.

Reinforced Concrete Design

Structural Engineering
SUS4A11

Prof. Stephen O. Ekolu

B1Lab Rm222
Department of Civil Engineering Science
University of Johannesburg

Contents
1. Materials properties and behaviour
2. Design principles and loads
3. Beam /slab analysis of forces (SFD & BMD)
4. Code requirements
5. R.C theory and section analysis
6. Beam design
7. Slab design
8. Column design
9. Foundations
10. Prestressed concrete
Appendices
Topics 1-4 are foundational (theory) to structural design in topics 5-9 (core)

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Schedule
Up to mid-semester recess
1. Topics 1-5 Sec 5.2 Analysis for ULS
2. Tuts 1-3: 1(prelim sizing & design loads), 3 (col
loads)
3. Assign 1 & 2

After mid-semester recess

3. Topics 6-10
4. Tut 4 (beams), 5 (slabs), 6 (columns)
5. Assig 3 (frame analy)

References
Reading
1. Design of Reinforced Concrete Structural
Elements (to SABS 0100-1:1992) by Greg Parrot
2. Reinforced Concrete Design by WH. Mosley, J.H
Bungey & R. Hulse, 5th Ed. 1999
3. SANS 10100-1 (SABS 0100-1): The Structural
Use of Concrete. Part 1: Design

Data & Formulae Books

1. Structural design data
2. Beam design formulae with shear amd moment
diagrams

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 .

Introduction to
Reinforced Concrete Structures

Structural Engineering
SUS 4A11

Prof. Stephen O. Ekolu

B1Lab Rm222
Department of Civil Engineering Science
University of Johannesburg

Structural Elements

Objectives:
• To know the different structural elements of
typical reinforced concrete structures
• Understand how the structural elements
are connected to form a rigid frame
• To gain knowledge about the construction
and failures

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Typical RC elements – beam/slab construction

RC elements – flat slab construction

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RC elements

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FOUNDATIONS
Support columns and transfer loads from the superstructure
to the soil or rock beneath the ground surface

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Isolated column footing

Combined footing

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Strap footing

Combined footing elements

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Footing on piles, caissons or drilled piers

Deep foundations - piles

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RC elements

Flat slab elements

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Flat plate with drop panel

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Flat plate slabs

1-way slab with

columns

2-way slab with

columns

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Elements of a retaining wall

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1-way ribbed /waffle slab

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2-way ribbed slab

2-way ribbed slab

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Reinforced Concrete Design

(Struc Engrg SUS4A11)

Material Properties and Behaviour

(Topic 1)

Prof. Stephen O. Ekolu

B1 Lab Rm 222
Department of Civil Engineering Science
University of Johannesburg

Material Properties and Behaviour

R.C consists of two structural materials components of:

• Concrete
• Steel (reinforcement)

Before going into aspects of design it is important to

understand the relevant characteristics of these two
materials, and how properties of one tend to complement
those qualities lacking in the other. In the making of R.C.,
steel is embedded in the concrete material forming a
composite product of high performance and wide range of
applications than any other material used in modern
construction.

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Material Properties and Behaviour

CONCRETE STEEL
Compression good / strong good
Tension poor /weak good
Shear fair good
Corrosion good poor (corrodes)
Fire resistance good poor

Looking at these qualities and material weaknesses, it

follows that the two materials complement each other.
Concrete provides good compressive strength and protects
steel from fire and corrosion, while steel brings tensile
strength that concrete lacks.

Concrete
1.Fresh Concrete
A designer aims at obtaining hardened concrete of desired
quality and strength. Consideration should therefore be given
to the ingredients of concrete making.

Concrete is an artificial rock made as a mixture of primary

constituents consisting of hydraulic cement, fine aggregate
(sand), coarse aggregate (stone), and water. Upon mixing of
the constituents, hydraulic cement reacts with water in an
irreversible chemical reaction known as hydration, and
develops binding properties to hold together aggregates and
all other constituent materials present in the mixture. During
hardening, the concrete mixture attains its strength gain
through this chemical process.

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1.1 Ingredients

1.1.1 Portland cement

Modern hydraulic Portland cement is attributed to Joseph

Aspidin of Leeds, UK who patented the product in 1824. The
name Portland was used because the hardened cement or
concrete had the appearance of then commonly used building
stone quarried from the Isle of Portland, near Dorset in
England.

The standard types of Portland cements manufactured in

South Africa fall into classifications CEM I to CEM V (see
SANS 50197-1)

SANS EN 197

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Cements can be grouped into four categories:

• Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
• Rapid Hardening Portland cement (RHPC)
• PortlandBlast-Furnace Cement (BFPC)
• Pozzolanic cement (POZZC)

OPC: Is regular cement used for general purposes. Its has

relatively low early strength. It requires 28 days to attained its
full strength.

RHPC: The cement is more finely ground and its chemical

compounds are manipulated during production to give high
early strength. The specified strength is achieved in 7 days
rather than 28 days. It is often used in high cement contents
and high heat of hydration is produced. It is therefore not
recommended for use in large pours of mass concrete such
as dams.

PBFC: This is a low heat cement. It normally contains (35 to

95% slag). Slag, a by-product from production of steel and
iron, is blended with Portland cement. BFPC is cheaper than
the other cements and its low heat is suitable for large
concrete pours but requires proper and longer curing periods
than OPC or RHPC.

POZZC: This cement normally contains 10 to 55% of

pozzolans other than slag, blended with Portland cement.
Like slag, these pozzolans are waste products usually fly
ash, silica fume, or materials from natural sources such as
volcanic ash, tuff, kaolin etc. Pozzolans in themselves
posses no binding properties but when mixed with lime and
water, they attain cementitious properties similar to those of
Portland cement.

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 .

It should be noted that use of pozzolans has important

applications in protection of concrete against deterioration in
situations such as exposure to sulphates, marine
environment, or use of reactive aggregates that would cause
concrete to expand and crack.

Modern concrete making has become quite complicated. The

mixture may contain one pozzolan or a ternary blend
containing two or more pozzolans e.g. 5% silica fume, 25%
slag, 70% Portland cement.

1.1.2 Aggregates
These may be crushed rock, crushed boulders, or natural
gravel. Aggregates larger than 4.75 mm in size are
categorized as coarse aggregate or stone, while those of
sizes smaller than 4,75 mm are fine aggregates or sand.

Grading or sieve analysis of aggregates (SANS 1083) is a

means of establishing the distribution of various aggregate
sizes in the aggregate pile. Specified grading must be met for
the aggregate to be used in concrete.

Coarse aggregates form about 75% of the concrete. They

influence strength, quality and appearance of concrete. The
coarse aggregate sizes used in concrete are in addition to
other factors, determined by the size of structural member
being cast, i.e. whether it is a slender member such as panel
(in which case smaller aggregates sizes must be used) or a
large structure such as a dam, where aggregates as large as
150 mm size have been used.

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1.1.3 Water
In general, the water suitable for drinking is considered good
for concrete making

1.1.4 Chemical admixtures

These are chemical additives often added into concrete during
mixing in order to modify the behaviour of concrete as a fresh
mix or in hardened state. The following admixture types are
most common:
• Water reducers: these improve workability, reduce amount of cement
and reduce w/c without affecting strength
• Accelerators: accelerate setting of the mix
• Retardants: Slow down setting e.g. to allow long finishing times
• Superplasticizers: are used for highly workable concrete mixes
requiring little or no compaction e.g for areas of very congested reinft.
• Air entrainers: Used in cold climates to entrain 5 to 8% air in hardened
concrete for resistance against freeze-thaw damage. They also
improve workability

1.2 Mixtures

Paste is the mixture of cement and water, and fills the voids
between fine aggregate particles. The paste and sand
combine to form mortar, which fills voids between coarse
aggregates forming concrete.

Concrete is identified by its strength and durability. In

proportioning of concrete mixes two approaches are
recognized and commonly used:

• Standard arbitrary mixes

• Designed mixes

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For arbitrary mixes, material proportions are given by ratios

of cement to aggregates. Water to be added is estimated to
give the desired workability. The common proportions in use
are given in the table below:-
e.g. 1: 2: 4 mix represents the proportions of cement to sand
to stone.
(~ 1960’s, CP 114)
1: 3: 6 blinding
1: 2: 4 20 MPa
1: 1½ :3 25 MPa
1: 1: 2 30 MPa

Note: In South Africa you might find some of the mix

proportions and their recommended use written on cement
bags

There also many existing mix design approaches in use. We

will consider the single most important parameter used in mix
design to determine concrete strength, that is, the Water-
Cement (W/C) ratio. It is known, as shown in the figure below
that w/c has a very strong influence on concrete strength,
and also on concrete durability.

The typical W/C ratios Conventional concrete 0.45 – 0.80 w/c

used in concretes are: High strength concrete 0.25 – 0.40 w/c

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1.3 Hardened Concrete

1.3.1 Compressive Strength
Concrete strength is determined at 28 days by crushing
of concrete cubes of standards sizes 100 x 100 x 100
mm or 150 x 150 x 150 mm

The typical concrete strengths used for various

structural elements range from 20 to 50 MPa:

ELement Compr Strength

(MPa)
Reinforced concrete 25 - 50
Suspended slabs 25 - 30
Surface bed / floor slabs 30
Columns 30
Foundations 25

To a designer, strength, workability and durability are the

principal considerations in specifying concretes for use
in structural design. This can be achieved by specifying:
• concrete strength/grade
• w/c and cement content
• slump

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1.3.2 Strength grade

The grade of concrete is given by its strength and specified
on the basis of ‘characteristic strength’, fk. This is term is
statistically defined as

Characteristic strength, fk = fm –1.64σ

It implies, if several cubes of the same concrete mix are crushed, the mean
strength of the crushed cubes is and the standard deviation, σ is determined
from the equation

f = individual strength of cubes crushed

n = the total number of cubes crushed

e.g. Grade 20 concrete indicates that if several cubes of a concrete mix are tested at 28
days, NOT MORE THAN 5% of the results will fall below 20 MPa . This approach is applied
to ensure that the concrete used throughout the structure is of uniform quality and strength.

