LESSON 1 – COMPUTER REVOLUTION - Early programming languages:

FORTRAN, COBOL
First Digital Computer: Invented by Charles
Babbage (1833-1871) — Known as the Father of Third Generation (1964-1971):
Computer
- Integrated Circuits (ICs) developed by
ABACUS: First calculating tool (3000 BC) for Robert Noyce & Jack Kilby
arithmetic operations - Increased speed, efficiency, and reduced
cost
Napier’s Bones: Invented by John Napier (1617) - Languages: BASIC, Pascal, ALGOL
for multiplication and division
Fourth Generation (1971-Present):
Slide Rule: Created by E. Gunter (1620) for basic
operations — addition, subtraction, - Microprocessors — all circuits on a
multiplication, and division single chip (e.g., Intel 4004)
- Personal computers (e.g., Apple II)
Pascal Calculator (Pascaline): Invented by Blaise - Network evolution and increased
Pascal (17th century) for basic arithmetic portability

Stepped Reckoner: Developed by Gottfried Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond):

Leibniz (1673) — first digital mechanical
calculator - Based on Artificial Intelligence (AI)
- Use of VLSI and ULSI technology
Difference Engine: Created by Charles Babbage - Examples: Laptops, Desktops,
(1820s) — first automatic mechanical calculator Supercomputers
- Focus on natural language processing
Analytical Engine: Successor to the Difference and parallel processing
Engine (1830) — general-purpose computation
LESSON 2 – BASIC STRUCTURES OF COMPUTERS
Tabulating Machine: Invented by Herman
Hollerith (1880s) for processing punched cards TYPES OF COMPUTERS
- Personal Computers (PCs): Home and
Mechanical & Electrical Calculator: Evolved office use
from manual devices to transistor-based systems - Notebooks: Portable PCs (laptops)
- Workstations: High-performance for
Modern Electric Calculator: Utilizes transistors engineering and design
for advanced computations - Enterprise Systems: For large-scale
business processing
- Supercomputers: Complex calculations
GENERATION OFCOMPUTERS (e.g., weather forecasting)

First Generation (1940-1956): BASIC COMPUTER COMPONENTS

- Input Devices: Keyboard, mouse,
- Vacuum Tubes (developed by John scanner — capture data
Ambrose Fleming) - Memory Unit:
- ENIAC - first general-purpose electronic o Primary Memory: RAM
computer (volatile), ROM (non-volatile)
- UNIVAC I & II - first commercial o Secondary Memory: Hard
computers drives, CDs, USBs — long-term
storage
Second Generation (1956-1963): - Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs
calculations and logical operations
- Transistors (developed by John - Output Devices: Monitors, printers —
Bardeen, Walter Brattain, William display results
Shockley) - Control Unit: Coordinates all computer
- Faster, smaller, and more reliable than operations
vacuum tubes
LESSON 3 – OPERATING SYSTEM Memory Management
- Allocates RAM to processes and
OPERATING SYSTEM optimizes memory use.
- An interface between computer
hardware and the user. - Example: Switching between browser
- Manages resources, allowing smooth tabs smoothly.
execution of applications. File System Management
- Without an OS, computers can't execute - Organizes and retrieves files on storage
programs or manage hardware. devices.
- Acts as the computer's "brain," ensuring - Example: Saving documents in specific
communication between hardware and directories.
software. Device Management
- Interfaces between the OS and
hardware devices.
EVOLUTION OF OPERATING SYSTEM - Example: Detecting and accessing a USB
drive.
Batch Systems User Interface Management
- Developed in the 1950s for mainframes. - Provides GUI or CLI for user interaction.
- Used punched cards, printers, and tape - Example: Clicking icons to open
drives. applications.
- Jobs were executed in batches without Security & Access Control
user interaction. - Protects data and manages user
Time-Sharing Systems authentication.
- Introduced multiprogramming to - Example: Password verification during
optimize resource use. login.
- Resources shared between jobs for Networking
efficiency. - Manages internet and local network
- Users felt like they had exclusive access connections.
to the system. - Example: Connecting to Wi-Fi securely.
Personal Systems
- Developed for personal computers
(PCs). SCHEDULING PROCESS
- Early example: MS-DOS, a single-user OS
with a command-line interface. COMPLETION TIME (CT)
Parallel Systems - Time at with a process of completes its
- Multiple CPUs handle multiple tasks execution
simultaneously. - CT = ST + BT
- Complex OS designs for efficient parallel
processing. TURN AROUND TIME (TAT)
Distributed Systems - Total time taken by a process from
- Enabled networking and resource arrival to completion
sharing across multiple systems. - TAT = CT – AT
- Combines features of previous OS types
with a focus on security. WAITING TIME (WT)
Real-Time Systems - WT = TAT – BT
- Designed for tasks with strict timing
constraints. AVERAGE TAT
- Used in applications that - Sum all the Turnaround Times (TAT) and
monitor/control external processes. divide by the number of processes.

AVERAGE WT
FUNCTION OF OPERATING SYSTEMS - Sum all the Waiting Times (WT) and
divide by the number of processes.
Process Management
- Manages running applications, ensuring
efficient CPU usage.
- Example: Running multiple applications
simultaneously.
PROCESS SCHEDULING ALGORITHMS

First Come First Serve (FCFS)

- Processes are executed in the order
they arrive.

Shortest Job First (SJF):

- The process with the shortest estimated
execution time is executed next.

Priority Non-Preemptive:
- Processes are assigned priority levels;
the one with the highest priority is
executed first.

Highest Response Ratio Next (HRRN):

- The process with the highest response
ratio is selected next: