HEXCO: COMPUTER

SKILLS
CENTRE: DENMAK TRAINING SERVICES
MODULE CODE: 321/22/M05
ZNQF LEVEL: 4
DURATION: 150 HRS

Tatenda Jairos Mazana

Table of Contents
Definition of Computer....................................................................................................................... 1
Functions of Computer ....................................................................................................................... 1
Difference Between RAM and ROM ................................................................................................. 2
Evolution of Computers from First Generation to Date ................................................................. 3
Description of Types of Computers ................................................................................................... 4
Impact of Computers in Our Everyday Life .................................................................................... 6
Definition of Computer Systems Architecture ................................................................................. 7
Main Functions of Internal Components of a Computer System Unit .......................................... 7
Distinguishing Between Internal and External Data Storage Media ............................................. 9
Care and Handling of Computer Equipment and Components ................................................... 10
Necessary Conditions for an Ideal Computer Room Environment .............................................. 10
Computer Security ............................................................................................................................ 11
Data Integrity .................................................................................................................................... 11
Measures to Ensure Data Security .................................................................................................. 11
Major Threats to Information Systems/Computers ...................................................................... 11
Computer Crime/Fraud ................................................................................................................... 12
Measures to Combat Computer Crime ........................................................................................... 12
Disaster Recovery Plan (DRP) ......................................................................................................... 12
Computer Virus ................................................................................................................................ 12
Types of Computer Viruses.............................................................................................................. 13
How Computers are Infected by Viruses ........................................................................................ 13
Types of Anti-Virus Packages .......................................................................................................... 13
Definition of Software ....................................................................................................................... 14
Types of Software .............................................................................................................................. 14
Definition and Explanation of Operating System .......................................................................... 15
Main Differences Between DOS and Windows Operating Systems ............................................. 15
User Interfaces .................................................................................................................................. 15
Basic DOS Operations ...................................................................................................................... 16
Navigating a Windows User Interface ............................................................................................ 16
Descriptions of System Types........................................................................................................... 16
Installing an Operating System ....................................................................................................... 17
Definition and Explanation of Functions of Application Software .............................................. 18

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 Sources of Application Software ...................................................................................................... 18
Software Policy and Its Implications ............................................................................................... 20
Software Copyright and Software Licenses .................................................................................... 20
Application Packages ........................................................................................................................ 20
Navigating and Performing Basic Operations ................................................................................ 21
Installing Application Packages ....................................................................................................... 21
Definition of Computer Network ..................................................................................................... 22
Advantages and Disadvantages of Networking .............................................................................. 22
Types of Networks............................................................................................................................. 23
Types of Network Topologies ........................................................................................................... 23
Network Operating System (NOS) .................................................................................................. 26
Transmission Media.......................................................................................................................... 27
Structure of a coaxial cable .................................................................................................................. 28
Description of the Internet ............................................................................................................... 30

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UNIT 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
This unit covers
 Definition of computer
 Functions of computer
 Difference between RAM and ROM
 Evolution of computers from first generation to date
 Description of the following types of computers:
 Mini computers
 Mainframe computers
 Macro computers
 Super computers
 Description of the impact of computers in our everyday life

Definition of Computer

A computer is an electronic device that processes data, performing calculations and operations
according to a set of instructions called programs. It can store, retrieve, and manipulate data,
making it useful for a variety of tasks.

Functions of Computer

1. Input: Accepting data and instructions from users or other devices.

2. Processing: Performing operations on the input data based on specified instructions.
3. Storage: Saving data and instructions for immediate or future use.
4. Output: Delivering processed data to users or other devices in a usable format.
5. Control: Managing and coordinating the activities of all components within the system.

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Basic Functions of a computer

Difference Between RAM and ROM

 RAM (Random Access Memory):

o Type: Volatile memory (data is lost when power is off).
o Function: Temporarily stores data and programs currently in use for quick access.
 ROM (Read-Only Memory):
o Type: Non-volatile memory (data is retained even when power is off).
o Function: Permanently stores essential data and instructions, such as firmware.

