MODULE-1 : DIODE CIRCUITS AND TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER

LOW FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OR SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS:

Transistors are usually used to amplify ac signals. The biasing of a transistor uses dc voltages and currents to
determine the operating point, Q. The amplification of ac signal is achieved by superimposing the ac signal
on the biasing dc currents. It means that the operating point, Q, will change along with the ac variations of
the input signal.

A capacitor plays an important function in blocking a dc current and allowing ac signals to pass through it.
The impedance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to the frequency. As we know , the reactance of a
capacitor can be expressed as

For low frequencies the reactance will be large, in the limit at a frequency equal to zero (dc) the reactance
will be infinity, that is, open circuit to dc signal. On the other hand if the frequency is high, the reactance
will be small, in the limit at a frequency equal to infinitive, the reactance will be zero, that is, a short circuit
to ac signal. Then capacitors are used to separate the dc biasing of a transistor and the amplification of an ac
signal.

In low frequency region, we have seen that the amplifier

gain increases with frequency. Hence it can be modelled
as a high-pass RC circuit as shown in Figure aside.The
capacitor C represents the combined effect of coupling
and bypass capacitors and the resistance R represents the
combined effect of resistive elements of the amplifier
network.
The capacitive reactance is given by

i.e. at low frequencies the capacitor acts as an open circuit as shown in Figure below left. From the circuit
we find that, Vo = 0.

i.e., at high frequencies the capacitor acts as a short circuit as shown in Figure below right. Form the circuit,
we find that, Vo ≈Vi . Note that as the input signal frequency increases from zero to the mid band value, the
output voltage rises from zero to Vi and hence the gain from zero to one. Let us verify this fact using
mathematical analysis. Figure shown just below the frequency response of an amplifier.
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Mathematical Analysis:

Using voltage division rule in the circuit of topmost 1st Figure shown above, we have

Voltage gain is given by

..............................(1)

The magnitude of voltage gain is

..............................(2)

Now let us find the gain at different frequencies:

• When the capacitive reactance equals the resistance

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..............(3)

The corresponding decibel gain is

Note that this condition must give the cut-off frequency .From Equation (3) we get

The frequency given by the above equation is the lower cut-off frequency or the lower 3dB cut-off
frequency denoted by f1 .

Using this relation in Equations (1) and (2) we have

.........................(4)

From Equation (4) the phase angle of AV is

In magnitude and phase form, Equation (4) can be written as

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Figure shown below the plot of | AV | versus frequency.

LOW FREQUENCY MODELS OF TRANSISTOR:

In order to analyze the ac operation of a transistor amplifier, it is necessary to develop an ac equivalent

circuit for the transistor. This ac equivalent circuit is called the model of the transistor. The model of the
transistor is a combination of circuit elements, properly chosen, the best approximates the actual behaviour
of the transistor under specific operating conditions.

In order to obtain linear relation between input and output variables, small signal operation is assumed in the
development of transistor models. Small signal operation means that, the applied ac input signal causes a
small variation in output current and voltages about the Q point.

At low frequencies the junction capacitances of the transistor act as open circuits due to their high reactance.
Thus low frequency small signal models do not consider the effect of these junction capacitances. At high
frequencies the junction capacitances conduct appreciably due to their low reactance, providing a feedback
path from output to input. Thus high frequency small signal models takes in account the effect of Junction
capacitances.

The two most commonly used models of the transistor used in the analysis and design of transistor
amplifiers are:
(a) The hybrid model and
(b) The re model

In the hybrid model, the transistor is modelled based on what is happening at its terminals without regard for
the physical process taking place inside the transistor. Transistor data sheets provide the parameters of the
hybrid model in their listing, and analysis is simply a matter of inserting the equivalent circuit with the listed
values.
The re model is the more practical model. The important parameter, re of this model is determined by the
actual operating conditions rather than using a data sheet value. The re model does not include feedback
term, which in some cases is important.
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It is important to note that the hybrid model and the re model are the small signal low frequency models. The
hybrid π model is used almost exclusively for high frequency analysis. The re model is in fact a reduced
version of the hybrid π model.

re model analysis:

The re model of transistor in common base (CB) configuration:

Figure shown aside an npn-transistor in CB

configuration represented as a two port network. Since
the base terminal is present both in input and output
ports, the configuration is common base. It is
important to note that, in a transistor the directions of
Ib and Ic are same and always opposite to that of Ie.
For an npn-transistor Ie is out of the transistor as
indicated by the arrow on the emitter terminal and Ib
and Ic are into the transistor.

The emitter-base junction is equivalent to a p-n junction diode. Hence at the input, the common base
transistor can be represented by a p-n diode.

In common-base configuration the current gain alpha is given by

Note that the collector current Ic is controlled by the emitter current Ie. Hence at the output the common-base
transistor can be represented by a controlled current source.

