ART IN EARLY CIVILIZATIONS

Stone Age is a term used to describe a period of history when stones were used to make tools
for survival. The term "conjures an image of men and women dressed in skins, huddling before
a fire in a cave" (Fitchner-Rathus, 2013). Though prehistoric humans would not necessarily
possess the complex rational capabilities to tell their story through written records and accounts,
some artifacts in the form of cave paintings and sculptures would serve as the "storytellers."

In order to talk about prehistoric art, there is a need to situate them within the context of the
three periods of the Stone Age culture (which roughly span the 14,000- 2,000 BCE):
Paleolithic (the late years of the Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), and the
Neolithic (New Stone Age).

The unearthing of archeological artifacts and remains provides modern society a glimpse of the
beliefs, practices, and activities of early civilizations. The motives and reasons behind the
creation of ancient materials such as sculptures, paintings, and architectural structures may not
be clearly defined. Nevertheless, the early people produced such materials that reflect their
attitudes and belief systems on spiritual, social, political, and economic matters. It can be noted
that works of art and architecture were created from a wide array of materials from limestone to
precious gems and metals to name a few. As the early humans started to transition from being
nomads to permanent settlers, their everyday activities also had some changes, which is
evident through the materials and even the works of art they have created. Despite changes as
a result of adapting to their environment, there are central themes in their artworks. Most
ancient artworks depict religious symbols, a wide array of organisms from nature and activities
of everyday life.

PREHISTORIC ART

Archeological explorations reveal that there has been a gradual shift from a nomadic lifestyle of
early humans to that of permanent settlements, paving the way for the rise of early civilizations.
The Stone Age has witnessed how humans were able to lead more stable lives and eventually
come up with permanent shelters and tools for survival. To complement this stability and sense
of permanence, early humans also turned to the creation of paintings and sculptures that depict
humans, animals, and their natural habitats. It would seem that there were attempts to record
the kind of lives they led within that period of time. Central to the representation of early
civilizations would be the establishing of possible linkages among art, religion, and life.

Paleolithic Art is a product of climate change. As the climate got colder, part of the early
humans' instinct is to look for shelters that would provide them with warmth. Caves became
protective havens for the early humans and these caves paved the way for the birth of their first
attempts to create art. One cave painting can be traced back to Lascaux, France and its
discovery came as a surprise. Two boys chased after their dog into a hole where their ball got
stuck in. When they followed the dog, they were astonished to discover a cave with beautiful
paintings. The cave paintings would eventually be called the "Hall of Bulls". Hall of Bulls
found in a caveen Lascaux France.

the cave paintings were created during the Paleolithic Period. It is also important to take note
that the paintings evoke naturalism, which is evidently seen through the contours of the animals
body and their dark colors. Although most people would think that early humans were primitive,
some of their art techniques were considered advanced for their time. Some of the early
humans already used their own version of spray-painting techniques by using ground pigments
blown through reeds or hollowed-out bones since these were the readily available materials for
them. Aside from this spray-painting technique, early humans also worked with foreshortening
and contrasting of lights and shadows. These techniques created the illusion of three-
dimensional forms and seemingly real representation of animals.

Artworks can be considered omamental but there is little evidence to fully back up this notion,
that early humans created these cave paintings for that very purpose. Most of these works were
discovered inside the deep recesses of caves so they may not necessarily be used as
decorative items. Some would say that these caves with paintings all over the walls and ceilings
served as a kind of sanctuary for the early humans. As a safe haven, religious rituals could have
possibly transpired within the confines of the caves. Some believed that there was a linkage
between what was drawn and what could happen in real life. For example, drawing or painting
the capture of a prey would translate to an actual capturing of an animal in real life. In addition,
some of the works found reflected some of the early beliefs of humans especially with life and
fertility. One of the works that reflected such beliefs would be a sculpture called the "Venus of
Willendorf." This figure is a highly abstracted woman from highlighted body parts associated
with fertility, Figure 2 shows that the woman has oversized breasts, enteged hips, and round
abdomen. The representation may show the importance of taking care of these body parts for
procreation and consequently the survival of species.

Figure 2. Verust of Wonderf

NEOLITHIC ART has developed especially when life for the early humans has become none
stable. They have learned to cultivate the land and domesticate animals. By 4000 BCE, there
were several monumental and architectural structures erected. One of them is the Stonehenge
located in Southern England. The purpose of this fascinating edifice remains a mystery up to
this day and age. Some regard it as a temple while others see it as a complex calendar the
tracked the movements of both the Sun and Moon. Others ascribe some magical element to it
by associating it with Merlin the Magician from King Arthur's story For whatever purpose it was
built on, it still remains as one of the architectural wonders the world has ever seen.

As the Neolithic Period drew to a close, it was indeed that diferencelero civilization flourished in
various parts of the world. It is also notable that most early civilizations emerged and flourished
in river valleys the Nile in Egypt, indus in india Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia, and
Huang Ho River in China
EGYPTIAN ART

The Fertile Ribbon starts from the banks of the Nile River, which flows mort to Africa and
ventures into the Mediterranean. It is in this very ription where Egyptians recognized the integral
role of the Nile River to their daily lives by indispensability and utility that eventually led to the
belief that the Nile is to be worshipped as a god. With this came the notion that art was
something that can be ascribed and associated with religion. The Egyptian civilization can be
divided into three periods: Cild, Middle, and New Kingdom. Looking at the trees periods. E cam
te noticed that for the Egyptians, art should be something religious and spiritus. There may have
been differences in the techniques used and style emphasized to there are common
denominators among the artworks created during their respective time periods

During the Old Kingdom, it was evident that religion was bound to the afterlife. A concrete
manifestation of this would have to be the erection of tones. But the tombs were not just for
keeping the dead bodies of important people, particularly the pharaohs, they also served as a
shelter for the next journey, which is the afterlife. They decorated the tombs with everyday
objects that would rete da to-day activities as if the afterlife is a mers continuation of what
transpired on earth. The human figures seen in the tombs were represented in such a way the
the profile of the head was evident, while the pelvis, legs, and upper tons were prominent and
the eyes are in frontal view. Inside the tombs the walls were ab decorated and carved in very
low relief and incised detall it can be noticed that the use of color was evident but may have not
been widely utilized because of the relative Impermanence.