1.3.2 Strength grade

The grade of concrete is given by its strength and specified
on the basis of ‘characteristic strength’, fk. This is term is
statistically defined as

Characteristic strength, fk = fm –1.64σ

f = individual strength of cubes crushed

n = the total number of cubes crushed

It implies, if several cubes of the same concrete mix are

crushed, the mean strength of the crushed cubes is and the
standard deviation, σ is determined from the equation

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 .

• Statistical distribution: normal

• Characteristic strength
value below which it is
unlikely that more than 5% of
the results will fall
• fk = fm –1.64σ

E.g. Grade 20 concrete indicates that if several cubes of a

concrete mix are tested at 28 days, not more than 5% of
the results will fall below 20 MPa . This approach is applied
to ensure that the concrete used throughout the structure
is of uniform quality and strength.
There are six concrete grades specified in the design
Code (SANS 10100-1992, Table 2)
Concrete Grade
20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50
(fcu = characteristic strength)

1.3.3 Stress-strain behaviour of concrete (Elastic Modulus)

Concrete is not linearly elastic, but visco-elastic, i.e. the

stress-strain relationship is time dependent, and if concrete
is stressed, some irreversible deformation occurs.

1) Initial Tangent Modulus

2) Secant Modulus for Stress σ
3) Secant Modulus for Unloading

Young’s Modulus cannot therefore be defined uniquely, but

must be defined for a particular stress range. Most
commonly, E is given as the secant modulus for the
working stress range. Furthermore, moduli derived from
short-term (rapid) or long-term loading must be specified,
and for design, the long-term modulus is usually used.

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Elastic modulus, E = Stress/Strain

Modulus of elasticity of normal concrete (SABS0100,

Table C1)
Characteristic Static modulus (Ec)
strength, fcu (Mpa)
20 25 21-29
25 26 22-30
30 28 23-33
40 31 26-36
50 34 28-40
60 36 30-42

On Shrinkage, creep and thermal movement (Read Mosley et al., concrete

technology bks etc. )

Concrete has zero (assumed) tensile strength. So its σ-

ε curves are only in compression, generally non-linear.
It is approximately straight line up to about 50% of max
stress. Peak stress is reached at about 2000 µε. Visible
signs of disintegration arise at approx. 3500 µε.

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Steel (Reinforcement)
1.4 Typical stress-strain behaviour of steel

Idealised stress-strain graph

for reinforcement steel:
fy(tension) = fy(compr)

Nearly all steel used as reinforcement is of round shape

but have different surface characteristics:- smooth,
twisted, ribbed bars. Steel used for reinforcement of
concrete is categorized as:
• mild steel
• high-yield steel
Their properties and uses are given in the table:
Designation Yield Stress, Features and Use
and Sizes fy
Round; smooth surface; used as
R6, R8, R10,
reinft.
Mild steel R12, R16, 250 MPa
Used as links or stirrups for shear e.g.
R20, R25, R32
in R.C beams & columns
Deformed surfaces (twisted or ribbed)
Y10, Y12,
for good bonding with concrete;
High yield steel Y16, Y20, 450 MPa
Used as main reinforcement in
Y25, Y32
structural members
Welded into a mesh;
Steel wire mesh 485 MPa Usually used for reinforcement of
slabs

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Bending Beyond the Elastic Limit

Consider bending of a beam of rectangular cross-

section (isotropic material)

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Reinforced Concrete Design

(Struc Engrg SUS4A11)

Design Principles and Loads

(Topic 2)

Prof. Stephen O. Ekolu

B1 Lab Rm 222
Department of Civil Engineering Science
University of Johannesburg

Design Principles and Loads

2.1 The complete process of design

Basically, design involves two main stages:

• Conceptual design
• Structural design (preliminary and detailed design)

Conceptual Design is the first step of any design process. It

synchronizes various considerations to meet the purpose of
the design e.g. size, appearance, location, cost, accessibility,
safety, economy among others. Hence it usually involves
wide multi-disciplinary consultation with the client,
professionals in the built environment (architects, structural
engineer, surveyors, quantity surveyors etc.), local authority
etc.

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Structural Design: Normally, a structure is first analyzed

as a whole frame to obtain its moment distributions and
shear forces, then the individual structural elements are
designed.

This stage involves preliminary sizing of the individual

members that make up the whole structure i.e. beams,
slabs, columns, foundations. In practice, designers have
developed rules of thumbs that can be used for preliminary
sizing of members before conducting complex calculations.
Most of these rules of thumbs are based on design codes
and practical experience.

Detailed design calculations are then done to check the

preliminary member sizes and to accurately determine the
required amount of steel reinforcement.

This module is concerned with the structural member

design, typically conducted in two stages:

• Preliminary sizing of structural elements and

approximation of reinft.

• Detailed design. Preliminary member sizes are

adjusted as the amount of reinft is calculated to meet
specific code requirements

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2.2 Design philosophy

When a structure fails to fulfill the function(s) for which it is

designed, the structure is said to have reached a Limit
State. In design, the aim is to ensure or at least increase the
chances that a structure does not reach its limit state during
its life. Two limit states are applied in R.C. design:
• Ultimate Limit State (ULS): A structure is said to have
reached its ULS when part or whole structure collapses
due to failure of members to support those loads for
which it was designed to resist.
• Serviceability Limit State (SLS): Even though a
structure may be safe, SLS can be reached when it
becomes unfit for occupation due to ‘warning factors’
usually, excessive deflection, cracking, vibrations, fire
resistance, durability (e.g corrosion).

It is easy to see that ULS is more critical than SLS. Hence

in R.C design:

• Elements are designed for ULS first then checked for

SLS

• Higher safety factors are used for ULS design than for
SLS design.

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2.3 Partial safety factors

‘Failure’ is defined by a mathematical model comprising of a

load variable (S) and a resistance variable (R). The two
variables (R, S) can be any quantities (& any units) that
cancel out each other. Failure occurs when loading exceeds
the resistance.
failure = R < S
p.s.f are applied to so that a designed structure has a higher
capacity than actual loading, as such it should not reach its
limit state during service i.e safety is ensured.

p.s.f’s
Capacity

Loading
Resistance (designed)
(anticipated)

2.3.1 Partial safety factors for materials (SABS100:

cl.3.3):

The strengths of the materials used in design calculations

are supposed to be the values specified for the structure and
checked by physical test of a specimen. However, the
strengths as they exist in the structure are usually different
from those obtained from a test specimen. They also change
with time, not ignoring the fact that test specimen will contain
deformities. The p.s.fs (γm) for materials are therefore
introduced and applied to reduce the actual strength value
used in design calculations:

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fy
Design strength =
γm

Steel:
Under tension, design strength =

Under compression, design strength =

Concrete:
Under tension, design strength = 0

Under compression, design strength =

The factor takes account of the difference between cube
behaviour and structural member.

2.3.2 Partial safety factors for loads (SANS10100-1:

cl.3.3, also SANS10160 Table 2) All structures will be
subjected to different types of loads, mostly consisting of:
Dead loads (DL) being loads due to self-weight i.e. those
loads that are permanently rested upon the structure or
member throughout its service. Imposed or Live loads (LL)
are those loads that occur on and off the structure i.e.
transient. These are mostly loads due to occupancy
(humans, cars, furniture etc), wind, rain. Other load types
are: wind loads (WL), earthquake loads etc.
These normal loads (DL, LL, WL) are factored by p.s.fs to
ensure that a member is designed to higher load resistance
than would occur under normal loading conditions. The aim
is to safeguard against unpredictable variations during use
of the structure and also help to cover against inaccuracies
or some errors in design and construction practices.

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The SANS 0160, Table 2 recommended p.s.fs for

common applications are given below i.e structural
members (beams, columns, slabs, etc) must be designed
to be capable of supporting the loads as follows:

2.4 Structural elements

The typical structural elements in R.C. design and
construction are shown in the sketch given. The main
members /elements are beams, slabs, columns, and
footings.

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2.5 R.C. Design principle

Earlier we saw that concrete is good in compression but

poor in tension while steel is good in both compression
and tension. Hence in design, the tensile strength of
concrete is assumed to be zero. The underlying principle
in R.C design is to identify those areas of tension in a
member, then steel bars are embedded in these areas in
proper amount so as to provide adequate resistance to
tension.

2.5.1 Simple beams and slabs

A simply supported beam or slab will develop tension at the

bottom fibres. Steel bars are therefore embedded along the
bottom of the member from one support to the other to
provide resistance to tension.

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2.5.2 Continuous beams and slabs

For a continuous beam or slab supported over many
supports, tension will be developed in the top fibres at
supports and in bottom fibres between supports. In this
case, steel bars are embedded alternately at the top and at
the bottom of section along beam length.
Tension Tension

Tension Tension

2.5.3 Columns
A column that is either eccentrically loaded or bent by beam
deflection or rotation, will develop tension and compression
as shown. It is normal practice to simply embed steel bars
at the sides of a column along its full length. Steel reinft
also increases load carrying capacity of the column section.

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2.5.4 Foundations
Tension will develop directly below columns, while hogging
will occur between columns of combined footings

2.5.5 Shear in flexural members

Shear failure cracks in members are counteracted by
placing properly spaced links or stirrups. Mild steel of
diameter R6 to R12 is usually used for stirrups /links.

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2.5.6 Design codes

Codes are recommended guidelines and procedures used
by designers to produce proper designs. They ensure that
all important considerations are given to the structural
member under design. The established modern codes for
R.C. design are:
ACI 318 (U.S & North America)
BS 8110 (UK)
SANS 10100 (RSA)
Our R.C. design course is based on SANS 10100 & SANS
10160 (mostly similar to BS8110)

2.6. Characterisic and Design Loads

The design loads used in analysis of forces (BMD and

SFD) must be accurately determined based on the
(anticipated) dead loads and imposed loads to which the
structure will be subjected.