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Evolution of Computers from First Generation to Date

1. First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum tubes; large, expensive machines (e.g., ENIAC).
2. Second Generation (1956-1963): Transistors replaced vacuum tubes; smaller, faster,
more reliable.
3. Third Generation (1964-1971): Integrated circuits (ICs) introduced; further
miniaturization and efficiency.
4. Fourth Generation (1971-Present): Microprocessors; personal computers became
common; advancements in software.
5. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Based on artificial intelligence; quantum
computing and advanced parallel processing.

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Description of Types of Computers

1. Personal Computers (PCs): Designed for individual use; includes desktops and laptops.

2. Mainframe Computers: Large, powerful systems primarily used by large organizations

for bulk data processing, transaction processing, and critical applications.
 Performance: Capable of handling vast amounts of input and output (I/O) operations,
often supporting thousands of users simultaneously.
 Architecture: Typically have a centralized architecture that allows for high reliability
and security.
 Examples: IBM zSeries, Fujitsu GS21.
 Uses: Banking, insurance, large-scale enterprise resource planning (ERP), and large
databases.

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3. Mini-Computers: Mini computers, often referred to as "minicomputers," were a
significant development in the evolution of computing technology. They emerged in the
1960s and 1970s as a middle ground between mainframe computers and microcomputers.

Characteristics

 Size: Smaller than mainframes but larger than personal computers. Typically, they
could fit into a single room.
 Performance: Capable of handling multiple tasks and supporting several users
simultaneously, though less powerful than mainframes.
 Architecture: Often featured a more decentralized architecture, enabling them to be
used in various applications without requiring massive resources.

4. Macro-Computers: The term "macro computer" is not widely recognized in the same
way as mainframe or mini computers. However, it can sometimes refer to powerful
computing systems that exceed the capabilities of traditional microcomputers but are

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 generally less powerful than mainframes. Here’s a breakdown of how macro computers
might be understood in the context of computing:

Characteristics

 Size: Larger than typical personal computers but smaller than mainframes.
 Performance: Designed to handle more complex tasks than standard
microcomputers, often offering better processing power and memory.
 Architecture: May employ multi-core processors and advanced architectures to
optimize performance for specific applications.

Impact of Computers in Our Everyday Life

 Communication: Facilitates instant messaging, video calls, and social networking.

 Education: Enhances learning through online resources, e-learning platforms, and
educational software.
 Business: Streamlines operations, improves productivity, and enables remote work.
 Healthcare: Assists in patient management, diagnostics, and medical research.
 Entertainment: Provides access to games, streaming services, and digital media.
 Daily Tasks: Helps in managing schedules, banking, and shopping through various apps
and platforms.

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UNIT 2
1.2 COMPUTER EQUIPMENT AND COMPUTER SYSTEM
ARCHITECTURE
This unit covers
 Definition of computer systems architecture
 Stating of the main functions of each of the under-listed internal components of a
computer system unit:
 Motherboard (ROM, RAM, Processor, Chipsets, Expansion slots)
 Power supply unit (AT & ATX)
 Hard drive
 CD/DVD-ROM drive
 Distinguishing between internal and external data storage media used with computers.
 Care and handling of computer equipment and components
 State the necessary conditions for an ideal computer room environment

Definition of Computer Systems Architecture

Computer systems architecture refers to the conceptual model that defines the structure,
behavior, and interaction of the various components within a computer system. It encompasses
both hardware and software components, detailing how they work together to perform tasks.
This architecture includes the design of the processor, memory hierarchy, data storage,
input/output systems, and communication protocols.