One of the cosmetic palettes found in Egypt was called the Narmer Palette. It was a palette that
utilized and applied dark colons around King Narmer. The palette was also a symbol that
commemorates the unification of Loperam Lower Egypt. The unification was significant because
it marked the beginning of their civilization.
At the back of the palette, King Narmer can be seen wearing the crown of Upper Egypt looking
victorious over a slain enemy. In addition, two more dead warriors can be seen beneath him. To
his right is a falcon, the god Horus perched on papyrus stalks, which is a symbol of Lower
Egypt. The top is sculpted with bull-shaped heads with human features that is a representation
of Hathor. This god symbolizes love and joy. What is very prominent is the king's size in
comparison with the objects in the palette. Narmer, being the subject, is evidently larger than
the people around him. This is a clear indication and assertion of his royal status. The front
palette, on the other hand, shows lion-like figures with intertwined necks bound on leashes and
tamed by two men. King Narmer is still present at the front side and he is shown reviewing the
captured enemies. In this portrait, he is seen wearing the crown of Lower Egypt and holding
some objects that denote power. The Narmer Palette is one of the artifacts that emphasizes the
king's supreme and absolute authority. In most cases, the king is not just an authority figure but
can be depicted and revered as a deity. This common notion among Egyptians is seen in
Egyptian tomb sculptures, which are basically large in dimensions and proportions and made
out of huard materials. The choice of materiais deliberate since they want the sculptures to
endure and withstand any condition Permanence was important because these sculptures
would serve as the house of the ka or soul once the remains of the mummy disintegrate. One
striking feature of most sculptures is that regardless of the age of death, the ka figures highlight
the prime lile of the deceased

During the Old Kingdom, one of the architectural wonders was also constructed. The pyramids
in Giza served as tombs since their main purpose was to provide a resting place for the
pharaohs. These pyramids are massive in size and were constructed using roughly more than
two million limestone blocks. The stones used for the pyramids were quarried from a nearby
plateau. The construction of the pyramids highlighted the ingenuity and advancement of the
Egyptians for their time. Workers painstakingly moved the stones from the plateau going to the
construction site using wooden rollers stonecutters on the site carved the blocks in a fine way
before stacking them. The stacking process also showed the advancement of the Egyptians
since they already used a system of ropes and pulleys. They finished it off by applying the
surface with limestone for a more refined and flawless finish. The construction of the pyramids
did not only show the brilliance of the early Egyptians but it also highlighted the reverence of the
people to their pharaoh at the expense of the citizens. A lot of the workers died or punished for
not reaching the quota in the process of constructing these massive architectural structures.
However, they did not stop ensuring the excellent quality of the outsides. The Egyptians also
ensured that the insides of the pyramids would celebrate the life of their pharaoh by lavishly
decorating them. However, it posed as a problem since thieves usually plundered the valuable
objects used to decorate the insides of the pyramids.
One of the key features of the Middle Kingdom is a shift in the political hierarchy. There is an
emergence of powerful groups of landlords that threatened the authority and rule of the
pharach. Because of the internal struggle between these two influential sides, art has taken a
back seat during the Middle Kingdom. In order for art to reemerge and flourish, Egypt needed to
have a more stable situation. This happened during the rule of King Mentuhotep when Egypt
eventually got back on track. Art during the Middle Kingdom had some references from the Old
Kingdom, however there were some experimentation in terms of style that transpired during this
period. Portrait sculptures and fresco paintings that were freely drawn are some of the styles
that emerged during this period. To solve the problem of thieves that plunder the tombs, the
Egyptians made rock-cut tombs by carving out a living rock. The insides of the tombs were still
filled with chamber and the hallways were lavishly decorated to celebrate the life of the
deceased. Egypt was not immune from foreign invaders and eventually fell into the hands of the
Hyksos. This Asiatic Tribe introduced Bronze Age weapons and horses to the Egyptians. When
these foreign invaders were overthrown, the Egyptians formed the New Kingdom. It was a time
of expansionism through territorial acquisition Consequently, with the expansion came an
increase in wealth leading not only to economic but also political stability. The art of the New
Kingdom had references from both of the preceding kingdoms. Monuments and sculptures were
still linked with death and reverence for the deceased. During the previous kingdoms, tombs
were just used for worshipping the dead but with the New Kingdom, they started having
mortuary temples. These temples, which were carved out of living rocks, served not only a
sanctuary for the dead but also a place of worship for the living. During this period, Egypt has
established itself as a more advanced and powerful civilization. With this newly found strength
and power comes an inflated ego. Their high regard for their people can be seen through their
sculptures built on massive and monumental scales.
After the New Kingdom, Egypt witnessed the Amarna Revolution led by King Akhenaton and
Queen Nefertiti. He moved the capital to Tel El-Amarna, thus the name Amarna. During his
reign, King Amenhotep wanted to revolutionize the arts and religion. He later on changed his
name to Akhenaton, which came from Aton who is the sun god. This changing of names also
signified the shift in religion. During this period, the only god to be revered was Aton Egypt
became monotheistic and Akhenaton ordered all to tear down all monuments of other gods. He
then fervently ordered the creation and erection of new monuments in reverence to Aton. Most
sculptures during this period had curving lines and full-bodied forms. There is emphasis to life-
like features of the face like an elongate jaw and thick-lidded eyes. Most artists created artworks
that are natural and seemingly real, highlighting the features of their subjects. Naturalism was
not only used to depict the pharaoh but also was used for members of the royal family. The bust
of Queen Nefertiti, has a long and sensuous neck. This figure was enhanced by applying paint
to the limestone. The use of naturalism in artworks was rather short-lived. When King
Akhenaton died, his successors returned to the more rigid and conventional styles they
employed during the period of the kingdoms. They also destroyed images and figures of Aton
and subscribed to monotheism.

Probably one of the greatest discoveries from the Egyptian civilization was the tomb of
Tutankhamen. He became king at a very young age and died at the age of eighteen. Howard
Carter discovered his tomb in 1922. They were astonished to find gold artworks and that the
coffin was made out of solid gold. The body of the young king was covered in linen and a gold
mask covered his face.
During the prehistoric period, the early humans had transitioned from a nomadic lifestyle to that
of a more permanent one, which led to early civilizations. Some of the works discovered from
this period would give modern society a glimpse of what was life like during that period. One of
the early civilizations where art flourished was the Egyptian civilization. Throughout the three
kingdoms all the way to the Amarna Revolution, art has been directly used particularly in
religious and spiritual activities Through these unearthed and discovered artworks, the modern
world could have a better understanding of the past and how it can affect the present.