DLs are calculated from standard unit weights of materials

while ILs are determined based on occupancies or use of
the structure. Design tables 1 & 2 give some of the
recommended typical unit weights used for calculating DL
and IL respectively.

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DESIGN TABLE 1
Selected unit weights for calculating DL (see SANS 10160)
CONCRETE kN/m3 ROOFING kN/m2
Clay or concrete tiles 0.50
Unreinforced concrete 23 6 m timber truss at 0.6 m c/c 0.15
Reinforced concrete 24 9 m steel trusses at 4 m c/c 0.10

R.C SLABS kN/m2 PARTITIONS kN/m2

Slabs: thickness: 75 mm 1,9 Light partitions (timber, glazing) 1.0
100 mm 2,4 120 mm wide, solid brickwork 2.6
150 mm 3,6 120 mm wide, perforated brickwork 2.2
250 mm 6,1 200 mm wide, solid concrete 4.4
blockwork
300 mm 7,3 200 mm wide, hollow concrete 2.8
blockwork

FINISHES kN/m2 per IF NOT SPECIFIED (ISE MANUAL)

(ROOF, FLOOR, CEILING) mm
thickness
Cement mortar 0,023 Floor finish, allow 75 mm cement 1.7
screed screed
Terrazo screeds 0,023 Ceiling & services, allow 0.5
Clay floor tiles 0,044 Partitions, allow solid brickwork 2.6
PVC floor covering 0,016
Asphalt 0,022
Lime plaster 0,019

DESIGN TABLE 2
Selected occupancies of IL (see SANS 10160-1989, Table 4 for detailed list)
Occupancy udl, kN/m2
Rooms in dwelling units, educational & 1,5
hospital buildings, hotels
Floors Classrooms, lecture theatres 2,0
Garages & parking for cars 2,0
Offices for general use 3,0
Restaurants, dining, communal 3,0
bathrooms
Flat roofs (slope ≤ 10o) 2,0
Roofs Pitched roofs (slope ≤ 30o) 0,75
Pitched roofs 30 <A< 60o (slope = Ao) (60-A)/40

DESIGN TABLE 3
Design load combinations
For ULS: Dead load only 1.5Dn

Dead & live loads 1.2Dn + 1.6Ln

Dead loads, live loads & wind loads 1.2Dn + 0.5Ln+1.3Wn

Dead loads & wind loads 0.9Dn + 1.3Wn

For SLS: Dead & live loads 1.1Dn + 1.Ln

Dead loads, live loads & wind loads 1.1Dn + 0.3Ln + 0.6Wn

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Load calculation – DL & LL

• Dead loads (DL), Dn
- due to self-weight, calc from unit weights
given in D. table 1 e.g. concrete ρ = 24 kN/m3
- slabs, weight depends on thickness, h
common h = 75 – 300 mm
- finishes: cement screed, clay tiles, PVC

• Live or imposed loads (IL), Ln

Transient “on & off” loads i.e. due to occupancy
Cars in parking structs, humans on lecture halls
Given in D.table 2 e.g. flat roofs, Qn = 2.0 kN/m3

Slab Loads
Partitions
Tiling etc.
Screed
Slab

Plaster/ceiling finish
Example 2.1 (Ref. D.Table 3)
Slab h = 150 mm = 3.60 kN/m2
25 mm cement screed = 0.58
3 mm clay tiles = 0.13
Ceiling finish – don’t know = 0.50
Partitions- 120 mm perforated bricks = 2.20
Dead load, Dn = 7.0 kN/m2

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Beam Loads

LL = {on/off objects
finishes

DL = slab self − wt
beam self − wt


Column Loads

Loads from upper columns

+
Loads from beam supports
(incl. finishes & slabs
+
X
Self-wt of column X

Total load on column X

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Load Paths

Load paths provides principle method for load

transfer analysis

Tributary Area & Load Path Concepts

Tributary area is that area of the floor or roof
supported by a member (UBC)
Load path & tributary area are different concepts

Load Path Method – Beam

reactions used to calc loads on
columns

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Tributary Area & Load Diagram

DL = 7 kN/m2
LL = 3 kN/m2
Tributary areas for Beams B2, B1, Col C?
Problem: Draw load diagram for beam B2

Tributary Area & Load Diagram

(Example 2.2)

L1 = ? L2 = ?
Characteristic DL, Dn = 7 x(L1+L2)*0.5 = 35 kn/m2
Characteristic LL, Ln = 3 x (L1+L2)*0.5 = 15
ULS design load, w = ?

w =? 66 kN/m
Note: Characteristic DL/LL - the term
‘characteristic’ is used when load
calculated include the tributary area

44
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Reinforced Concrete Design

(Struc Engrg SUS4A11)

Analysis of Forces
(Topic 3)

Prof. Stephen O. Ekolu

B1 Lab Rm 222
Department of Civil Engineering Science
University of Johannesburg

Beam/Slab Analysis of Forces-BMDs & SFDs

Before going into determination of BMs and SFs,

the situation of the structure under analysis has
to be correctly interpreted and expressed as free
body diagram. Some of the important
considerations here are:-
• Identification of the type of support: fixed,
hinged or simple
• Type of loading i.e. UDL or point load, and
position of loading.

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3.1 Supports

There are three kinds of supports: roller, hinged

(pinned) and fixed support.
a. Roller supports are capable of supporting only
vertical loads but not horizontal forces.

b. Hinged supports are capable of support both

vertical and horizontal components of forces but
unable to resist bending moments. The roller and
hinged supports are sometimes referred to as
simple supports (SS).

c. Fixed supports are capable of supporting

moments in addition to vertical and horiz forces.

Roller supports

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Roller support Hinged (pinned) support Fixed support

Is this RS or HS?

What type of
support?

Hinged
support

Roller
support

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Multi-span
railway
bridge

Fixed
support

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3.2 Loading patterns for worst case scenario

Concerns the positioning of load combinations in

such a manner as to obtain maximum moments. In
multi-span beam it is normally sufficient to
consider two main arrangements:

• All spans uniformly loaded with 1.2Dn+1.6Ln

(Case 1)
• All spans loaded with 1.2Dn + alternate spans
loaded with 1.6Ln (Case 2)

(Case 1)

Maximum sagging &

(Case 2) hogging moments

2 & 3 span beams

49
 .

3.3 Analysis Methods

1) Single span beams & slabs
Use standard formulae – Refer to Beam Design
Formulae BK, Fig. 1 & Fig. 29
Example 2.3
= 43.2 kN/m = 13 kN/m

=4m =4m
=7m
wL2
M= = 26 kN.m
8

wL2 9wL 2
M= M=
8 128
= 265 kN.m = 14.6 kN.m

2) Continuous (multispan) beams & slabs

Two (unavoidable) methods typically used to

derive BMDs & SFDs of multispan members:
• Moment distribution method (MDM)
• Coefficients method

3.3.1 Moment distribution method

Is an accurate method for economical design as it
leads to a more exact curtailment of reinft based
on the BMD. However, the method can be quite
laborious. It is based on distribution of moments at
supports by distribution factors (D.F) that are
related to the stiffness of the adjacent members.

50
 .

Stiffness (k) and D.F:

Consider a two span, uniform beam

Stiffness, k = EI/L
For a member of a uniform x-section size and material type:
Relative stiffness k = 1/L

Distribution Factors (DF):

Support A (pinned) : DF = 1 (stiffness = 0, unable to transfer
moments)
Support C (Fixed : DF = 0 (stiffness = 1, fully ‘passes on’
moments)
Span BA : DF = KAB/(KAB+KBC) = LBC/(LAB+LBC)
Span BC : DF = KBC/(KAB+KBC) = LAB/(LAB+LBC)

But in a multispan beam, there are so many possible

loading pattern/s that can arise. How do we select
the critical patterns out of (i) - (vii)?
(Case i)
Alternate loading
Gives max. span
single spans
moments

(Case ii)
Alternate loading
single spans

(Case iii)
Alternating loading
double spans Gives max.
support moments

51
 .

(Case iV)
Alternating loading
double spans

(Case V)
Alternating loading
double spans

(Case Vi) Nominal &

Uniform loading convinient

(Case Vii)
Uniform loading

In selecting loading patterns for design purposes,

the critical arrangements are those that give:
• Maximum span moments i.e Case (i) or (ii)
depending on the relative span lengths
• Maximum support moments i.e Case (ii) or (iv)
depending on the relative span lengths
• Nominal moments i.e Case (vi)

However, it is often sufficient to consider only two

critical case scenarios (Ref. Parrot):
• Single spans loaded with alternate loading so
as to give maximum span moments.
• Maximum UDL uniform loading on all spans
(case vi)

52
 .

But in a multispan beam, which loading pattern is

appropriate to use in determining SFD/BMD - (i), (ii) or
(iii) ?
(Case i)
Alternating

(Case ii)
Alternating

(Case iii)
Uniform

Design Shear Forces /Moments (Envelopes)

The SFD & BMDs of each critical loading

arrangement i.e (i),(iii) & (vi) in the above case,
are then determined. By superimposing these
diagrams, maximum SFs and BMs are connected
to form a single diagram referred to as the
envelope.

These maximum values of shear force and

moments(from the envelope), are the correct
values to be used in design calculations.
Ref. Mosley et al., Figs 3.7 to 3.9

53
 .

Example 3.1 (MDM calcs)

Determine:
• Support moments by MDM
• Reactions & draw SFD
• Maximum moments at spans & draw BMD

The reaction at any support is =

reactions due to vertical loads at either side spans
+ reactions due to differences in moments at either side spans

Vert Load on AB Vert Load on BC (M BA − M AB ) (M BC − M CB )

RB = + + +
2 2 L L
Note: In applying this formula: do not use +/- signs

(Case ii)

Cyc DF 0.0 1.0 0.4 0.6 0.667 0.333 0.0 1.0

1 FEM -45 +45 -29.3 +29.3 -80 +80 0.0
BAL +45 -6.3 -9.4 +33.8 +16.7 0 -80
2 C.O -3.2 +22.5 +16.9 +4.7 0 +8.4 0.0
BAL +3.2 -15.8 -23.6 -3.1 1.6 0.0 -8.4
3

54
 .