Since Ic flows through the collector-base junction, the controlled current source apperars between the
collector and base terminals.
The re model of npn transistor in CB configuration is shown in Figure shown below left.
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For ac response, the diode can be replaced by its equivalent ac resistance, re . The ac resistance of emitter-
base diode is given as

The common-base re equivalent circuit is obtained by replacing the diode in Figure shown just above left by
its ac resistance re. This is shown in Figure just shown above right.
From the circuit of Figure shown just above right, let us find the following performance parameters:

• Input impedance Zi is given by:

Note that the input impedance is quite low, which is in the order of few tens of ohms.
• Output impedance Zo is α Ω, since the output circuit contains an ideal current source. The output
impedance is actually given by the slope of output characteristics. Typically it is in the range of 1 – 2
MΩ which is quite a high value.
• With RL connected between the output terminals, the voltage gain is given by

Since AV is positive, Vo and Vi are in phase. Also, due to low value of re , AV is quite high.
• With RL connected between the output terminals, the current gain is given by
I0
AI = = −α = −1
I1
Note that the magnitude of current gain is approximately unity.
re model of pnp transistor in CB configuration:
Figure (a) & (B) shown below the re model of pnp transistor in CB configuration. Note that for pnp
transistor, Ie is into the transistor. Therefore Ib and Ic are out of the transistor.

It can be verified that, all results obtained for CB amplifier using npn transistor can be applied for this case
also. Thus ac analysis of transistor amplifier is independent of the type of transistor (whether npn or
pnp) used in the circuit.
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The re model of Transistor in Common-Emitter (CE) Configuration:

Figure shown aside an npn transistor in CE

configuration represented as a two port network.
The input terminals are the base and emitter
terminals, and the output terminals are the
collector and emitter terminals. Note that the
emitter terminal is common between the input and
output ports. The input current is Ib and the output
current is Ic.

The emitter-base junction is equivalent to a p-n junction diode. Hence between the emitter and base
terminals, the common-emitter transistor can be modelled as a p-n diode. In common-emitter configuration
the current gain Beta is given by

Note that the collector current Ic is controlled by the base current Ib . Since Ic flows through the collector-
base junction, the controlled current source is connected between the collector and base terminals. The re
model is shown in Figure left bellow. For ac response, the diode can be replaced by its equivalent ac
resistance, re as shown in Figure right below.
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Input Impedance ( Zi ):

Note that the input impedance of transistor in CE configuration is β times the value of re. Stated
alternatively, a resistive element in the emitter leg is reflected into the input circuit with a multiplying
factor β .

For instance if re = 6.5 Ωand β = 200, the input impedance is

For the common-emitter configuration, typical values of Zi range from a few hundred ohms to the kilo ohms
range, with a maximum of about 6 kΩ to 7 kΩ.

Output Impedance ( Zo ):

The output impedance is given by the reciprocal of output characteristic. Typically it is in the range of 40 –
50 kΩ. Zo is also denoted by ro .

Voltage Gain ( AV ) and Current Gain ( AI ):

With RL connected between the output terminals, the voltage gain is given by

The negative sign implies that Vo and Vi are 180° out of phase. The magnitude of voltage gain is

Observe that due to low value of re and large value of β, the voltage and current gains are quite high.

re model of transistor in CE configuration including ro:

In CE configuration:
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(a) The input impedance is measured between the base and emitter terminals. Thus a resistance βre is
connected between the base and emitter terminals.
(b) The output resistance is measured between the collector and emitter terminals. Thus a resistance ro is
connected between the collector and emitter terminals.
(c) The emitter current Ie is given by

Note that the contribution of collector current to make emitter current is βIb.

Thus a controlled current source of current

βIb is connected between the collector and
emitter terminals. Figure shown aside the
re model of transistor in CE configuration
including the effect of ro.

Note: For common-collector (CC)

configuration, the model defined for the
CE configuration of Figure as shown
above is usually employed instead of
defining a separate model for the CC
configuration.

h-PARAMETER EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODEL OF BJT:

The h-parameter equivalent circuit model of a

transistor can be represented by a two-port network.
Figure shown aside ,a two-port network, where V1,
I1, V2 and I2 are the terminal voltages and current.

Assume I1 and V2 are independent variables, and V1

and I2 are dependent variables.

Then the values of V1 and I2 are expressed as

After taking total differential of the above equation, we obtain

................................(5)
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When the two-port network operates at the linear region, the partial derivatives become constant. Equations
of (5) can be written as

When the output terminals are short circuited (V2 = 0), hybrid parameters h11, and h21 are determined.

While the input terminals are open circuited (I1 = 0), hybrid parameters h12 and h22 are determined.

Figure shown below left, the hybrid equivalent circuit of a linear circuit. In case of a transistor, h11 = hi, h12 =
hr,h21 = hf and h22 = ho. The hybrid equivalent circuit of a transistor is shown in Figure below right

.
A bipolar junction transistor has three terminals, namely emitter, collector and base. A transistor has three
different configurations known as common-emitter, common-base and common-collector configurations. In
common-emitter configuration, the emitter is between input and output. Similarly, in common-base
configuration, the base is common between input and output. In common-collector configuration, the
collector is common between input and output. The corresponding h-parameters use a second subscript e, b,
c to indicate the particular configuration. For example, the hi parameter is represented by hie, hib and hic in
common emitter, common-base and common-collector configurations respectively.