ART OF EMERGING EUROPE

Art has been an integral part in European history. From the time of the ancient civilizations like
the Greeks and the Romans all the way to the modern times, art has been used to communicate
ideologies and belief systems prevalent within their context. Greek and Roman Civilizations
were also known as the Classical World because both cultures aimed to embody the highest
possible standard of quality in all aspects of their societies. When it comes to both art and
architecture, both civilizations intended to promote the possibility of having an objective and
widely accepted standards for beauty. The influence and impact of both classical worlds are far-
reaching. Most art movements have taken inspiration from the certain artistic elements from the
two civilizations. There are different art movements that emerged within the different time
periods in Europe. Each movement has a distinctive characteristic to them highlighting the
different trends and changes as they transition from one period to the next
Ancient Greece
The Greeks were known to excel in various fields and aspects of society. For example, their
political ideals eventually became the framework for the democratic form of government in
modern times. They also valued poetry, drama, and philosophy which remain interesting fields
of study for the contemporary times. For those who want to be involved in the arts-painting,
sculpture, and architecture-one is required to have a certain skill sets and body of knowledge.

The Greeks were known to place prime importance in the use of reason. For this civilization,
man was at the center of society and how they trained their minds could be the very foundation
of how they lived their lives. The humanist ideals of the Greeks were reflected in their
democratic form of government. This certain level of freedom was also reflected in their
artworks, architecture, literature, and philosophy The Greeks were notably passionate about
natural phenomenon and believed that nature should be in perfect order. These principles,
belief systems, and ideologies are at the core of Greek art and architecture.
The development of Greek art can be divided into four periods. Geometric, Archaic Classical,
and Hellenistic. The Geometric Period was a time when Greece was starting to get back from
the onslaught of what seemed to be their Dark Ages. It was a period when geometric shapes
and patterns have taken the spotlight in most of the artworks. The Archaic Period, on the other
hand, placed importance on human figures. This was primarily a result of Greece's trading
activities with other civilizations. The peak of Greek sculpture and architecture was during the
Classical Period. It was during this time when the Greeks found themselves rebuilding their
temples and focusing on creating artworks. The time of Alexander the Great was called the
Hellenistic Period During this time, art was primarily focused on showcasing emotions and
depicting reality. Hellenistic sculptures started to emphasize balance while showcasing
dynamic poses and a number of emotions evoked by the subjects. One of the famous
Hellenistic sculptures is the "Lacoon and His Sons." The sculpture depicts Lacoon, a Trojan
priest and his sons being strangled by serpents. Their position was a result of Lacoons
instructions during the Trojan War. He instructed to keep the gates of Troy locked up because
he felt that the wooden horse offered by the Greeks as a gift to Athena wa a trick. Poseidon, the
Greek god of the sea was enraged by such action which led him to send serpents to strangle
Lacoon and his sons.

The origins of theater arid drama can be traced back during the Greek civilization.
The followers of Dionysus-the god of fertility-started the Greek theater People who were
devoted to Dionysus would dance during ceremonies while giving their offerings to their god.
Eventually, the Dionysians devised a more structured form of drama involving dances and
choral songs, which depicted Greek mythologies. Eventually the Greeks organized theatrical
contests where the performances were held in front of large citizens.

Ancient Rome
The Roman Republic was established around 500 BCE. This civilization eventually transformed
into one of Western Europe's mightiest empires. Since they had expanded and covered many
territories, they interacted with neighboring civilizations, pamcularly with the Greeks.
It can be said that Roman civilization came of age during the Hellenistic Period As mentioned
earlier, it was a period when the Greek culture's influence has reached its peak in the
Mediterranean world. The Romans were fond of the Greeks and their achievements in the arts.
The fusion of Greek and Roman cultures can be seen in most Roman artworks. Some would
argue that the Romans merely copied Greek art. This eventually made the Romans produce
artworks that are often looking stem. harsh, and strong. They also invoked the principles of
realism in most of their works, highlighting the features of human beings. Aside from this, the
Romans were also known to be master builders, which earned their reputation for grand
monuments and the Colosseum. This amphitheater was planned and constructed during the
reign of Emperor Vespasian. One of its main uses was for entertainment purposes like publi
events and gladiator games. This structure was a concrete manifestation of Roman builders'
craftsmanship which focused on logical organization of the entire edifice.

Poseidon and Medusa." Just like the Greeks, the Romans valued their gods and this was
evident with their sculptures and artworks.

Ancient Greece had a huge impact in the formation of Roman culture. There are a lot of Greek
influences evident in Roman theater and drama. Writers of comedy like Platus and Terence
have patterned their works to those of Greek works. Since the Roman audience was not as
enthusiastic about theatrical works unlike their Greek counterparts, most plays had to be
included in the Roman games.

Middle Ages
As the term denotes, it is the period between the decline of the Roman Empire and the
Renaissance. It was a period that is characterized by ignorance and darkness. Another
dominant characteristic of the period was that the Church was the central figure and authority of
the period. Since the Church was the most important figure. the most important products of the
early Middle Ages would have to be copied of the Christian scriptures. The printing press came
later after the Middle Ages, so copies of the scriptures were done by hand. These copies were
also done with illustrations and decorations which highlight the religious focus of the period.
During this time, great cathedrals were also bull. These cathedrals can be categorized into two
periods Comanesque (1050-1200), inspired by the old Roman Empire, and Gothic (1200 1500),
which had a more northern flavor from the Goths-vulgar and barbie (12

Renaissance Art
During the Renaissance Period, artists valued the "individual" as a subject of arts. The influence
of humanism shifted the focus of some artworks during the Renaissance Period to empower the
"individual." Most artworks emphasized naturalism, which was also an influence of humanism
since there was a great emphasis on the proportionality of the human body. Most artists also
added perspective of depth wherein spaces were explored in different artworks. This technique
provided a three-dimensional perspective of most Renaissance paintings. Renaissance artists
also gave importance to non-religious themes or subjects. This was also brought by the
privatizations of the art during the Renaissance Period, however most artworks remained
religious in its focus and theme.