(Case ii)

Cyc DF 0.000 1.000 0.400 0.600 0.667 0.333 0.000 1.000

1 FEM -45.0 45.0 -29.3 29.3 -80.0 80.0 0.0
BAL 45.0 -6.3 -9.4 33.8 16.9 0.0 -80.0
2 C.O -3.1 22.5 16.9 -4.7 0.0 8.4 0.0
BAL 3.1 -15.8 -23.6 3.1 1.6 0.0 -8.4
3 C.O -7.9 1.6 1.6 -11.8 0.0 0.8 0.0
BAL 7.9 -1.3 -1.9 7.9 3.9 0.0 -0.8
4 C.O -0.6 3.9 3.9 -0.9 0.0 2.0 0.0
BAL 0.6 -3.2 -4.7 0.6 0.3 0.0 -2.0
5 C.O -1.6 0.3 0.3 -2.4 0.0 0.2 0.0
BAL 1.6 -0.3 -0.4 1.6 0.8 0.0 -0.2
6 C.O -0.1 0.8 0.8 -0.2 0.0 0.4 0.0
BAL 0.1 -0.6 -0.9 0.1 0.1 0.0 -0.4
Total End Moments 0.00 0.00 46.78 -46.78 56.45 -56.45 91.74 -91.74

Example (Case (ii) above): Draw SFD & BMD

RA = 37.2 kN, RB = 94.4kN, RC=102.2kN, RD = 64.4kN

55
 .

Assign. 1

Handover date:
Due date :

3.3.2 Coefficients Method

As you notice, the MDM though accurate and
detailed is quite time consuming. A simplified
approach of using coefficients was deviced as a
means of simplifying the estimation of moments for
design purposes.

The method is an approximation used for

continuous beams spanning 3 or more spans and
uniformly loaded. It comes with specific conditions
that must be adhered to for its application. As a
result of these conditions, it may not be applicable
in certain scenarios – in which case the MDM or
similar theoretical method has to be used.

56
 .

The coefficients method:

• Is an approximation method by applying
coefficients
• Not necessary to do detailed analysis using
theoretical methods – slope deflecn, moment
distr etc.

Use D.table 5 for beams

D.table 6 for continuous one-way slabs
But must meet conditions for use of the
coefficients (see footnotes for tables)

DESIGN TABLE 5

SANS 10100-1: coefficients for beams

At outer Near middle of At 1st interior At middle of At interior
support end span support interior spans supports

BM 0 0,09FL -0,11FL 0,07FL 0,08FL

SF 0,45F - 0,6F - 0,55F

*F = wL, where w is UDL

There are conditions to using these coefficients:
i) Member must have three spans or more
ii) Shortest span ≥ 85% of longest span
iii) LL ≤ 1,25 DL
iv) For support moments, L is the average of adjacent spans

57
 .

DESIGN TABLE 6
SANS 10100-1: 1992, Table 13, cl 4.4.3 for continuous one-way slabs
At outer Near middle of At 1st interior At middle of At interior
support end span support interior spans supports
BM 0 0,086FL -0,086FL 0,063FL -0,063FL
SF 0,4F - 0,6F - 0,5F
*F = wL, where w is UDL
The conditions for using the factors given in Design table 6 are:
i) Area of each bay > 30 m2
ii) LL ≤ 5 kN/m2
iii) LL ≤ 1,25 DL
iv) For support moments, L is the average of adjacent spans

DESIGN TABLE 7
SANS 10100-1; Table 14 moment coefficients for two-way slabs, simply supported on four sides
ly
lx
1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6 1,7 1,8 1,9 2,0 2,5 3,0
αsx 0,045 0,061 0,071 0,080 0,087 0,092 0,097 0,100 0,102 0,103 0,104 0,104 0,111

αsy 0,045 0,038 0,031 0,027 0,023 0,020 0,017 0,015 0,016 0,016 0,016 0,016 0,017

Example 3.2: Coefficients Method

w = 13 kN/m
End Interior Interior Interior End
span span span span span
4m 4m 4m 4m 4m
Outer 1st interior Interior Interior
? 1st interior Outer
?
?
support support support support support support
0.11 wL2 0.08 wL2
=22.9kN.m =16.6kN.m

0.09 wL2 0.07 wL2

?
=18.7kN.m =14.6kN.m

BMD for multi-span beam

58
 .

Moment Re-Distribution

The concept of moment re-distribution is the

equivalent of compassion and synergy in human
context. Suppose you are walking with a friend and
he/she happens to stumble and fall – what would be
your first reaction? To Help Him/Her Up.
Compassion - to help out the needy.
Synergy - combined effect > total of individual
effects. In soccer, there is the 12th man; In faith-
when 2 or 3 are gathered, Iam in their midst; etc.

Consider single and a multispan (connected)beams,

Loading applied beyond the yield point.

@M>My: Collapse

59
 .

Consider single and a multispan (connected)beams,

Loading applied beyond the yield point.

@M>My: Collapse

@M>My: plastic hinge forms at AB (no

collapse), further moment is transfered to
BC & support B

Moment Re-Distribution (the mechanics)

• Identify the most critical (yielding) position

(support or span) which is likely to yield first i.e
position with highest elastic moment.

• Redistribution: Reduce the elastic moment at

the yielding position by a percentage. Adjust
moments in other critical positions while
maintaining statical equilibrium.

60
 .

(a) Span yielding first

-∆M = moment reduction

+∆M = moment increase

(b) Support yielding first

The % moment reduction at the yielding position is

determined from the eqn (SABS0100; BS8110)
x = (βb-0.4)d

Also written as βred ≤ (0.6-x/d) (CP 110)

Where x = neutral axis depth

d = effective depth
βred= ∆M/M (reduced moment /max M)
i.e reduction ratio

61
 .

Re-distribution Rules

• Applied to moment diagrams only i.e not applied

to moment envelopes
• No re-distribution is applied on cantilever
moments
• No re-distribution is applied if Coefficients Method
is used
• For structures > four storeys, re-distribution is
limited to ≤10%
• All moment reductions and increases at critical
positions must fall within 75% of the original BMD

The 75% rule at a support

Elastic moments (original BMD)

75% of elastic moments
Re-distributed moments

62
 .

How important is moment re-distribution in

design?

• Compare BMD envelopes before and after re-

distribution
• Generally (not always) gives reduced design
moments i.e economic designs
• Not mandatory: re-distribution may or may not
be applied – left to engineering judgment

3) Columns (Frame Analysis)

The analysis of rigid frames is intended to determine
moments at end of columns and beams for use in the
design of members. Two situations are responsible for
occurrence of end moments in columns and beams:-

1. ULS vertical loads

2. Lateral loads (wind, earthquakes etc.)

3.1 Moments due to ULS vertical loading

End moments arise when loading on one side of the
column is different than loading on the other side of the
column. This applies to both interior and exterior columns
as affected by symmetry or absence of frame symmetry.
The end moments at the junctions are calculated basing on
relative stiffnesses of the beams and columns.

63
 .

Internal columns of buildings under symmetrical

arrangement of beams and loading, can be considered
axially loaded. But for exterior and corner columns,
deflection of beams causes bending subjecting these
columns to compression as well as bending a shown in the
diagram. When a R.C beam, constructed monolithically
with the column deflects under loading, it causes bending
in the external column (Sec 2.5.3). These moments are
calculated mathematically for the end of the column above
and below the connecting beam.

K CA
M AC = M AB = M FAB
K CA + 1 K AB
2
K CA
M CA = M FCD
K CA + K EC + 1 K CD
2
K EC
M CE = M FCD
K CA + K EC + 1 K CD
2
M CD = M CA + M CE

MFAB = fixed-end moment (FEM) due to symmetrical load on beam AB

MFCD = fixed-end moment due to symmetrical load on beam CD
K = stiffness factor defined as moment of inertia divided by the member length (I/L)
In Appendix B is given a full range of formulas for different building frames.
(Note: SANS cl 4.2.2.2; CP 110 cl. 35.2 assuming that ends of beams are fixed & posses half their actual stiffness)

64
 .

Calculation of FEM and moment of inertia

Fixed end moments

wl 2
For uniformly distributed load acting on connecting beam =
12
Pl
For point load acting at mid-span of connecting beam =
8
Pl
For point loads acting at two-third points on connecting beam =
9
I
Stiffness K =
L
bh3
Rectangular or square section, I =
12
For T- or L-shaped section, calculating I is complex. For this reason, it is favoured to
simplify T-beam into rectangular beam (bw.h) since at supports, concrete in the flange is in
tension and can be neglected. For accurate I-values of T-section, use the table given in
Appendix B.

Referring to the frame in the previous slide, we can determine the moments in the external column
as follows:

AB = CD = 6 m, AC = CE = 3.6 m, column size 300 x 300 mm

T-beam AB/CD: h/bw/hf/bf = 550 /300/200/1140 mm
Roof loads = 39.4 kN/m, floor loads = 47.2 kN/m

Stiffness K
IAB = ICD – simplify T-section into rect beam, 300 x 550 mm
IAB = ICD = 300x5503/12 = 4159.4x106 mm4
ICA = IEC=bh3/12 = 300x3003/12 = 675x106 mm4
KAB= KCD = IAB/L = 4159.4x106/6000 = 0.693x106 mm3
KCA = KEC= 675x106/3000 = 0.188x106 mm3

Fixed end moments

MFAB = 39.4x62/12 = 118.2 kN.m, MFCD = 47.2x62/12 = 141.6 kN.m
MAC = MAB = [0.188/(0.693+0.188)]x118.2 = 25.2 kN.m
MCA = [0.188/(0.188+0.188+0.693)]*141.6 = 24.9 kN.m
MCE = 24.9 kN.m
MCD = 24.9 + 24.9 = 49.8 kN.m
6 4
(Cf. If we used a T-secn: I = IAB = ICD =7271x10 mm [bf/bw = 3.8, h/hf = 2.75, k = 1.748 from table-App. B],
MAC = MAB = 15.9, MCA = MCE=16.8, MCD = 33.6 kN.m)

65
 .