Main Functions of Internal Components of a Computer System Unit

Motherboard

 ROM (Read-Only Memory): Stores firmware, including the BIOS, which is essential
for booting the computer and performing hardware initialization.
 RAM (Random Access Memory): Temporary storage that holds data and instructions
currently in use by the CPU, allowing for quick access and processing.
 Processor (CPU): The central processing unit executes instructions from programs,
performs calculations, and manages data flow within the computer.
 Chipsets: Control data flow between the CPU, RAM, and other peripherals. They
determine system performance and capabilities.
 Expansion Slots: Allow additional cards (e.g., graphics cards, sound cards) to be added
to the motherboard, enhancing the computer's functionality.

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Power Supply Unit (PSU)

 AT (Advanced Technology): An older standard for power supplies, typically not used in
modern computers.
 ATX (Advanced Technology eXtended): A more current standard that provides better
power management, supports newer hardware, and allows for various form factors.

Hard Drive

 A permanent storage device that stores the operating system, applications, and user data.
It retains data even when the computer is powered off.

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CD/DVD-ROM Drive

 An optical drive that reads data from CDs and DVDs. It is used for software installation,
media playback, and data storage.

Distinguishing Between Internal and External Data Storage Media

 Internal Storage Media: These are built into the computer system, such as hard drives
(HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs), and optical drives. They provide long-term data
storage and are typically faster than external options.
 External Storage Media: These are separate devices that can be connected to the
computer via USB or other ports. Examples include external hard drives, USB flash
drives, and memory cards. They offer portability and additional storage capacity.

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Care and Handling of Computer Equipment and Components

 Keep Equipment Clean: Regularly dust and clean components to prevent overheating
and performance issues.
 Avoid Liquid Exposure: Keep liquids away from computer equipment to prevent
damage.
 Handle Components Carefully: Use anti-static wrist straps when touching internal
components to prevent static discharge damage.
 Proper Ventilation: Ensure that systems are placed in well-ventilated areas to avoid
overheating.
 Follow Manufacturer Guidelines: Adhere to instructions for installation and
maintenance provided by manufacturers.

Necessary Conditions for an Ideal Computer Room Environment

 Temperature Control: Maintain a stable temperature (typically between 20-24°C or 68-

75°F) to prevent overheating.
 Humidity Control: Keep humidity levels between 30% and 50% to avoid static
electricity and corrosion.
 Adequate Ventilation: Ensure good airflow to dissipate heat generated by equipment.
 Cleanliness: Keep the environment dust-free to minimize the risk of hardware damage.
 Security: Implement physical security measures to protect equipment and data.
 Power Supply Stability: Use uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) to protect against
power fluctuations and outages.

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UNIT 3
1.3 COMPUTER SECURITY
This unit covers
 Definition of the following
 Computer security
 Data integrity
 Description of the measures to ensure data security
 Description of major threats to Information Systems/ Computers
 Definition of computer crime/ fraud and describe the different types of computer
crime/ fraud
 Describe the measures to compact computer crime
 Describe a Disaster Recovery Plan (DRP)
 Define computer virus and give examples
 Describe the types of computer viruses
 Describe how computers are infected by computer viruses
 State and describe the types of anti-virus packages

Computer Security

Definition: Computer security refers to the protection of computer systems and information from
harm, theft, and unauthorized access. It encompasses tools and policies designed to safeguard
data integrity, confidentiality, and availability.

Data Integrity

Definition: Data integrity is the accuracy, consistency, and reliability of data over its lifecycle. It
ensures that data remains unaltered during storage, transfer, and processing, and is accurate and
trustworthy.

Measures to Ensure Data Security

1. Encryption: Converting data into a coded format to prevent unauthorized access.

2. Access Control: Implementing user authentication and authorization to restrict access to
sensitive data.
3. Firewalls: Using hardware or software to block unauthorized access to networks.
4. Regular Software Updates: Keeping systems updated to protect against vulnerabilities.
5. Backups: Regularly saving copies of data to recover from data loss incidents.