Michelangelo, "David." This sculpture is an example of how humanism was a dominant bellef
system during the Renaissance. There is emphasis on the details of the body of the human
being

During the Renaissance Period, there was also a revival of Roman theatrical plays. These plays
were performed during special occasions at the courts of Italian princes. The plays were done in
such a way that showcased grand and lavish entertainment for the audience. Aside from the
song and dance numbers, they invested in elaborate stages and costumes for the actors.
Eventually, this would lead to Italy's opera, which have greatly influenced their tradition of
popular theater.

Mannerism
Mannerism was a period in art history, which was a product of the Period During the
Renaissance, artists would observe nature and try their best to emulate it based on their
observations. As the Renaissance ended, artists started directly copying subjects from existing
works of art. Most artworks during this penod displayed distorted figures, two-dimensional
spaces, discordant hues and colors, and lack of defined focal point Renaissance

Baroque and the Rococo

The term "baroque" is derived from the Portuguese term barroco which translated as "irregularly
shaped pearl. This is a suitable description that Rome was the birthplace of the Baroque Period,
which according to some historians was a response to Protestantism. This period roughly
spanned from 1600 to 1750. Although it was a period following the Renaissance, it can be said
that a lot of artists have developed styles and techniques different from their Renaissance
predecessors. Most artists used colorful palettes and ornamentation in their works. This was a
time when Italy in particular, strengthened not only their religion but also other aspects like
politics and art. Expansion was the central theme of this period, which became very much
evident in the artworks produced during this time. Motion and space were taken inta
consideration by artists like the use of dramatic lighting and the concept of time.

Aside from art, music also flourished during the Baroque Period. This is because people
believed that music could serve as powerful tool to communicate messages that can evoke
certain feelings among its listeners. Baroque music was able to clearly distinguish loud from soft
and solo from ensemble. Since the birthplace of this penod was in Rome, it did not come as a
surprise that most composers come from Italy. This include Vivaldi, Corelli, and Monteverdi.
Eventually, the influence of Baroque music spread outside Italy and reached other parts of
Europe. Other well-known Baroque composers include Germany's Bach and Handel. Since
Baroque composers, through their works, tried to evoke certain emotions from their audience,
they began to make more complex musical compositions and performances. However, it can be
noted that initially, this kind of music was limited only to powerful institutions like the Church and
individuals like the patrons. Eventually, such performances would be made accessible to the
middle class and the masses.

The Assumption of the Virgin." A painting by Titian located at Venice Baly The vertinthe painting
shows how the Baroque Pernod reverted to having religious subjects in Ther wores

Neoclassicism
There seems to be a debate among historians as to the beginnings of modern art. There are
accounts that would attribute for the emergence of this kind of art during the French Revolution
in 1789. However, other historians claim that it was the year 1863 when there was an
emergence of modern painting exhibitions.
Neoclassicism was a movement in Europe that transpired during the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries. It was the dominant art movement that time which basically aimed to
revive and rekindle the influences of Greek and Roman into art and architecture. The ancient
Greeks and Europeans had placed emphasis on human reason and keeping society in order.
These very principles were also the dominant principles during the Enlightenment Period. Some
historians would also say that this movement was a reaction to the artworks produced during
the Baroque Period. There was a call to veer away from such extravagance in terms of style
and form of the Baroque Period.

IMPRESSIONISM
The Impressionism movement started in France, which led to a break from the tradition in
European painting. Impressionism is a style of painting that emerged in the mid- to late 1800s.
Impressionist artists incorporated scientific principles to achieve a more distinct representation
of color. The distinctive characteristic of this style is that it allows the artist to emphasize the
immediate impression he has of a particular event or scene. The said impression is
communicated by the artist through his work and can be seen through the brushstrokes,
distinction of colors, and the lights and shadows used by the artist.

Post-Impressionism
It is an art movement that emerged in France, which is a result of both influence and rejection of
Impressionism. Most artists that belong to this movemen started off as impressionists but later
on saw the inherent limitations and flaws impressionism. This eventually led to the development
of individual style that gav emphasis to defining from with the use of broken colors and short
brush stroke. Some of the famous post-impressionism artists include Paul Cezanne, Georges
Seun Paul Gauguin, and Vincent van Gogh, among others. Most of the works of the sad
painters became the framework of the contemporary techniques and trends during the twentieth
century.

Neo-Impressionism
As an art movement, neo-impressionism is considered as a response to empirica realism of
impressionism. Most painters who subscribe to such movement rely on a systematic and
scientific techniques that have a predetermined visual effects not on on the art work itself but
also how the audience perceive the art. The leading figure neo-impressionism was Georges
Seurat who recorded optical sensations on a mom scientific manner. His color theories paved
the way for the technique called pointilis This art technique basically utilizes discrete dots and
dashes of pure color. Thest elements are believed to blend with the viewer's perspective. Aside
from Seurat, oth neo-impressionist artists include Henri-Edmond Cross, Maximilien Luce, and
Camil Pissarro, among others.

Art Nouveau
Between 1890 and 1910, countries from Europe and the United States witnessed the
emergence and flourishing of a new art style. This ornamental style of art was a break from the
conservative historicism, which was the prevailing and dominant thes of most Western artworks.
This ornamental style uses long and organic lines that are Concretely manifested in
architecture, jewelry and glass design, among others. In most works, the defining characteristic
of Art Nouveau is the asymmetrical line that usually is in the form of insect wings or flower
stalks. The line is done in such a graceful and elegant manner that somehow evokes a certain
patterns to it.

Fauvism
This is a style of painting that emerged in France around the turn of the twentieth century. What
makes fauvists revolutionary is that they used pure and vibrant colors by applying straight from
the paint tubes directly to the canvas. This is done to produce a sense of explosion of colors in
the canvas. The fauves, just like the impressionists painted directly from nature. The difference
lies with how the fauves have this strong and expressive reaction to how they portray their
subjects. Most fauvist works reject the conservative and traditional renderings of three-
dimensional space. What artists did was they introduced and promoted a picture space that is
defined by the movement color.

Cubism
Between 1907 and 1914, French artists Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque introduced a new
visual arts style called cubism. This style would later on have a huge influence on artists during
the twentieth century. Cubists highlighted the two- dimensional surface of the picture plane.
Focusing on a flat surface was a rejection of the dominant techniques like the use of
perspective, foreshortening, and modeling. In addition, one of the things that cubism rejected
was the existing and prevailing notion that art should imitate nature. Cubists emphasized that
they are not in any way obliged to copy texture, form, color, and space. They presented a new
depiction of reality that may appear fragmented objects to viewers.