3.2 Moments due to lateral (wind) loading

Avoiding wind load design for members – by using shear walls: If
at the two ends of the building block there are rigid flank walls of
reinforced concrete or brickwork, these would act as vertical
cantilevers fixed on the ground. These walls stiffen the building
against wind forces so that no lateral sway on the structure can
occur. In such a case there is no need to design the columns to
resist the bending moments due to wind. In many cases, no shear
walls are in place and the wind loads must be resisted by columns.

Calculation of lateral wind pressure

A very simplified approach is given as follows:
q = 0.435 h0.2, where q = basic wind pressure in kN/m2;
h = height in metres
It is based on 120 kph (33.3 m/s) at 10 m height
Pressure on buildings surface = qCp
Height (m) 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 15 20 30 40 60 100
q(kN/m2) 0.44 0.50 0.54 0.57 0.62 0.66 0.69 0.75 0.79 0.86 0.91 0.99 1.09

Lateral load analysis – Cantilever method

The Portal method and Cantilever methods are among the

common methods used for lateral load analyses. In this
course, the Cantilever method will be demonstrated.

If there are no rigid transverse walls (shear walls) at ends of

the building frame to provide bracing effect or if the flanks
have large window openings, the resistance of the building
frame to lateral forces will be provided by the rigidity of the
columns and beams i.e. the members will have to be
designed to resist moments due to wind forces.

66
 .

It is assumed that in the instance of a frame sway from

lateral forces, there will be points of inflexion at the mid-point
of each column and each beam. The horizontal shear forces
from wind pressure (acting at mid-height of each storey i.e. at
points of inflexion) form vertical cantilevers of the column
elements. The moment at the top and at the bottom of each
column is the shear force x half the column height.

Frame analysis
for lateral loads

Multi-storey building

67
 .

Frame analysis for h

lateral loads: F M=F.h
CANTILEVER METHOD

Multi-storey building

Total shear force,

F = Q.ht kN
ht – building height

At each floor level:

- Calc shear force at each floor
F5, F4, ....F1

- Moment
M5 = F5 x h5
M4 = F4 x h4
etc.

68
 .

Reinforced Concrete Design

(Struc Engrg SUS4A11)

Code Requirements
(Topic 4)

Prof. Stephen O. Ekolu

B1 Lab Rm 222
Department of Civil Engineering Science
University of Johannesburg

Code Requirements
For satisfactory performance of a structure
under designed, Codes recommend some limits
to be used by designers for sizing of R.C.
members and meeting design criteria. They
comprise:
•Grade of concrete
•Cover to reinforcement based on durability &
fire resistance
•Minimum dimensions of member
•Max & min areas and spacing of reinforcement

69
 .

4.1 Minimum cover for exposure conditions (durability)

Codes recommend minimum cover for durability based on the quality of concrete (grade) and
severity of the environment for which the structure or concrete member is exposed as shown in
Design table 8 (See SANS 10100-2: 1992 Tables 3 & 5; see also SANS 10100-2: 1980).
DESIGN TABLE 8
MINIMUM NOMINAL COVER FOR
DURABILITY
Mild a) Exposed to only unpolluted air 20 20 20 20 20
-e.g. indoors, outdoors in Karoo

Moderate a) Sheltered from rain or - 35 30 25 20

b) Buried in non aggressive soil or
c) Subject to polluted air
- e.g indoors in industrial areas, outdoors in
rural highveld areas
CONDITIONS

Severe Exposed to - - 40 35 30
a) wet conditions
b) corrosive fumes,
c) salt-laden air
d) buried in aggressive soil
EXPOSURE

- e.g. outdoors in industrial areas, marine

areas – 15km from sea
Very severe Exposed to: - - - 45 40
a) sea water
b) water containing sulphates or chlorides
c) highly corrosive fumes
Extreme - - - - 50
Concrete Grade: 20 25 30-35 40-45 >45

Approx W/C: 0,70 0,60 0,50 0,50 ≤ 0,45

Minimum CC: 300 340 380 400 420

Code requirements (explanation)

Guidelines & criteria for use in structural design

1) Concrete strength grade

• Usually 20 – 50 MPa
• Selected depending on exposure conditions
Mild exposure conditions fcu
Severe exposure conditions fcu
From D.table 8:
mild cond., min fcu ≥ 20 MPa
moderate cond., min fcu ≥ 25 MPa
severe cond., min fcu ≥ 30 MPa
v.severe cond., min fcu ≥ 40 MPa

70
 .

Code requirements (explanation)

2) Cover to steel reinft
a- Cover: for durability & fire resistance
It determines time for ingressing H2O, CO2, Cl-
etc.to reach steel reinft causing corrosion

Mild exposure conditions cover

Severe exposure conditions cover

From D.table 8:
mild cond., min c ≥ 20 mm
moderate cond., min c ≥ 35 mm
severe cond., min c ≥ 40 mm
v.severe cond., min c ≥ 45 mm

4.2 Minimum member dimensions and cover for fire resistance

The resistance of members to fire for a given period of time is
determined by member size and cover to main reinforcement. Hence
codes provide minimum dimensions of members and cover
requirements needed to achieve adequate fire resistance over a give
period of exposure to fire. These values are given in Design table 9.
DESIGN TABLE 9
REQUIRED MIN DIMMENSIONS AND COVER FOR FIRE RESISTANCE
(SANS 10100-1:1992, Table 43, 45,48)
BEAMS FLOOR SLABS FLOOR RIBS COLUMNS
Fire Min. Min. Min Min Min rib width at Min rib Min Min Min
Resist.(hr) width cover depth cover soffit depth cover size cover
0,5 80 15 100 15 50 100 15 150 NC
1 110 25 100 15 70 110 15 200 *
1,5 140 35 125 20 80 140 20 250 *
2 180 45 125 20 90 160 20 300 *
3 240 55 150 25 100 175 25 400 *
4 280 65 150 25 125 190 25 450 *
*NC – use nominal cover requirements. For columns, size is the determining factor for fire resistance

71
 .

Code requirements (explanation)

b-Fire resistance
Steel being weak under fire wobbles or deflects at
temp 600oC causing rapid failure

c = cover protects /
insulates steel against fire

From D.Table 9, for 2hr fire

Min cover for beam = ? 45 mm
Min size for a column =? 300x300 mm

4.3 Main steel reinforcement

4.3.1 Minimum spacing of reinforcement

The main steel reinforcement should be arranged to allow concrete to flow
freely between the re-bars. To achieve this requirement, SANS 10100-1:1992,
clause 4.11.8 recommends a minimum bar spacing as follows:
Horizontal spacing greater of (hagg + 5mm) or φmax
Vertical spacing 2 hagg /3

*hagg - max aggregate size

4.3.2 Maximum spacing of reinforcement

Beams: The maximum clear spacing of tension steel reinforcement can be

assessed using the expression (see SANS 10100-1:1992, clause 4.11.8.2 &
4.3.6.3)

fs - design service stress is calculated from SANS10100-1, cl. 4.3.6.3):-

72
 .

γ1 + γ 2 A s − req 1
f s = 0.87 f y . . .
γ 3 + γ 4 A s −prov β b

Considering:- γ1 = 1,1, self-weight factor for SLS

γ2 = 1,0, LL factor for SLS
γ3 = 1,2, DL factor for ULS
γ4 = 1,6, LL factor for ULS
A s − req
= 1,0 (i.e. reinft area reqd - As-req, area of reinft provided - As-prov)
A s −prov
βb = 1,0 (ratio of resistance moment at tension region e.g mid-span
to overall max moment from BMD; can be simplified to 1,0)

Slabs: The max clear spacing of tension reinft. = the lesser of 750 mm or
3d (SANS 10100-1:1992, cl.4.11.8.2.2)

DESIGN TABLE 9.2 Modification factors for tension reinft

73
 .

4.3.3 Minimum areas of reinforcement in beams

See SANS 10100-1:1992, Table 23 for additional details

4.3.4 Minimum areas of reinforcement (cont’d)

See SANS 10100-1:1992, Table 23 for additional details

DESIGN TABLE 10
MIN AREAS OF REINFT
MEMBER Mild steel, High yield steel
fy = 250 MPa fy = 450 MPa
Rect. Beams/ solid slabs 0,24% bh 0,13% bh
T & L- beams:- web in tension over span
REINFORCEMENT

1) bw/b < 0,4 0,32% bwh 0,18% bwh

2) bw/b ≥ 0,4 0,24% bwh 0,13% bwh
T & L – beams:- flange in tension at
TENSION

support
1) bw/b < 0,4 0,48% bwh 0,26% bwh
2) bw/b ≥ 0,4 0,36% bwh 0,20% bwh

General rule 0,40% bh 0,40%bh

develop reqd capacity to
(concr in compr zone is

Rect. columns / walls 0,40% bh 0,40%bh

REINFORCEMENT

by itself unable to

T & L – beams:- flange in compression 0,40% bhf 0,40%bhf

COMPRESSION

over span
resist BM)

T & L- beams:- web in compression at 0,20% bwh 0,20%bwh

support
Rect. beams 0,20% bh 0,20%bh

74
 .

4.3.5 Maximum areas of reinforcement

Codes impose maximum areas simply for practical purposes of allow
sufficient space for concrete to flow and compact properly. SANS 10100-1:
1992, Clause 4.11.5 states the maximum reinforcement areas as given in
Design table 11.
DESIGN TABLE 11
Max. area of reinft
Beams 4% bh
Columns 6% bh
Walls 4% bh

4.4 Minimum area of shear links

DESIGN TABLE 12
SANS 10100-1:1992; cl. 4.11.4.5.3
Mild steel links Asv = 0,2% b.Sv Select spacing such that, Sv ≤ 0,75d
High yield steel links Asv = 0,12% b.Sv Select spacing such that, Sv ≤ 0,75d

4.5 Span-effective depth (d) ratios

The ratios are prescribed to control deflection of flexural members to ≤
span /250 for spans ≤ 10 m. These ratios are very useful for sizing of
beams.