Major Threats to Information Systems/Computers

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 1. Malware: Malicious software, including viruses, worms, and Trojans, designed to harm
systems.
2. Phishing: Fraudulent attempts to obtain sensitive information by impersonating
trustworthy entities.
3. Denial of Service Attacks (DoS): Overloading systems to make them unavailable to
users.
4. Insider Threats: Employees or contractors misusing access to harm the organization.
5. Social Engineering: Manipulating individuals into divulging confidential information.

Computer Crime/Fraud

Definition: Computer crime or fraud refers to illegal activities conducted through computers or
networks, targeting systems or data.

Types of Computer Crime/Fraud:

1. Hacking: Unauthorized access to systems or networks.

2. Identity Theft: Stealing personal information to impersonate someone else.
3. Credit Card Fraud: Illegitimate use of credit card information.
4. Ransomware Attacks: Holding data hostage for ransom.
5. Data Breaches: Unauthorized access to confidential data.

Measures to Combat Computer Crime

1. Employee Training: Educating staff on security practices and awareness.

2. Incident Response Plans: Preparing for and responding to security incidents swiftly.
3. Regular Audits: Conducting assessments to identify vulnerabilities.
4. Security Software: Utilizing firewalls, anti-virus, and anti-malware solutions.
5. Legal Compliance: Adhering to laws and regulations regarding data protection.

Disaster Recovery Plan (DRP)

Definition: A Disaster Recovery Plan is a documented process or set of procedures to recover

and protect a business IT infrastructure in the event of a disaster. It includes strategies for data
backup, system restoration, and communication during a crisis.

Computer Virus

Definition: A computer virus is a type of malicious software that replicates itself by attaching to
other programs or files. It can cause harm to systems, corrupt files, and spread to other devices.

Examples:

 ILOVEYOU Virus: A worm that spread via email, causing damage globally.
 Melissa Virus: Targeted Microsoft Word documents and spread through email
attachments.

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Types of Computer Viruses

1. File Infector Viruses: Attach to executable files and activate when the program runs.
2. Macro Viruses: Infect applications like Microsoft Word or Excel through macros.
3. Polymorphic Viruses: Change their code to avoid detection by antivirus software.
4. Boot Sector Viruses: Infect the master boot record to load before the operating system.
5. Web Scripting Viruses: Spread via web pages and exploit browser vulnerabilities.

How Computers are Infected by Viruses

1. Email Attachments: Opening infected files from unknown senders.

2. Downloading Software: Installing applications from untrusted sources.
3. Removable Media: Using infected USB drives or external hard disks.
4. Internet Browsing: Visiting compromised websites or clicking on malicious links.

Types of Anti-Virus Packages

 Standalone Antivirus Software: This traditional type of antivirus tool focuses solely on
detecting and removing malware from your device.
 Internet Security Suites: These packages offer additional features such as firewalls,
parental controls, and spam filters.
 Cloud-based Antivirus Solutions: These solutions use cloud technology to detect and
remove malware.
 Endpoint Protection Platforms: These packages are designed for businesses and offer
advanced security features such as data encryption and device management.
 Mobile Antivirus Applications: These packages are designed specifically for mobile
devices.

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UNIT 4
1.4 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
This unit covers
 Definition of software
 Explanation of the following types of software:
 System software
 Application software
 Definition and explanation of operating system
 State and explain the main differences between DOS and Windows operating system
 Description of the following user interfaces:
 Command Line Interface
 Graphical User Interface
 Perform basic DOS operations
 Navigate a Windows User Interface
 Describe the following:
 Multiprogramming
 Distributed systems
 Real time systems
 Online systems
 Batch processing systems
 Install an operating system

Definition of Software

Software refers to a set of instructions, data, or programs that enable a computer to perform
specific tasks. It is the non-tangible component of a computer system, contrasting with hardware,
which is the physical part.

Types of Software

System Software

Definition: System software is designed to manage the hardware components of a computer and
provide a platform for running application software.

Examples:

 Operating Systems (e.g., Windows, macOS, Linux)

 Device Drivers: Allow operating systems to communicate with hardware devices.

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  Utility Programs: Perform maintenance tasks, such as disk management and antivirus
scanning.