Futurism
It is an early twentieth century art movement that started in Italy, which highlighted the speed,
energy, dynamism, and power of machines. In addition, common themes for works in this
movement are restlessness and the fast-pace of modern life. Later on, the movement's
influence branched out not only in Europe but also in Russia. The greatest impact of futurism is
evident in poetry and visual arts.
Caught in Between: Modern and Contemporary Art

The history of art is one of the most difficult tasks to pin down. As what previous chapters have
shown, significant ideas, canons and tradition, preferences and dominance of styles, media, and
mode of production were the definitive characteristics that segment art history into identifiable
periods and movements; identifiable, but not necessarily precise. It is important to note that the
periods and movements of art are themselves testament to the connection of art and culture in
the everyday life. As it is examined and analyzed in context, it becomes increasingly apparent
that art is not detached from, rather, it is embedded in the affairs of the society in which it exists.
It offers a glimpse as to the beliefs of specific eras and how these beliefs were translated into
how people saw themselves and the world and how they chose to come into terms with it-all in
flux.

Defining the Contemporary

The term "contemporary" seems simple and straightforward enough to define. There is this
assumption that it need not be asked, rather, that it must already be understood. But with an
attempt to do so, one finds it is a lot harder to grasp. The complexity of defining the term is
attributed to the fact that people have dissenting views on the interpretation of the "present," of
"today," or what the "now" means- these are often ideas that follow the word contemporary.
Even more so, is when it is hinged on the word "art" and suddenly it becomes a bit fuzzy.

There are museums, for example, that include name of artists, art forms, or artworks in their
institution's name, but seem to champion works that arguably fall under an earlier period. For
example, the Institute of Contemporary Art in London which was founded in 1947 includes in its
mandate "the promotion of art that came to be from that year onwards." Clearly the timeline is a
bit skewed if the assumption is that contemporary art started decades later. For the New
Museum of Contemporary Art in New York, its starting point is dated at 1977; while the TATE
framed contemporaneity in a ten-year rolling basis and was placed under the bounds of their
Museum of Contemporary Art.

Another source of confusion is the fact that in the colloquial, "modern" and "contemporary" are
considered synonymous. This, however, is not the case when these terms are used in the
context of art. Therein, they refer to two different (but consecutive) periods qualified by different
approaches to artmaking and the functions that art served. To better make sense of
contemporary art, perhaps it is best to dial back to its predecessor, modern art.

Modern art saw the digression of artists away from past conventions and traditions and toward
freedom. There is the famous adage of "anything goes." With the world becoming increasingly
complex, it required an art that could accommodate such range and breadth. Roughly between
the 1860s to late 1970s, creatives celebrated the novel opportunities in art, from the materials to
its manipulation and ways of seeing and thinking about art. The devotion of artists to a strict
narrative was often illustrated in their figurative works; however, these artists gave their nod to
abstraction. The tenets of this period were not only reflected in its art, but it was also evident in
the way people lived and conducted themselves, the social issues that were relevant, fashion,
music and the wide range of images and activities they were engaged in. This period saw the
heavy mass production of goods, along with the encouraging environment made possible by
industrialization, new technology, urbanization, and rise of commercially driven culture. There
was also a palpable secularization of society, interest in nature, and primacy of the self and
individuality. Artists were committed to developing a language of their own original but
representative. What this means is that artists drew the world but in his own terms. It was no
wonder that within this period grew a vast number of different movements.

The period that ensued was touted contemporary art. In order to move forward, it is necessary
to underscore that this can be better understood after a starting point has been established.
Compared to the dense taxonomy of modern art, contemporary art had fewer-isms under its
wing. Perhaps, this was also due to the fact that it is still unfolding. Effectively, this period can
be traced from the 1970s to the present. There is a reason behind this cutoff. The cutoff was
hinged on two reasons:

1. The 1970s saw the emergence of "postmodernism." The affix was a clue
that whatever followed was segregated from it precursor.

2. The 1970s saw the decline of the clearer identified artistic movements.

Social Context: In Between Modern and Contemporary Art

Reaping the benefits and drawbacks of the dramatic changes that occurred at the beginning of
the twentieth century, the social, political, and cultural context continued to provoke the artist to
create. There is a potent source of reference for his works so that he may continue to question
the existing and emergent values of society. This multiplicity of perspectives brought to light a
more difficult terrain to map out in terms of clear and distinct movements because what
compelled artists' works were no prevailing medium, technique, or style; rather, it was the
themes and concems they addressed. And the conversation was no longer limited to
geographic locales, but became increasingly a global conversation.

"Art may be spoilt for choice. In a world where nothing is seasonal or regional any more, there is
no home base from which to operate. And so the arts today can be seen as responding to a
number of issues, some from within their own structures of means and techniques, some more
widely understood as issues within society. Typically none is resolved." (Tamplin, 1991)

Contemporary art was heavily driven by ideas and theories, and the even the blurring of notions
of what is and can be considered as "art," with the involvement of television, photography,
cinema, digital technology, performance, and even objects of the everyday. It was the idea that
was more important than its visual articulation.

There were several art movements that were caught in between the succession
of modern and contemporary art. These movements laid the groundwork for the transition into
contemporaneity. Reeling after the war, one of the early movements was abstract
expressionism (early 1940s to mid-1960s) which took the basic tenets of abstraction and
combined with it with gestural techniques, mark-making, and a rugged spontaneity in its visual
articulation. Often affiliated with New York painters (hence being called the New York School),
some of them include Clyfford Still, Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Barnett Newman, and
Mark Rothko, who were committed to creating abstract works that had the ability to convey and
elicit emotion, especially those residing in the subconscious. Two major styles emerged from
this: that of action painting and color fields. Action painting underscored the process of creation
in that it showed the physicality, direction and most often, the spontaneity of the actions that
made the drips and strokes possible. On the other hand, color fields emphasized the emotional
power of colors. From the vivid demarcations to the more toned-down transitions, these bands
of color were akin to the effect of landscapes.