The span / effective depth ratios given in Design table 13 are also used
for preliminary sizing of beams and slabs

DESIGN TABLE 13
Rectangular beams T- & L- beams (bw ≤ Slabs
(SANS 10100- 0,3b) SANS 10100-1:
1:1992, Table 10) (SANS 10100-1:1992, cl. 1992, cl. 4.4.1
4.3.6.5)
Cantilever d ≥ L/7
Simply supported d ≥ L/20 ≥1,25 x d for rect. beam Same as for rect
Continuous beam d ≥ L/28 beams for L =
End spans of d ≥ L/24 smaller of slab
continuous beams dimm

75
 .

4.6 Ends conditions for columns

The effective height of columns used for design are calculated from clear
height (Lo) using the equation, Le = βLo. β is determined from Design table 14.

DESIGN TABLE 14
Braced columns Unbraced columns
End condition β β
at top End condition at bottom End condition at bottom
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 0,75 0,80 0,90 1,2 1,3 1,6
2 0,80 0,85 0,95 1,3 1,5 1,8
3 0,90 0,95 1,00 1,6 1,8 --
4 --- --- --- 2,2 -- --
End conditions:
1-Column depth < beam or slab depth; if connected to foundation, the footing must be
designed to resist moment;
2-Column depth > beam depth or slab depth
3-Pinned ends i.e. cannot resist rotation but provide restraint
4-Not restrained at all e.g. free end of cantilever

4.7 Other useful tables and rules of thumb

DESIGN TABLE 15
Areas of groups of reinforcement (mm2)
Bar Number of bars
dia 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(mm)
6 28 57 85 113 141 170 198 226 254 283
8 50 101 151 201 251 302 352 402 452 503
10 79 157 236 314 393 471 550 628 707 785
12 113 226 339 452 565 679 792 905 1017 1131
16 201 402 603 804 1005 1206 1407 1608 1809 2011
20 314 628 942 1257 1571 1885 2199 2513 2827 3142
25 491 982 1473 1963 2454 2945 3436 3927 4418 4909
32 804 1608 2412 3216 4021 4825 5629 6433 7237 8042
40 1256 2513 3769 5026 6283 7539 8796 10050 11310 12570

DESIGN TABLE 16
Asv/Sv for varying link diameter and spacing
Link dia Link spacing (mm)
85 90 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
8 1,183 1,118 1,006 0,805 0,671 0,575 0,503 0,447 0,402 0,366 0,335
10 1,847 1,744 1,57 1,256 1,047 0,897 0,785 0,698 0,628 0,571 0,523
12 2,659 2,511 2,26 1,808 1,507 1,291 1,13 1,004 0,904 0,822 0,753
16 4,729 4,467 4,02 3,216 2,68 2,297 2,01 1,787 1,608 1,462 1,34

76
 .

Code requirements (explanation)

• Bar selection
Design calculations will arrive at a certain area
of steel reinforcement required
It is then up to the designer to allocate
- bar size
- no. of bars

Use D.tables 15 & 16, convenient for selection

of bar size, no., spacing that’s adequate for

Code requirements (explanation)

Rules of Thumb

• Generalized principles for broad application.

Usually developed over years of professional
experience and practice

• Easy to apply for approximation, but are not

strictly accurate or reliable

• Used for preliminary sizing or quick member

sizing then checked with detailed design
calculations

77
 .

Some Rules of Thumb

These can be used as guides for an initial rough estimate of member size
or to check calculations.

R.C. Max. spans in R.C. ≤ 8,5 m

BEAMS Common beam spans ≤ 6 m

Primary beam, depth h ~ L/10
Secondary beam, depth, h ~ L/12
Rect. sections, b ~2.d/3
Continuous T-beams, d/3 < bw <2d/3
SLABS 100 mm floor slab, span = 2,4 m
150 mm floor slab, span = 3,6 m
175 mm floor slab, span = 4,8 m
COLUMNS Optimum col. module: 5,5 to 6 m
Min. col. size: 250 mm (older codes), 300 mm (common practice)
Storied struct.: Size of square col. = 300 + 25 mm per story above
1 to 2 story struct.: Use min. sized col. & min. longit. steel
≤ 5 Story struct.: Actual column loadings = 300 to 400 kN per floor
FOOTINGS Min. thickness, h = 300 mm or max dimm/6

Summary- Code requirements

Guidelines & criteria for use in structural design

1) Concrete strength grade

• Usually 20 – 50 MPa
• Selected depending on exposure conditions
Mild exposure conditions fcu
Severe exposure conditions fcu
From D.table 8:
mild cond., min fcu ≥ 20 MPa
moderate cond., min fcu ≥ 25 MPa
severe cond., min fcu ≥ 30 MPa
v.severe cond., min fcu ≥ 40 MPa

78
 .

Summary- Code requirements

2) Cover to steel reinft
Essential for durability & fire resistance
a-Cover ~ determines time for ingressing H2O, CO2,
Cl- etc.to reach steel reinft causing corrosion

Mild exposure conditions cover

Severe exposure conditions cover

From D.table 8:
mild cond., min c ≥ 20 mm
moderate cond., min c ≥ 35 mm
severe cond., min c ≥ 40 mm
v.severe cond., min c ≥ 45 mm

Summary- Code requirements

b-Fire resistance
Steel being weak under fire wobbles or deflects at
temp 600oC causing rapid failure

c = cover protects /
insulates steel against fire

From D.Table 9, for 2hr fire

Min cover for beam = ? 45 mm
Min size for a column =? 300x300 mm

79
 .

Summary- Code requirements

3) Min dimensions
Determined from two criteria
• min size for fire resistance (beams,
slabs, columns) -D.table 9

• min depths to control deflection

(beams, slabs) - D.table 13

d L
controls deflection
L d

Span/eff. depth (L/d) ~ very

useful in preliminary sizing

Summary- Code requirements

4) Areas and spacing of reinft
• Min areas and max spacing
Controls shrinkage cracking
and temperature stresses, and
to distribute concentrated
loads - D.table 10 &12, Sec.
As
4.3.2

• Max areas and min spacing Sh

c
Allows easy placement and > 0.67a or ø Sh
compaction of concrete, > a+5mm
avoiding reinft congestion -
D.table 11, Sec 4.3.1 a = max aggr size

80
 .

Tutorials 1-3
Handout

•Form groups
•Qns based on building layout

Layout for Tuts

81
 .

Reinforced Concrete Design

(Struc Engrg SUS4A11)

R.C Theory and Section Analysis

(Topic 5)

Prof. Stephen O. Ekolu

B1 Lab Rm 222
Department of Civil Engineering Science
University of Johannesburg

R.C Theory and Section Analysis

5.0 Bending Theory and Transformed Sections
5.0.1 Theory of Bending
Consider a rectangular beam subjected to continuous
loading until failure
P

σ
Py

P2

P1
Elastic region Fully plastic
(before yield) Elasto-plastic
ε (just after yield) (at failure)

82
 .

Isotropic material
(e.g steel, timber)

Concrete
(tension =0)

Elastic (normal) region Plastic (failure) region

(SLS) (ULS)

5.0.1 Transformed (composite) sections

Beams and other structural members are typically

composite sections built of 2 or materials e.g.
• Timber beams with steel plates attached at top/bottom
edges
• Concrete beams with steel reinft

In bending analysis, composite sections must first be

‘converted’ into a single material section referred to as
equivalent or transformed section i.e a timber & steel
composite section can be converted to a transformed
section of timber only or steel only.

83
 .

Transformed
section of timber
only
Composite
section
Transformed
section of steel
only
α = Modular ratio,
Similarly for R.C beams Es/Et or Et/Es

αe = Es/Et

Transformed R.C beam

of concrete only ‘the destination material
gives denom E’

5.1 Design assumptions

The external loads applied on any RC member will
induce bending, shear, torsion and axial forces which
result in stresses and strains within the fibres of the
member.

Based on the stress-strain behaviour of steel and

concrete and introduction of p.s.fs, the design strengths
are reasonable assumed as follows (See 2.3.1):

84
 .

Steel:
Design strength in tension = 0.87fy
Design strength for steel in compression ~ 0.72fy

Concrete:
The tensile strength of concrete is so small that it is
usually assumed to be zero. Its stress-strain curve is
drawn only in compression. It is non-linear, reaching
maximum stress at about 2000 µε and at about 3500 µε,
signs of cracking and failure become visible. The
concrete stress-strain curve is almost linear up to about
50% of the maximum stress.

R.C concrete design theory is based on the following

underlying assumptions, deemed reasonable but have
been simplified to facilitate mathematical calculations in
the design:
• Plane section remain plane i.e the strains in the
concrete and steel are directly proportional to the
distances from the neutral axis.
• The ultimate limit state is reached when the concrete
strain at the extreme compression fibre reaches a
specific value, εcu = 3500 µε
• At failure, the distribution of concrete compressive
stresses is defined by an idealized, usually a
rectangular stress-block.
• The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.
• The design stresses of the steel reinforcement are
derived from the relevant stress-strain curve.

85
 .

Stress due to Bending in R.C beams

Mi Mi

Me Me

For equilibrium, the moments due to

external load = Internal moments of
resistance i.e. Me = Mi

Mi
C
h z
T
V b
Stress
X-sectn
distr’n

5.2 Beams: Analysis of Ultimate Limit States

5.2.1 Singly R.C beams: The Stress-Block at Ultimate Limit State
Consider a singly R.C rect. beam at ultimate moment.

Strain Stress
distribution distribution
The assumption ‘plane sections remain plane’ means a straight
line can be drawn from top to bottom edges of the beam. For that
matter, the following proportional relations can be drawn to locate
the position of the N.A

Note also that the shape of the concrete stress block is the same
as the σ-ε graph. The R.C beam reaches failure when εcu=3500µε

86
 .