Application Software

Definition: Application software is designed to perform specific tasks or applications for users.
It relies on system software to function.

Examples:

 Productivity Software: Microsoft Office, Google Docs

 Web Browsers: Chrome, Firefox
 Media Players: VLC, Windows Media Player

Definition and Explanation of Operating System

Operating System (OS): An operating system is system software that acts as an intermediary
between users and computer hardware. It manages hardware resources, provides services for
application software, and enables user interaction.

Functions:

 Process Management: Controls the execution of programs and multitasking.

 Memory Management: Allocates and manages memory space for applications.
 File System Management: Organizes data storage and access.
 Device Management: Interfaces with hardware devices and manages input/output
operations.

Main Differences Between DOS and Windows Operating Systems

Feature DOS (Disk Operating System) Windows Operating System

User Interface Command Line Interface (CLI) Graphical User Interface (GUI)
Multitasking Limited to single-tasking Supports multitasking
File Management Simple file structure and Advanced file management with
commands GUI
User Interaction Requires command-line input Allows mouse and touch
interactions
System Primarily 16-bit and 32-bit 32-bit and 64-bit architecture
Architecture

User Interfaces

Command Line Interface (CLI)

Description: A Command Line Interface allows users to interact with a computer by typing
commands into a console or terminal. It requires knowledge of specific commands and syntax.

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Advantages:

 More control and flexibility for advanced users.

 Faster execution of commands for experienced users.

Disadvantages:

 Steeper learning curve for beginners.

 Less intuitive than graphical interfaces.

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Description: A Graphical User Interface uses visual elements like windows, icons, and menus to
enable user interaction. Users can navigate using a mouse or touch gestures.

Advantages:

 User-friendly and intuitive.

 Easier for beginners to use.

Disadvantages:

 May consume more system resources.

 Limited control for advanced users compared to CLI.

Basic DOS Operations

1. Listing Files: DIR – Displays a list of files and directories in the current directory.
2. Changing Directory: CD [directory_name] – Changes the current directory to the
specified one.
3. Creating a Directory: MD [directory_name] – Creates a new directory.
4. Deleting a File: DEL [file_name] – Deletes the specified file.
5. Copying Files: COPY [source] [destination] – Copies files from one location to
another.

Navigating a Windows User Interface

1. Start Menu: Access applications, settings, and shut down options.

2. Taskbar: View open applications and access quick launch icons.
3. File Explorer: Navigate through files and folders using a hierarchical view.
4. Control Panel/Settings: Manage system settings and configurations.

Descriptions of System Types

Multiprogramming

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Description: Multiprogramming is a method that allows multiple programs to run concurrently
on a single processor by managing them in memory, increasing CPU utilization.

Distributed Systems

Description: Distributed systems consist of multiple interconnected computers that work

together to achieve a common goal. They share resources and communicate over a network,
providing scalability and redundancy.

Real-Time Systems

Description: Real-time systems are designed to process data and provide results within a
guaranteed time frame. They are used in applications where timing is critical, such as in
embedded systems.

Online Systems

Description: Online systems provide immediate access to data and services over the internet.
They are typically interactive and support real-time transactions, like online banking.

Batch Processing Systems

Description: Batch processing systems execute a series of jobs or transactions in groups

(batches) without user interaction. They are efficient for large volumes of data that can be
processed without immediate feedback.

Installing an Operating System

Steps:

1. Prepare Installation Media: Create a bootable USB drive or DVD with the OS
installation files.
2. Backup Data: Ensure all important data is backed up before installation.
3. Boot from Installation Media: Restart the computer and boot from the USB or DVD.
4. Follow Installation Prompts: Choose installation options, partitions, and settings as
prompted.
5. Install Drivers and Updates: After installation, install necessary drivers and system
updates for optimal performance.