Creating energy was at the center of "op art" or optical art (early 1960s onward). Much like what
was discussed in the lesson on elements of art that dimension can be implied even on a two-
dimensional surface or plane, op art relied on creating an illusion to inform the experience of the
artwork using color, pattern, and other perspective tricks that artists had on their sleeves. From
making it seem like a section was protruding out or receded in the background, to creating
movement, works under this movement showed a certain kind of dynamism. It inspired several
artists in different countries to create their own iteration of op art: Hungarian artist Victor
Vasarely, British artists Bridget Riley and Peter Sedgley, American Richard Anuszkiewicz, and
Israeli Yaacov Agam Other artists expanded their works to include other materials such as nails,
plexiglass, and metal rods, including Jesus Soto, Guenther Uecker, Enrico Castellani, and
Carlos Cruz-Diez

The quest for actual movement in the works created were responded to by kinetic art (early
1950s onward). Hamessing the current and direction of the wind, components of the artwork
which was predominantly sculptural, most were mobiles and even motor-driven machines, was
an example of how art and technology can be brought together. Artists known for creating
kinetic art were Naum Gabo, Alexander Calder, Jean Tinguely, Bridget Riley, and Nicolas
Schoffer. One of the most recent kinetic artist to gain attention is Theo Jansen with his massive
sculptures or beasts, as he likes to refer to them. Using plastic tubes and PVC pipes, he has
created several life forms that took over the sea-side.

In Japan during the post-war, platforms that were grounded on movement and a sense of
dynamism were utilized to convey ideas attached to the new-found freedom, individuality and
openness to the international sphere. Termed gutai (1950s-1970s) which means embodiment or
concreteness, it preceded the later forms of performance and conceptual art. The goal was not
only to explore the materiality of the implements used in the performance, but also to hold a
deeper desire to make sense of the relationship that is struck between the body, the
movements, and the spirit of their interaction during the process of creation. Gutai straddled
between multiple platforms from performance, theatrical events, installation, and even painting.
The founder of the Gutai Art Association or Gutai Group was Yoshihara Jiro in 1952. Other
known gutai artists were Tanaka Atsuko, Saburō Murakami, Kanayma Akira, Murakami Saburo,
and Shozo Shimamoto. Entitled "Challenge to the Mud" (1955), Kazuo Shiraga utilized his body,
writhing in a pile of mud. The shapes formed, and the state of the mud were left as is after his
performance, and was kept as part of the exhibition as a kind of action- painting. This is one the
most important examples of gutai.

Another movement was minimalism which cropped up in the early 1960s in New York, and saw
artists testing the boundaries of various media. It was seen as an extreme type of abstraction
that favored geometric shapes, color fields, and the use of objects and materials that had an
"industrial" the sparse.

"The new art favored the cool over the 'dramatic': their sculptures were frequently fabricated
from industrial materials and emphasized anonymity over the expressive excess of Abstract
Expressionism. Painters and sculptors avoided overt symbolism and emotional content, but
instead called attention to the materiality of the works." (Wolf, n.d.)

Another assumption was that its subtext was deference to truth, as a thing was presented as
itself, without pretensions or embellishments. It also had a very utopic aura about it. Some of the
key figures in this movement were Agnes Martin, Robert Morris, Sol LeWitt, Dan Flavin, Carl
Andre, and Donald Judd.

The other is pop art It first emerged in the 1950s but found its footing in the 1960s it
movementation, sources, and even materials from commercial culture, making 960s.lt drew
insost identifiable and relatable movexhibited art history, Artists became increasingly critical
about how what was being exhibited in art spaces had no relationship with real life. What could
be more real than what you saw, used, ate watched, heard, and read! Hence, they turned to
commodities designed and made for the masses, particularly drawing inspiration and material
from ads, packaging, comie books, movies and movie posters, and pop music. The aim was to
also elevate popular culture as something at par with fine art. A defining feature was the
discussions on the hierarchy (and divide between) of "high culture" and "low culture"; "fine art"
and "low art.

The following was an excerpt from a letter written by Richard Hamilton, a pop artist, addressed
to his friends Peter and Alison Smithson:

"Pop art is: popular (designed for a mass audience), transient (short-term solution), expendable
(easily forgotten), low cost, mass produced, young (aimed at youth), witty, sexy, gimmicky,
glamorous, big business." (Hamilton, 1957)

Perhaps, one of the most critical statements against pop art was its use of very banal and "low"
objects and subject matters, lacking the elevated aura that other believed art required. It was
also seen as an absence of criticality in that objects appeared as it is, seemingly no different
from how they were used in the daily life. If at all, it ironically seemed too "cool" as well that it
also became somewhat detached to the life it purportedly talked about. Some of the artists that
are most identified with pop art is Andy Warhol, James Rosenquist, Claes Oldenburg, Richard
Hamilton, Tom Wesselman, Ed Ruscha and Roy Lichtenstein, with a number of them coming
from careers in the commercial art as illustrators, graphic designers, and even billboard
painters. It is because of this that their works had a seamless quality about it. But perhaps the
most pertinent movement that solidified the move to contemporary art was postmodernism. By
the very name, it was a nudge to formalize the critique toward modernism and its claim over art
for the better of the twentieth century. More than anything, it was grounded on the shifts in the
belief systems that were in place in the 1960s. First used in 1970, the term was difficult to affix
to any style or theory and perhaps that was the point. Postmodernism encroaches on other
smaller movements that included conceptual art, neo-expressionism, feminist art, and the
Young British Artists of the 1990s, among others.
Grounded on skepticism about ideals and grand narratives, it was rooted in analytic philosophy
during the mid-to late twentieth century, which highlighted the importance of individual
experience and was often steeped in complexity and contradiction. As an upshot, formerly
established rules, barriers, and distinctions were abolished. In a sense, thell within the broad
spectrumost three with an anything goes" deposito anworks fell within the broad spectrum of the
humorous to controversial wooste challenged not only taste but also former sensibilities and
styles. Their awareness of styles was not for them to copy or be governed by them, but to
borrow, critique, and even to tum on their heads. During this time, sorne of the guiding principles
were ind multiplicity of narratives, relativity, and even interdisciplinary. It is important to note that
there were attempts to overturn the notion that all progress was positive, the hierarchy of races,
and that art has a definitive goal. In relation to the last one, one emergent aspect was also
underscored in the experience and engagement with art and that was the importance of the
viewer. Here, the idea of the sole authorship of the artist is put to the test, that it is the intention
of the artist during the time of creation-the end-all and be-all of the appreciation of work because
it is where the sole meaning lie- is disputed.

