was an agreement only among the people and not between them and
their king. Once the people had given absolute power to the king, they had no right to
revolt against him.
3) Scientific method(a logical procedure for gathering information about the natural
world, in which experimentation and observation are used to test hypotheses.)-
The scientific method emphasizes two different types of thinking—deductive and
inductive reasoning. Using deductive reasoning, scientists start with a theory and test the
theory with experiments and observations. This is sometimes called “going from the top
down.” When they look for patterns in data from experiments and observation and come
up with conclusions, they are using inductive reasoning. This sometimes called “going
 from the bottom up.”‘

4) Sparta: City state in Greece- It was run by an oligarchy – 2 kings. A. All citizens (male)
could vote on laws and own property. B. Women had limited freedom. small group of
men decided what issues to place before adult male voters.They could not vote or own
property. C. Rich boys learned about reading, writing, math & music. D. Girls stayed at
home & learned household duties E. Culture of free speech and debate F. Boys served
2 yrs in small army.
5) senate- in ancient Rome, the supreme governing body, was originally made up only of
aristocrats.
T:
1) twelve table(451 BCE)- was a written code of Rom’s law that enabled the plebeians to
understand the law. The accused could use this to defend themselves in front of a judge.
U:
1) United Nations(1945)-Its goal was to work for world peace and the betterment of
humanity. It's based on democratic principles, where nations come together to discuss
and solve problems peacefully. One of the UN's most important contributions is the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (This document is based on democratic ideas
and sets global standards for basic rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and security),
adopted in 1948.
V:hjbk
W:
1) William and Mary-In 1689 William and Mary were crowned co-rulers of England;
Glorious Revolution-he bloodless overthrow of the English king James II and his
replacement by William and Mary.
Short Answer: Carefully answer each question in paragraph form or bullet points with detail,
using information from the text. Summarize using your own words.

1. (A) Explain how Copernicus’, Brahe’s, Kepler’s, and Galileo’s discoveries built upon
each other.

Copernicus: proposed the heliocentric (planets revolve around the sun) model,
challenging the prevailing geocentric view.

Brahe: gathered precise/accurate data on planetary positions, which were crucial for the
next steps.

Kepler: used Brahe’s data to establish the laws of planetary motion, proving that planets
orbit the Sun in ellipses.

Galileo: provided observational evidence(used the first ever telescope) that supported
the heliocentric model, helping to shift scientific consensus despite facing opposition
from the Church; discovered the moons of Jupiter.

-Galileo’s findings frightened both Catholic and Protestant leaders because they went
against church teaching and authority. If people believed the church could be wrong
about this, they could question other church teachings as well. Under the threat of
torture, he knelt before the cardinals and read aloud a signed confession. In it, he
agreed that the ideas of Copernicus were false.
2. (B) How might such new ideas affect other aspects of life and society for people?
Be specific.

1） Challenge to Church Authority: The heliocentric theory directly contradicted the

teachings of the Catholic Church, which upheld the geocentric model based on scripture
and the works of Aristotle and Ptolemy. This created a significant challenge to the
Church’s authority as the ultimate source of knowledge. If the Church could be wrong
about the structure of the universe, people might begin to question other religious
teachings, leading to a decline in the Church's influence over intellectual and daily life.

2） Human Perspective: The realization that the Earth was not the center of the universe
had a profound impact on how people viewed humanity’s place in the cosmos. This shift
from a geocentric to a heliocentric model led to a humbling recognition that humans
were not the focal point of creation, which could inspire new philosophical inquiries into
the nature of existence, the universe, and human purpose.

3） Authority and Governance: The challenge to the Church’s authority by scientific

findings could also influence ideas about political authority. If traditional sources of
power (like the Church) could be questioned, so too could the divine right of kings and
other forms of autocratic rule. This line of thinking contributed to the development of
political philosophies that emphasized individual rights, democracy, and the separation
of powers.

4） Scientific Advancements: The acceptance of the heliocentric model and the scientific
method encouraged further exploration and discovery in other fields, such as physics,
biology, and chemistry. This period of scientific revolution led to numerous technological
innovations, including improvements in navigation, engineering, and medicine, which
had direct impacts on daily life.