You will notice that the stress-block is quite complex and difficult
to use. In order to avoid this problem, a simplified rectangular
stress-block is used for design purposes as an approximation of
the actual, thus:

i.e Width of stress block = 0.67fcu/1.5 = 0.45fcu

Depth of stress block = 0.9 x depth of neutral axis (x)
Nomenclature: b = width
d = effective depth
h = height
x = N.A depth
x/d = N.A factor
Z = lever arm

The NA position and moment capacity

The position of the NA can be calculated by equating horizontal
forces
C = T
0.45 fcu. b. 0.9x = 0.87 fy. As

∴x= ….. (1)

Note that the NA varies linearly with the area of steel.

The moment of resistance of the section (MR) is given by either:

MR = C.Z or T.Z, Where Z = the “lever arm” i.e. the distance btwn
lines of action of C& T
= d-0.45x
M = C.Z
= 0,45 fcu b.0,9x. (d-0,45x)
= 0,405. ….. (2)

= K.fcu.b.d2

87
 .

If there is high tension reinforcement present, the concrete may fail

in compression before steel yields. This would result in a sudden
failure and therefore is highly undesireable (i.e over-reinforced).
In order to prevent concrete from failing first i.e suddenly, the
amount of tension steel is controlled such that the depth of the N.A
is limited to x/d < 0.5 (i.e under-reinforced). This has the effect
of ensuring that the steel has gone past its yield point before the
concrete fails. A case where both the concrete and steel fail
simultaneously such that x/d = 0.5 is considered a balanced
section. Therefore the conditions that define the ultimate
(maximum) moment capacity, Mu can be expressed:

Subst. for x /d = 0.5 into eqn (1),

then Mu = 0.156 fcu b.d2
i.e the ultimate moment capacity for a singly R.C beam is
reached when Ku = 0.156.

Where the externally applied moment, Me exceeds Mu,

additional steel is incorporated as compression reinft i.e
doubly R.C beam otherwise concrete will fail in
compression.

88
 .

Steel reinft area

Mi
C
z
T
V

Taking moments about C-axis:

M = T.Z. But T = 0.87fy.As
∴ As = M   K  
Where z = d 0,5 +  0, 25 −  ≤ 0,95d
0.87f y .z
  0, 9  
M
K= 2
bd f cu
Pause here & check!!:
a) If z > 0,95d, use z = 0,95d i.e guarantees that x/d <0.5 (See derivation for z-
expression, Mosley et al.)
b) If K > 0.156 provide compr. reinft or simply increase beam size

Example 5.1 (Moment of Resistance)

A beam b =300, d = 550, h = 600 mm, As = 2Y16. Find the ultimate MR of
the section. fy = 450 MPa, fcu = 25 MPa.

Moment capacity = C.Z or T.Z whichever is smaller

Z = d-0.45x or z = d(0.5+SQRT(0.25-K/0.9)) but unable to use this since K
can’t be calculated. So got to determine x.

As = 402 mm2
From eqn (1), x = 2.15.fy.As /(fcu.b) = 2.15.450.402/(25.300) = 51.85 mm
Z = 550 – 0.45 (51.85) = 526.7 mm
Check z/d = 0.957 > 0.95 – not OK, use z/d = 0.95 i.e z = 522.5 mm

Max moment carried by steel, M = 0.87fy.As.z = 82.23 kN.m

Max moment carried by concrete section = 0.156.bd2.fcu = 353.92 kN.m

Ult. moment of resistance of the of beam, Mu = 82.23 kN.m

89
 .

Example 5.2 (Tension steel area)

A beam 300x750 mm is to resist external moment
200kN.m. Find the As required. fy = 450 MPa, fcu = 30
MPa, d = 675 mm.

K = 200x106/(300.6752.30) = 0.048 < Ku = 0.156 – OK

Z = 0.942d < 0.95 – OK
As = 200x106/(0.87.450.(0.942x675))
= 803.4 mm2

5.2.2 Doubly R.C beams

We saw in singly RC beams that the ultimate moment supported
by concrete under compression is:
Mu = 0.156 fcu bd2

Once this ultimate moment is exceeded i.e. K > Ku = 0.156, then

compression steel reinforcement must be introduced to resist
the additional moment (Me-Mu).

90
 .

Additional moment resisted by compression reinft.

By taking moments about the line of tension, moment due to
compression reinft
= C.(d-d’) = fycA’s(d-d’)

i.e. Ultimate moment from concrete (C.Z) = 0.156 fcu bd2

Additional moment from compression reinft = fyc A’s(d-d’)

Total moment that can be resisted by the section,

M = 0.156 fcu bd2 + fyc A’s(d-d’)

The gives the compression steel area as,

M − 0.156f cu bd 2
A's =
f yc (d − d' )
(K − K u )f cu bd 2 ….. (3)
=
0.72f y (d − d' )

By equating horizontal forces:

Force due to tension reinft, T = 0.87fyAs
Force due to compression reinft, C’= fycA’s = 0.72 fyA’s
Forced due to concrete under ultimate compression, C = 0.156fcubd2/Z
T = C + C’
0.87fyAs = 0.156fcubd2/Z + fycA’s

0.156 f cu bd 2 0.72 f y A' s

As = +
0.87 f y .Z 0.87 f y
K u f cu bd 2
= + A' s ….. (4)
0.87f y .Z
  K  
Where, z = d 0.5 +  0.25 − u  
  0.9  

Note: the above equation was simplified by rounding off 0.83A’s to ~ A’s.
This is conservative as it increases the steel area.

91
 .

Hence the design eqns for doubly R.C beams are:

(K − K u )f cu bd 2
Compression reinft, A’s : A' s =
Use Eqn (3) 0.72f y (d − d' )

K u f cu bd 2
Tension reinft, As : As = + A' s
Use Eqn (4) 0.87f y .Z

  K  
Where, Z = d  0.5 +  0.25 − u  
  0.9  
and K u = 0.156

Important Points:

(1) Compression reinft is required if

Design moment is > ultimate moment of resistance i.e
M > Mu or K > K’, where K = M/fcu.bd2, K’ = 0.156

(2) SABS uses compression steel stress, fs = 0.72fy (Fig 2 of the

Code, pg 14). Some books use 0.87fy or 0.95fy for BS8110
design, incl. Mosley et al.

(3) The design strength of steel under compression is accurately

= 2000 fy/(2300+fy) but can be simplified as fyc = 0.72fy. Also
the table below may be used for steel of different strength
grades.

fy, N/mm2 250 410 460 425 485

2000 fy/(2300+fy), N/mm2 196.1 302.6 333.3 311.9 348.3
0.72fy, N/mm2 180.0 295.2 331.2 306.0 349.2

92
 .

Example 5.3 (Tension and compression steel areas)

A beam 600x300 mm is to resist a design moment of 458 kN.m.
Determine the areas of reinft required, fy = 450 MPa, fcu = 25 MPa, d’ =
40 mm, d = 560 mm.
Check if compression reinft is reqd:
K’ = 0.156
K = M/fcu.bd2 = 458x106/(25.300.5602) =0.195 > 0.156, compr reinft reqd

From eqn (3)

A’s = (0,195-0.156).25.300.5602 / (0.72.450.560-40)
= 544.4 mm2

From eqn (4)

Z = 560.(0.5+SQRT(0.25-0.156/0.9)) = 0.777d = 435.06
0.156(25)(300)560 2
As = + 544.4
0.87(450)435.1
= 2698.4 mm 2

5.2.3 Flanged (T- & L-) R.C beams

In most R.C. concrete structures, beams are cast
monolithically with the floor slab so that the slab becomes
part of the beam, forming the flange part of the beam. In
such members, interior beams form T-beams and edge
beams turn out as L-beams.

93
 .

No compression reinft in flanged beams:

Flanged beams are not often designed to involve

compression steel reinft. Except in some rare cases, there
are usually no designs to be considered as ‘Doubly R.C
flanged beams’. This is because flanged beams have a
large compression area (at the flanges) which is usually
sufficient to provide large moment resistance at the
compression zone of the beam.

Accordingly, flanged beams are usually designed as singly

reinforced flanged beams.

The steps used in the analysis and design of flanged

beams depends on the position of the NA (neutral axis).

The are two cases, i.e whether or not the:

• NA lies within the flange thickness, x < hf
• NA lies below the flange thickness, x > hf

NA within flange NA below flange

(Case 1) (Case 2)

94
 .

5.2.3.1 Determining the position of the NA

Method 1 (Direct x):

(1) Calculate z as for rect. beams, assuming b = effective

flange width, bf   K  
z = d  0.5 +  0.25 − 
  0.9  

(2) Obtain x = (d-z)/0.45, (from z = d-(0.9x)/2)

(3) If x < hf, then NA lies in the flange. Conversely, x>hf
when NA lies below flange

Method 2 (Mu)

(1) Set stress block depth at hf, i.e at a point of ultimate Mu

(moment of resistance) of the concrete flange section
(2) Calculate Mu
C = 0.45fcu.hf and z = d-hf/2
Mu = C.Z = 0.45fcu.bfhf (d-hf/2)
(3) If design moment M > Mu then NA will lie below flange
(and will also give x >hf)

95
 .

Ultimate moment of resistance (Mu) in

Flanged beams

Just like for rect. beams, Mu is set at

x/d = 0.5. In flanged beams, the NA at Neglected

x/d = 0.5 will always fall below flange.

In design practice, the contribution of web to compressive
force i.e the shaded area, is neglected and the depth of the
stress block is set at flange depth, hf.