Some of the sub-movements under this broad umbrella were minimalism, conceptual art, video
art, performance art, installation art, and even feminist art. Although they were widely accepted
and recognized to be formal movements during the 1970s, they were in fact already in existence
as early as the 1920s.

Contemporary Art
We can observe that there were overlaps with the acceptance and practice of these
movements. They were not only overlapping with each other, but they were embedded in a
social order that was in facts somewhat "disordered."
One of the main developments during this time was the turn from the traditional notions of what
art is: from paintings and sculptures to the more experimental formats. These included film,
photography, video, performance, installations and site-specific works, and earth works. Even
these formats tended to overlap, leading to interesting and dynamic, and otherwise "unheard of
combinations of concepts, subjects, materials, techniques, and methods of creation, experience,
and even analysis. Compared to other periods, it can be argued that contemporary art is the
most socially aware and involved form of art. The subject matter of its works was one of the
most pressing. heated, and even controversial issues of contemporary society.
Other Contemporary Art Movements Neo-Pop Art
In the 1980s, there was a renewed interest in pop art specifically to Andy Warhol's works and
his contemporaries. What made it different from pop art was that it appropriated some of the first
ideas of Dada in which ready-made materiale were used for the artwork. Dada was a movement
that was very much against the values of the bourgeois, the colonial and even the national. It
was both anarchic as It was referencing anarchy-the war ensued because of the values the
movemen abhors and despises. Aside from this, it does not only referenced popular culture, but
more importantly, criticized and evaluated it, often using popular cultural icons such as Marilyn
Monroe, Jackie O, Madonna, and Michael Jackson, among many others Some of the artists
involved in the revival of pop art was Katharina Fritsch, Danis Edwards, Jeff Koons, Keith
Haring, Mark Kostabi, and Damien Hirst, to name a few Compared to their predecessors, they
were more affront about their evaluations about the world through the works

Jeff Koons, "Puppy" (1992). Stainless steel, soil and flowering plants. Guggenheim Bilbao
Museoa
In Koon's "Puppy," he uses computer modeling to create a behemoth of a sculptural work-a
giant topiary-that refers back to saccharine ideas of sentimentality, security and banality:
flowers, a puppy (West Highland terrier), Hallmark greeting cards, and Chia pets. This work
articulates his exploration of the limits thal exist between the mass or popular and the elite
culture.

Photorealism
The resurgence of figurative art, where realistic depictions is a choice, is a proof how varied and
fragmented postmodernism is. In photorealism, a painstaking attention to detail is aimed,
without asserting an artist's personal style. These drawings and like is a photo without a direct
reference to the artist who created it. Two of the known photorealist artists are Chuck Close and
Gerhard Richter.

Conceptualism
Other movements were informed and shaped by pop art, such as conceptualism. As opposed to
celebrating commodities as references to real life, conceptualism fought against the idea that art
is a commodity. This movement also brought to the fore issues brought about by art institutions
such as museums and galleries where works are peddled and circulated. Some of the major
conceptual artists are Jenny Holzer, Damien Hirst, and Ai Wei Wel.

"In conceptual art, the idea or concept is the most important aspect of the work. When an artist
uses a conceptual form of art, it means that all of the planning and decisions are made
beforehand and the execution is a perfunctory affair." (LeWitt, 1967)
Performance Art
Performance art is related to conceptual art, whose rosters of well-known artists include the
likes of Marina Abramović, Yoko Ono, and Joseph Beuys. As a movement, it began in the
1960s and instead of being concerned with entertaining its audience, the heart of the artwork is
its idea or message. Here, the audience may even be an accomplice to the realization of the
work. Performance art may be planned or
spontaneous and done live or recorded. Since it is also durational in nature, it is also considered
as ephemeral works of art. An interesting proposition is that performance is not about the
medium or the format; rather, it is how a specific context is made in which through engagement
or interaction, questions, concerns, and conditions will be fleshed out.

Installation Art
Compared to traditional art formats, installation art is a kind of an immersive work where the
environment or the space in which the viewer steps into or interacts with (going around
installative art) is transformed or altered. Usually large-scale, installation art makes use of a host
of objects, materials, conditions, and even light and aural components. These works may also
be considered site-specific and may be temporary or ephemeral in nature. Well-known
installation artists are Allan Kaprow Yayoi Kusama, and Dale Chihuly.
An example of a public installation art is the "Cadillac Ranch," comprised of 10 Cadillacs of
different models ranging from 1949 to 1964. Buried nose-first into the ground, each car is
seemingly equidistant from each other and forming a straight line. From its original site along
Interstate 40, it was moved in 1997 to its new spot two miles westward along the interstate. The
cars underwent several changes, from the first time they were installed as they were located in
a public space. It didn't take long before graffiti found its way onto the surfaces of the cars, and
was painted different colors such as gray. It also had a pink phase in the 1990s, wherein all cars
were painted pink.

Earth Art
Sometimes considered as a kind or a spin-off of installation art, earth art (or land art) is when
the natural environment or a specific site or space is transformed by artists. It is a kind of human
intervention into a specific landscape or terrain. Earth art is different from environmental art in a
sense that it does not focus on the subject (environmental issues or concerns) but rather on
landscape manipulation and the materials used, taken directly from the ground or vegetation
(rocks or twigs). Artists known for Earth Art are Robert Smithson, Christo, Richard Long, Andy
Goldsworthy. and Jeanne-Claude.

Street Art
This art movement is related to graffiti art as it is a by-product of the rise of graffiti in the 1980s.
Artworks created are not traditional in format but are informed by the illustrative, painterly and
print techniques and even a variety of media (even video projections). Some of the examples of
this include murals, stenciled images, stickers, and installations or installative/sculptural objects
usually out of common objects and techniques. Since these works are most commonly found in
the public sphere, various people who have access to them have formed the impression and
perception of the artworks themselves. These works operate under interesting circumstances
since they are unsanctioned and do not enjoy the invigilated environments of museums and
galleries. However, these works also end up in them, as street artists also hold more traditional
exhibitionary formats in the white cube. If it is in the open space, there are no governing rules in
its production and sometimes, in the interaction. Known street artists include Michel Basquiat,
Keith Haring, Shepard Fairey, and Banksy. Banksy's popularity is evidenced by the creation of a
film documentary that spoke about him and his works. Gordon Matta-Clark, Jenny Holzer, and
Barba Kruger are some of the known street artists.