Table shown below the h-parameters of a transistor in different configurations.

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Advantages of h-parameter:

The advantages of h-parameter representation of a transistor are given below:

1. The h-parameters of a transistor are real numbers at audio-frequency range. Therefore, the reactive part of
parameters are absent in h-parameter representation of transistor.
2. The h-parameters of a transistor can be measured and these parameters can be determined from static
characteristics of a transistor.
3. The current gain, voltage gain, input resistance and output resistance can be derived in the simplest form.
4. The h-parameters can be used to analyse any transistor circuit.
5. In the data sheet of a transistor, the h-parameters are specified by the manufacturer.

Hybrid Equivalent Circuit of Common-Emitter Configuration:

Figure (a) shown below left, the common-emitter configuration of transistor and its hybrid equivalent circuit
is depicted in Figure(b) below right. In this configuration, the input signal is applied between base and
emitter terminals and the output is obtained from the collector and emitter terminals. The input voltage VBE
and output current IC is expressed as

Hybrid Equivalent Circuit of Common-Base Configuration:

Figure (a) shown below left, the common base configuration of a transistor and in Figure(b) below right, its
hybrid equivalent circuit is depicted. In this configuration, the input signal is applied between emitter and
base terminals and the output is obtained from the collector and base terminals. The input voltage VEB and
output current IC are given by
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Hybrid Equivalent Circuit of Common-Collector Configuration:

Figure (a) shown below left, the common-emitter configuration of a transistor and in Figure(b) below right,
its hybrid equivalent circuit is depicted. In this configuration, the input signal is applied between base and
collector terminals and the output is obtained from the emitter and collector terminals. The input voltage
VBC and output current IE are expressed as

ANALYSIS OF A TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER USING h-PARAMETERS:

Figure shown below left, the generalised amplifier circuit and in Figure below right, h-parameters equivalent
circuit of a transistor as an amplifier is depicted. In this circuit, the transistor may be connected in either
common-emitter or common-base or common-collector configurations. An ac voltage VS having internal
resistance RS is connected to the input terminals. A load resistance RL is connected to the output terminals.
The input voltage V1 and output current I2 can be expressed as

........................(6)
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In this section, the determination of current gain, input resistance, voltage gain, output resistance and power
gain are discussed in detail.

Current Gain:
The current gain, or current amplification factor, of a transistor is defined by the ratio of the output current
(IL) to the input current (I1). The current gain is represented by AI and it can be represented by

The output voltage is

After substituting the value of V2 in Equation (6), we get

Therefore, the current gain is equal to

Input Resistance:

The input resistance of a transistor amplifier is defined by the resistance looking into the amplifier input
terminals 1 and 1’. It is also defined by the ratio of the input voltage V1 to the input current I1 and it can be
expressed as

After substituting the value of V2 in Equation. (6), we get

After dividing the above equation by I1, we obtain

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Then input resistance is equal to

After substituting the value of AI in the above equation, we find

It is clear from the above expression that the input resistance (Ri) is a function the load resistance RL.

Voltage Gain:

The voltage gain, or voltage amplification factor, is defined as the ratio of output voltage (V2) to the input
voltage (V1) and it can be expressed as

After substituting the value of I2 in the above equation, we get

.............(7)

When the values of AI and RI are substituted in Equation. (7), we obtain

Output Resistance:

The output resistance of transistor amplifier is the resistance looking into the output terminals 2 and 2’ when
the source voltage is zero but its internal resistance is connected between input terminals as shown in Figure
below. Actually, the output resistance is the ratio of output voltage (V2) to the output current (I2) and it is
given by
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..............(8)

Applying the Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) in the input side of the transistor amplifier circuit, we obtain

After substituting value of I1 in Equation. (8), we obtain

Power Gain:

The power gain of a transistor amplifier is the ratio of the output power to the input power and it can be
written as
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Hence, the power gain is the product of voltage gain (AV) and the current gain (AI).

After substituting the value of AI in the above equation, we get

DARLINGTON CONNECTION or DARLINGTON PAIR:

A Darlington connection is a very popular connection of two transistors for operation as one super beta
transistor. The composite transistor acts as a single unit with a current gain equal to the product of the
current gains of individual transistors. Figure shown below, the Darlington connection which is also called
the Darlington pair.
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A Darlington transistor connection acts as a single transistor with a large current gain, typically a few
thousand.

Darlington connection is available as a single package containing two BJTs internally connected as a
Darlington transistor. The device provides three terminals, base, emitter and collector for external
connection. For instance the 2N 6725 is a Darlington transistor with a current gain of 25,000 and a collector
current of 200 mA. As another example, the TIP 102 is a power Darlington transistor with a current gain of
1000 at a collector current of 3A.

DC Bias of Darlington Circuit:

A Darlington circuit with biasing arrangement is

shown in Figure aside. The current gain of the
Darlington transistor is βD which is very high.

Applying KVL to the base-emitter circuit we

have

........(9)

Using Equation (9) and solving for IB we have

It should be noted that, VBE is the drop for two

base-emitter junctions which is typically in the
range 1.4 V to 1.8 V.

The dc voltages are