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UNIT 5
1.5 APPLICATION PACKAGES SOFTWARE
This unit covers
 Definition and explanation of functions of an application software
 Description of the following sources of application software giving advantages and
disadvantages
 Customized/ in house software
 Off the shelf software
 Open-source software
 Shareware
 Freeware
 Description of software policy and its implications
 Description of software copyright and software licenses
 State and describe the following application packages giving examples:
 Word processing software
 Spreadsheet software
 Database software
 Presentation software
 Navigate and perform basic operations of the above listed application packages
 Install application packages

Definition and Explanation of Functions of Application Software

Application Software: Application software refers to programs designed to perform specific

tasks for users. Unlike system software, which manages hardware and provides a platform for
applications, application software directly helps users accomplish tasks.

Functions:

1. Productivity: Enhances efficiency in tasks like document creation, data analysis, and
presentations.
2. Communication: Facilitates communication through email, messaging, and
collaboration tools.
3. Data Management: Helps organize, analyze, and manage data effectively through
databases and spreadsheets.
4. Design and Creativity: Provides tools for graphic design, video editing, and other
creative tasks.
5. Entertainment: Offers games and multimedia experiences for leisure.

Sources of Application Software

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Customized/In-House Software

 Description: Software specifically developed for a particular organization to meet its

unique requirements.
 Advantages:
o Tailored to the specific needs of the organization.
o Greater control over features and functionality.
 Disadvantages:
o High development and maintenance costs.
o Longer time to deploy compared to off-the-shelf solutions.

Off-the-Shelf Software

 Description: Pre-packaged software available for general use by multiple users or

organizations.
 Advantages:
o Cost-effective and readily available.
o Quick implementation and support from vendors.
 Disadvantages:
o May not meet all specific needs of an organization.
o Less flexibility for customization.

Open-Source Software

 Description: Software with source code that can be freely used, modified, and distributed
by anyone.
 Advantages:
o No licensing fees and potential for customization.
o Active community support and regular updates.
 Disadvantages:
o Requires technical expertise to modify.
o Support may not be as reliable as commercial software.

Shareware

 Description: Software that is distributed on a trial basis, allowing users to evaluate it

before purchasing.
 Advantages:
o Users can try before they buy.
o Often lower initial cost than full software.
 Disadvantages:
o May have limited features in trial mode.
o Users are expected to pay for continued use.

Freeware

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  Description: Software that is available for use at no cost, but may have restrictions on
modification and redistribution.
 Advantages:
o Free to use with no costs involved.
o Often sufficient for basic needs.
 Disadvantages:
o Limited features compared to paid versions.
o No guarantee of support or updates.

Software Policy and Its Implications

Software Policy: A software policy outlines the rules and guidelines for the use, management,
and licensing of software within an organization. It helps ensure compliance with legal
requirements and promotes responsible software usage.

Implications:

 Legal Compliance: Reduces the risk of software piracy and copyright infringement.
 Resource Management: Encourages efficient use of software resources.
 Security: Protects the organization from vulnerabilities associated with unlicensed or
outdated software.

Software Copyright and Software Licenses

Software Copyright: Copyright protects the original works of authorship, including software. It
grants the creator exclusive rights to reproduce, distribute, and modify the software.

Software Licenses: A software license is a legal agreement between the software creator and the
user, specifying how the software can be used.

Types of Licenses:

1. Proprietary License: Restricts the user from modifying or distributing the software.
2. Open Source License: Allows users to modify and share the software under certain
conditions.
3. Freeware License: Allows free use but often restricts modification and redistribution.

Application Packages

Word Processing Software

Description: Software that allows users to create, edit, format, and print documents.
Examples: Microsoft Word, Google Docs.

Spreadsheet Software

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Description: Software used for organizing, analyzing, and storing data in tabular form.
Examples: Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets.

Database Software

Description: Software designed to create, manage, and manipulate databases.

Examples: Microsoft Access, MySQL.

Presentation Software

Description: Software used to create visual presentations.

Examples: Microsoft PowerPoint, Google Slides.