Soulmaking: Making and Deriving Meaning from Art

In order for humans to make sense of language and derive meanings from words, semantics
and grammatical rules are important elements to be considered. Aside from this, context and
symbolisms are also considered to interpret and analyze either verbal or written works. When it
comes to art, in order for people to make sense of the work, it would require understanding the
visual elements where art was grounded on, especially the principles of design. It is important to
note that the audience of the artwork must have a certain level of awareness to the style, form,
and content of the said work. Without such understanding, it would be difficult to appreciate the
visual arts in its fullness and entirety.

Style refers to the distinctive handling of elements and media associated with the work of an
individual artist, a school, a movement, or a specific culture or time period (Fichner-Rathus,
2013). Throughout history, there have been developments in art styles that depict different and
varied methods of expression. Artworks also have a certain form. This form is what the
audience sees a finished product put harmoniously (or not) according to the different principles
of design. In essence, form is the totality of the artwork, which includes the textures, colors, and
shapes utilized by the artist. The content of an artwork includes not only its form but also its
subject matter and underlying meanings or themes (Fichner-Rathus, 2013). The perceiver of the
artwork must take into consideration the totality of elements, underlying themes and motifs, and
composition.

Improvisation
Improvisation can be defined as doing something without prior preparation. There is a decision
to act upon something that may not necessarily be planned. Within the present context,
improvisation has become an integral part of the arts. Some would say that it is a reaction
against the stiffness in the arts during the twentieth century There is a call for liberation from
monotony that aims to rekindle the creative spirits of people in the arts.

For some artists, infusing spontaneity and improvisation adds up to the totality of the work of art.
The unexpectedness of the changes brought about by improvisation makes the artwork to have
a distinctive quality that creates its individuality and identity Some artists subscribe to the idea of
allowing chances in the process of producing the work. For example, artists would want to
capture the gloom brought about by an approaching storm or the beauty of a meteor shower at
night. Since they do not necessarily have absolute control over natural phenomena, their
reliance on chances may not necessarily produce their expected outcome. Artists allowing their
subjects to do improvisation may have totally different results as well.

When an artist makes his wordinbet has already an idea of the elements that wil be included in
his work. As he benprovisatraft his work, he may have deviated bas original plan. So in sos,
nant improvisation is evident in the process of making the painting. During the 1960sce arts,
dance, and vi lukion form in the galleries around paw York City. Performance arts, dance, and
visual arts were combined to create New forms of artworks using a new medium. These
performances were known as the "Happenings which later on paved the way for modern body
art and performance art. One of central figures in the improvisation movement was Georges
Mathieu He Started the "action painting" wherein the process is seen real-time. In this scenario,
the process is more important than the finished product

Marta Minunjin Performance Art

It shows how improvisation allows for a certain extent of freedom for the artist to improvise and
allow the subject to perform and embody the artwork itself. To a certain extent, it allows the
artist to explore and think about how the audience can actually be a part of the work in itself.
Improvisation may have been Trevolutionary concept when it comes to art because it blurs the
line of reality and that of imagination.

Appropriation
If, for example, an artist created a painting and displayed it in a museum, who do you think
owns the artwork: the artist or his intended audience? During the twentieth century, people
started raising the question whether or not the act of deriving meaning gives the ownership of
the artwork to the viewer rather than the artist himself. This notion paved the way for the
emergence of appropriation artists who seem to promote the idea that the authorship relies on
the viewer. If this is the case, then appropriation artists can take as much as he wants from an
existing artwork.

Appropriation of art has been a common practice throughout history. In the past. if an apprentice
painter needs to hone his skills in his craft, he would be allowed to use his master's work to
copy. It is as if the apprentice is trying to explore his personal application of techniques to
something he is more familiar with. However, there are some people who go to the extreme by
believing that copying the exact artwork of an artist and attributing it to his own. This could pose
a problem especially with authorship. The problem arises when the appropriation artist would
get bits and pieces from other works and incorporate these elements into his own work. In
addition, when appropriation artists eschew the responsibility for putting up the details of other
works and integrating them into their own, their voices and perspectives of the other artists get
lost with that of the appropriation artist. There seems to be a very thin demarcation line between
appropriation art and forgery. Traditionally, forgery can be classified into wo forms: outright
copies of existing works and pastiches, which are works that bring together elements from a
work bones, forgery can be in the and infusing them to a a new work. But in form of creating an
approximate of what do by prediction. This can be done by observing the techniques and style
the and employed and even the focal points highlighted in his previous and existing works
contemporary.

The intentions of the appropriation artists are often questioned since issues of plagiarism or
forgery sometimes arise. Some would argue that the reason behind the appropriation is that
they want the audience to recognize the images they copied There is a hope on the part of the
artist for the viewers to see the original work in a new perspective. That appropriation would
bring about a new context to the original work. One of the most famous works of appropriation
would have to be Andy Warhol's "Campbell's Soup Cans" (1962). Warhol copied the original
labels of the soup can but deliberately filled up the entire picture plane. The idea of putting
together of the soup cans is something new for the audience. Just like any product, the brand is
integral to Campbell's identity. As an artist, Warhol decided to isolate the image of the product.
This attempt could in turn stimulate product recognition. A common viewer would associate the
Campbell soup with the portraits of the soup cans. This association would bring about a certain
kind of craving for the said product. In a way, it is a subtle form of advertising that would entice
the consumer to buy and patronize the product.

When an artist creates something, there is a desire for him or her to elicit a certain kind of
response from his audience. To a certain extent, the artist is considered as the first and primary
audience of the work. There is this notion that art should be perceived as something that would
engage and enrich the experience of the audience as the artist tries to piece together all the
elements grounded on design rules. However, there have been art movements throughout
history that tried to break away from the norms of visual arts. Improvisations have led artists to
find other medium and avenues to showcase their creative expression. The certain level of
freedom and creativity experienced in art can also lead to appropriations. When it comes to art
appropriation, there seems to be a debate whether or not something is just an appropriation of
an existing work or just plain forgery.