3. Compare and contrast the views of Thomas Hobbes, Catherine the Great, and
John Locke.
View on Human Nature: Hobbes believed humans are naturally selfish and in need of
strong control; Locke believed humans are rational and capable of self-government;
Catherine had a mixed view, recognizing the importance of both reason and authority.
Government Authority: Hobbes supported absolute monarchy; Catherine the Great
also ruled as an absolute monarch but incorporated some Enlightenment ideas; Locke
supported a limited government based on the consent of the governed. Social
Contract: Hobbes believed in a social contract where people surrender their rights to a
sovereign for security; Locke believed in a social contract where the government exists
to protect natural rights; Catherine did not explicitly articulate a social contract but
believed in reforms guided by the monarch.

4. List the main ideas of (A)Baron de Montesquieu, (B)Voltaire, (C)Jean Jacques

Rousseau, and (D)Mary Wollstonecraft.
1) Baron de Montesquieu- separation of powers

2) Voltaire(social contract)- Freedom of Speech: Voltaire was a strong advocate for

freedom of speech and expression. He famously stated, "I do not agree with what
you have to say, but I'll defend to the death your right to say it." Religious
Tolerance: Voltaire criticized religious intolerance and advocated for freedom of
religion. He believed that people should be able to practice their religion without
persecution. Critique of Authority: Voltaire was known for his sharp criticism of the
established church and the aristocracy, using satire to expose corruption, hypocrisy,
and abuses of power.
3)
4) Jean Jacques Rousseau- Social Contract: Rousseau's most famous work, "The
Social Contract," proposed that governments should be based on the general will of
the people. He believed that individuals agree to form a society and government to
protect their collective interests. Popular Sovereignty: Rousseau argued that true
political authority lies with the people, and government should reflect the collective
will of the citizens. Natural Freedom: He believed that humans are naturally good
but are corrupted by society. Rousseau advocated for a return to a more natural
state where people could live freely and harmoniously.

5. Understand the significance of the following important documents (A)Magna Carta

(B)English Bill of Rights (C)U.S. Declaration of Independence (D) U.S. Bill of Rights
(E) French Declaration of Rights of Man (F) The Ten Commandments
1）Magna Carta- The significance of the Magna Carta lies in its establishment of
fundamental principles that limited the power of the English monarchy and laid the
groundwork for individual rights and liberties.
2) English Bill of Rights(a formal summary of the rights and liberties believed essential
for the people.)- The English Bill of Rights is significant for limiting the monarchy’s
power and safeguarding individual rights, such as free speech in Parliament and
protection from cruel punishment. It ensured that the monarch could not act without
Parliament's consent, laying the foundation for constitutional monarchy and the rule of
law. This document also influenced the American and French revolutions, contributing to
the development of modern democracy.

3) U.S. Declaration of Independence - The U.S. Declaration of Independence was

important because it showed that it was possible for people to overthrow a government
they believed was unfair and to establish a new government based on the principles of
freedom and equality. This idea inspired many people in other countries, including
France. When the French Revolution started, the people in France were trying to fight
against the unfair privileges of the nobility and the clergy (church leaders), who didn’t
have to pay taxes, while the common people did. The French were inspired by what the
American colonies had done when they declared their independence from Britain. The
U.S. Declaration of Independence influenced the French Revolution, especially in the
creation of the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen," a document that
declared the rights of the French people. This French declaration, similar to the
American one, emphasized important rights like liberty and equality. So, the significance
of the U.S. Declaration of Independence is that it helped spread the ideas of democracy
and individual rights, inspiring other countries like France to fight for similar values.

4) Ten Commandments (a code of moral laws believed to have been given by God
to Moses; 1300 and 1200 BCE)-The significance of the Ten Commandments, based on
the context provided, lies in their role as foundational moral principles that influenced
both Jewish and Christian teachings. Jesus of Nazareth, who was both a Jew and a
Roman subject, incorporated the principles of the Ten Commandments into his
teachings, emphasizing monotheism and moral conduct. The Ten Commandments
provided a moral framework that Jesus expanded upon, stressing love for God,
neighbors, enemies, and oneself. These commandments, therefore, served as an
important ethical foundation for the development of Christianity and its teachings on
personal morality, social justice, and the relationship between individuals and God.