Navigating and Performing Basic Operations

Word Processing Software

 Basic Operations: Create, save, open, format text, insert images, and print documents.

Spreadsheet Software

 Basic Operations: Create spreadsheets, enter data, use formulas, create charts, and save
files.

Database Software

 Basic Operations: Create tables, enter records, run queries, and generate reports.

Presentation Software

 Basic Operations: Create slides, add text and images, apply transitions, and present
slides.

Installing Application Packages

Steps:

1. Download or Insert Media: Obtain the installation files from a website or physical
media.
2. Run Installer: Double-click the installation file or insert the installation media.
3. Follow Installation Prompts: Select installation options, such as destination folder and
additional features.
4. Activate Software: Enter product keys or log in if required.
5. Complete Installation: Finish the installation and launch the application.

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UNIT 6
1.6 COMPUTER NETWORKING
This unit covers
 Definition of computer network
 State the advantages and disadvantages of networking
 Describe the following networks:
 LAN (Local Area Network)
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN (Wide Area network)
 Describe the following types of network topologies:
 Bus
 Star
 Ring
 Mesh
 Hybrid
 Describe Network Operating System (NOS) and state its features
 Describe the following transmission media
 Guided/ wired
 Twisted pair
 Coaxial cable
 Fibre optic
 Unguided/ Wireless media
 WIFI
 Bluetooth
 Infrared
 Microwave
 Describe the Internet and state advantages and disadvantages of the internet

Definition of Computer Network

A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers and devices that can

communicate and share resources, such as files, applications, and internet access. Networks can
vary in size and complexity, ranging from small local networks to vast global systems.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Networking

Advantages

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 1. Resource Sharing: Allows multiple users to share hardware (printers, servers) and
software (applications, files).
2. Communication: Facilitates communication through email, messaging, and video
conferencing.
3. Centralized Data Management: Enables centralized data storage and management,
improving data integrity and security.
4. Cost Efficiency: Reduces costs by sharing resources and minimizing hardware needs.
5. Scalability: Networks can be easily expanded by adding new devices or users.

Disadvantages

1. Security Risks: Vulnerable to unauthorized access, data breaches, and cyberattacks.

2. Complexity: Setting up and maintaining a network can be complex and require
specialized knowledge.
3. Reliability: A failure in one part of the network can affect the entire network's
performance.
4. Cost: Initial setup costs can be high, especially for larger networks.
5. Maintenance: Requires ongoing maintenance and updates to ensure optimal performance
and security.

Types of Networks

LAN (Local Area Network)

 Description: A LAN connects computers and devices within a limited geographical area,
such as a home, school, or office building.
 Characteristics: High data transfer rates, low latency, and typically uses Ethernet or Wi-
Fi.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

 Description: A MAN covers a larger geographical area than a LAN but is smaller than a
WAN, typically spanning a city or a large campus.
 Characteristics: Higher data transfer rates than WANs, used to connect multiple LANs
within a metropolitan area.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

 Description: A WAN connects computers and devices over a large geographical area,
such as cities, states, or countries.
 Characteristics: Lower data transfer rates compared to LANs, using leased
telecommunication lines or satellite links.

Types of Network Topologies

Bus Topology

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  Description: All devices are connected to a single central cable (the bus).
 Advantages: Easy to install and requires less cable.
 Disadvantages: A failure in the bus can bring down the entire network.

Star Topology

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  Description: All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.
 Advantages: Easy to add or remove devices; a failure in one device does not affect
others.
 Disadvantages: If the central hub fails, the entire network goes down.

Ring Topology

 Description: Each device is connected to two other devices, forming a circular pathway
for data.
 Advantages: Data travels in one direction, reducing the chances of packet collisions.
 Disadvantages: A failure in any device or connection can disrupt the entire network.

Mesh Topology

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  Description: Every device is connected to multiple other devices, providing multiple
pathways for data.
 Advantages: High redundancy and reliability; if one connection fails, data can take
another path.
 Disadvantages: Expensive and complex to install and maintain.

Hybrid Topology

 Description: A combination of two or more different topologies (e.g., star-bus).

 Advantages: Flexible and scalable; can be designed to meet specific needs.
 Disadvantages: Complexity in design and maintenance.

Network Operating System (NOS)

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Definition: A Network Operating System is software that manages network resources and allows
multiple devices to communicate and share data.

Features:

1. User Management: Controls user access and permissions.

2. File and Print Services: Manages file storage and printing tasks over the network.
3. Security: Provides authentication and authorization services.
4. Network Management: Monitors and manages network performance and resources.
5. Support for Multiple Protocols: Enables communication between devices using
different protocols.

Transmission Media

Guided/Wired Media

1. Twisted Pair:

o Description: Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together.

o Uses: Common in LANs; used for telephone and internet connections.

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 o Advantages: Inexpensive and easy to install.
o Disadvantages: Limited distance and susceptible to electromagnetic interference.
2. Coaxial Cable:
o Description: Composed of a central wire surrounded by insulation and a metal
shield.
o Uses: Television distribution and broadband internet.
o Advantages: Better shielding against interference than twisted pair.
o Disadvantages: More expensive and bulkier than twisted pair.

A coaxial cable is an electrical cable with a copper conductor and insulating

shielding, it also has a braided metal mesh that prevents crosstalk and signal
interference. This entire setup is protected by another layer of plastic to fully
secure the cable.

Structure of a coaxial cable

 Copper conductor: this is the central conductor, through which the data is transmitted.
 Insulator: This is a copper-coated dielectric plastic insulation, used to maintain a gap
between the conductor and the shield.
 Metal braided mesh: helps protect the conductor from electromagnetic interference.
 Protective plastic layer: used to prevent the inner layers from being damaged.

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3. Fibre Optic:
o Description: Uses glass or plastic fibers to transmit data as light signals.
o Uses: High-speed internet and long-distance telecommunications.
o Advantages: High bandwidth, long-distance transmission, and immunity to
electromagnetic interference.
o Disadvantages: More expensive and fragile than other types of cables.

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Unguided/Wireless Media

1. WIFI:
o Description: Wireless technology that allows devices to connect to a network
using radio waves.
o Uses: Home and office networks.
o Advantages: Convenient and allows mobility.
o Disadvantages: Limited range and security vulnerabilities.
2. Bluetooth:
o Description: A short-range wireless technology for connecting devices.
o Uses: Connecting peripherals, such as headphones and keyboards.
o Advantages: Low power consumption and easy pairing.
o Disadvantages: Limited range (typically up to 100 meters).
3. Infrared:
o Description: Uses infrared radiation to transmit data.
o Uses: Remote controls and short-range data transmission between devices.
o Advantages: Simple and cost-effective for short distances.
o Disadvantages: Requires line of sight and limited range.
4. Microwave:
o Description: Uses microwave signals for long-distance communication.
o Uses: Satellite communications and point-to-point links.
o Advantages: High data rates and can cover long distances.
o Disadvantages: Affected by weather conditions and requires a clear line of sight.

Description of the Internet

Definition: The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers that communicate

using standardized protocols (TCP/IP). It allows for the sharing of information and services
across vast distances.

Advantages:

1. Access to Information: Provides vast resources and information on any topic.

2. Communication: Enables instant communication through email, messaging, and video
conferencing.
3. E-commerce: Facilitates online shopping and business transactions.
4. Social Connectivity: Connects people globally through social media and forums.
5. Educational Resources: Offers online learning and educational materials.

Disadvantages:

1. Security Risks: Vulnerable to cyberattacks, identity theft, and data breaches.

2. Misinformation: The prevalence of false information and fake news.
3. Privacy Concerns: Risks related to data collection and surveillance.
4. Addiction and Distraction: Potential for internet addiction and decreased productivity.
5. Digital Divide: Inequities in internet access and usage across different demographics.

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