Using this stress block, the Mu values are calculated for

concrete and for steel, and the lesser of the two is taken
as Mu of the section i.e
Mu = C.Z = 0.45fcu.bfhf.(d-hf/2) (concrete crush in compr)
Mu = T.z = 0.87fy.As.(d-hf/2) (steel yield in tension)

5.2.3.2 Section Analysis

(a) When NA lies within flange, x <hf

If the NA is found to lie within the
flange, the flanged beam is treated
as a rectangular beam with b = bf.
The flange width, bf is used since all the concrete below NA
is in tension and considered ‘inconsequential’. The tension
reinft in the flanged beam is thus designed using the rect.
beam using the normal stress block and eqns given:

M   K  
As = z = d 0, 5 +  0, 25 −  ≤ 0,95d
0.87f y .z   0, 9  
M
K=
bd 2 f cu

96
 .

(b) When NA lies below flange, x > hf:

Compr force C1 act on area 1 and compr force C2 acts on

area 2 i.e flange only. The forces act thru’ centroids of the
areas, therefore z2 = d-0.5hf
C1 = average stress x area it acts on
= (0.45fcu).bw(0.9x) = 0.405 fcu.bw.x
C2 = (0.45fcu).hf(bf-bw) = 0.45fcu.hf(bf-bw)
T = 0.87fy.As
Taking moments along C2 line of action:
M = T.Z2 - C1.(0.9x/2-hf/2)
= 0.87fy.As (d-0.5hf) - (0.405fcu.bwx)(0.9x-hf)/2
= 0.87fy.As(d-0.5hf)- 0.2025fcu.bwx(0.9x-hf)

M = T.Z2 - C1.(0.9x/2-hf/2)
= 0.87fy.As (d-0.5hf) - (0.45fcu.bwx)(0.9x-hf)/2
= 0.87fyc.As(d-0.5hf)- 0.2025fcu.bwx(0.9x-hf)
i.e
M + 0.2025f cu .b w x(0.9x − h f )
As =
0.87f y .(d − 0.5h f )
If x/d = 0.5,
M + 0.101f cu .b w d(0.45d − h f )
As =
0.87f y .(d − 0.5h f )

This eqn is given in SABS 0100-1, cl. 4.3.3.4.2 for

calculating As and should not be used if x/d > 0.45

97
 .

Therefore, when NA lies below flange, x > hf, there are two
approaches:
• To calculate the exact position of NA below the flange &
determine As by equating forces C+Cweb = T.
This method can be quite lengthy & laborious.

• The code SABS cl. 4.3.3.4.2, gives a simpler and

conservative alternative, whereby area of tension reinft is
calculated directly from the eqn below (see derivation
given in slides or tuts) provided its accompanying
conditions are met.
Conditions:
M + 0.1 f cu b w d(0.45d − h f ) (a) hf <0.45d
As = (b) Design moment m < β ffcubd2, β f is
0.87f y (d − 0.5h f ) taken from table 5 of code
(c) moment re-distr ≤ 10%

Example 5.4 (T-beam, NA within flange)

Consider a T-beam: h = 550, bw = 250, d = 468 mm, bf =
1090, hf =170. Design moment = 550 kN.m, fcu = 25 MPa

Method 1 (Direct x)
K = M/fcubd2 = 550x106/1090.25.4682 = 0.092 <0.156 ok
Z = d(0.5+SQRT(0.25-0.092/0.9) = 0.884d < 0.95d ok
x = d-z/0.45 = (1-0.884)d/0.45 = 120.6 < hf, i.e within flange

Method 2 (Mu)
M = 550 kN.m
Mu = 0.45fcu.bf.hf(d-hf/2) = 0.45.30.1090.170(468-170/2) =
958.1 kN.m
Mu > M, NA lies within flange

As = M/0.87fy.z = 550x106/0.87(450)0.884(468)
= 3395.6 mm2

98
 .

Example 5.5 (T-Beam, NA below flange): A T-beam d =350, hf

=100, bw=200, bf=400 is required to resist a ULS design moment
of 180 kN.m; fcu = 30 MPa.

Check NA position:
Mu = 0.45fcu.bf.hf(d-hf/2) = 0.45.30.400.100(350-100/2)
= 162 kN.m
Mu < M (180), NA lies below flange
Use designated formula

180x106 + 0.1(30)(200).350.(0.45.350 - 100)

As = = 1635 mm 2
0.87(450)(350 − 0.5.100)

5.3 Beams: Analysis of Serviceability Limit States

As discussed in the earlier topics, a structure or part of it,

is considered unfit for use when it reaches a ‘limit state’,
defined as a particular condition in which it ceases to fulfil
the function for which it was intended. The ULS is reached
when the structure or part of it collapses. The SLS is the
general condition of the structure which must be met
during normal use and is achieved through control of
excessive deflection, cracking, vibration etc.

For SLS design, excessive deflection and cracking are the

two parameters that must normally be considered in
design.

99
 .

In R.C, Elastic Theory is applied to analysis of sections

categorised as - Cracked, Uncracked or Partially Cracked.

Cracked section: the classical elastic theory is applied and

used in crack width calculations.

Uncracked section is mainly used in prestressed concrete

analysis. It can also be used when no cracking can be
tolerated in reinforced concrete.

Partially cracked section is used in SANS 0100-1992 for

calculating deflections.

Cracked Section Analysis:

In the analysis, we consider two requirements:
• Section is cracks up to the NA
• Triangular stress block is used

Required: derive a transformed section of concrete only

100
 .

Express fs and εs of steel in terms of εc of concrete

(x − d ') ( d − x)
ε 's = εc; εs = εc ….. fr. strain diagram
x x

Since fc = Ec.εc and ∝e = Es/Ec (modular ratio)

fs = Es. s = ∝e Ec. s = α e E c  d − x  ε c
 x 
 x - d' 
f’s = Es.εs = ∝e Ec.ε = α eE c  ε c
 x 

For horiz equilb of forces in the stress block

C+C’ = T
½ Acfc+A’sf’s = Asfs
d−x
½ Ac. Ec.εc + A’s α e  x - d' ε c = As. α e  
 x   x 

x
Ac + α e A s (x - d' ) = α e A s (d − x) - for doubly R.C beams
2
x
A c = α e A s (d − x) - for singly R.C beams
2

Basically, the eqns state that the NA axis of the cracked

section passes through the centroid of the transformed
(also called ‘equivalent’) section, obtained by replacing
steel areas A’s and As by equivalent areas of concrete
∝eA’s and ∝eAs respectively.

(Doubly RC beam)

Cracks

Cracked section in Equivalent (transformed)

steel & concrete section in concrete only

(Singly RC beam)

101
 .

Example 5.6 (Cracked Section)

A singly RC beam, h = 500, b = 250, As 1600 mm2, Es = 200
MPa, Ec = 20 MPa carries a moment of 75 kN.m. determine the
position of the NA and max stresses in steel and concrete.

From Ac.x/2 = ∝e As(d-x); ∝e = 200/20 = 10

250x.x/2 = 10.1600.(500-x)
x2 +128x-64000 = 0
x = 197 mm
Using Lever Arm method:
In concrete:
MR = C.Z; ½ Ac.fc.z = 75x106 and z = 500-197/3 = 434.3
½ (250.197).fc.434.3 = 75x106, fc = 7.01 N/mm2
In steel:
MR = T.Z; As.fs.z = 75x106
1600.fs.434.3 = 75x106, fs = 107.9 N/mm2

5.4 Beams: Shear, Bond and Anchorage, Torsion

5.4.1 Shear
With one stirrup spaced at distance d from support, the
stirrup supports an applied shear force V. if more stirrups
are introduced at a closer spacing of sv, the force carried by
each stirrup is reduced proportionally.

If one stirrup carries SF

=V

sv sv sv sv Then with several stirrups spaced at sv,

each stirrup carries a SF reduced to
= V.sv/d

102
 .

For vertical equilbrium:

For one stirrup: SF resistance by the stirrup = applied SF
Asv.fsv = V
0.87fyv.Asv = v.bd
For several stirrups: 0.87fyv.Asv = (v.bd).sv/d
A sv b.v
i.e =
sv 0.87f yv
vc = capacity of concrete in the beam to resist shear by
itself i.e without shear reinft and is given as
1 1 1
0.75  f cu  3  100 As  3  400  4

vc =      
γ m  25   bd   d 
The portion of SF resistance by stirrups is given by:
A sv b(v − vc )
=
sv 0.87f yv

5.4.2 Local Bond Strength

i.e pull-out along bar length (due to variation of moment along
the beam length)

fbs = local bond stress

M = T.z and M+δM = (T+δT).z

Subst. for M: δM = δT.z …… (1)
Also, dM/dx = V: δM = V.δx …… (2)
Comparing (1) & (2): δT = V.δx/Z …… (3)

For equilb,
Change in tension δT = bond force btwn steel & concrete
= fbs x bar surface area
= fbs .δx.ΣUs …… (4)
From (3) & (4): V
f bs = (Bond stress check is no
Z.∑ U s longer reqd by code provided
bars are anchored at ends)

103
 .

5.4.3 Anchorage Bond

i.e pull out at end of span

fba = bond stress

Pull-out force, T = bond stress x bar perimeter x bar length

As.fs = fba . πφ.lba
πφ.fs/4 = fba . πφ.lba
φf s
i.e f ba =
4.lba

For tension bar, fs = 0.87fy

compression bar, fs = 0.72fy

5.4.4 Torsion

In beams, minor torsional cracking can be resisted by shear reinft but

where the beam is required to provide resistance to torsional forces,
design for torsional reinft is required. The design formula for torsional
stress is derived from sand-heap analogy. Consider a sand-heap cone of
a circular base of radius, R

1 1
The volume of sand is given as: V = πR 2 h = πR 2 tanφ …(1)
3 3
Also, the eqn for plastic torsion of a 2 3
T p = πR τ y …(2)
circular rod can be shown to be : 3

From (1) & (2), the following relations are true:

Plastic torsion, Tp = 2V
Torsional shear stress, τ = slope (tanφ)

104
 .

If we now consider a sand-heap for

rectangular section , it can be shown that:
2
vt .hmin  h 
T= hmax − min 
2  3 

Hence, the torsional shear stress, vt

1 1
T = 2. hmin .a + hmin .a.( hmax − hmin )
2  from applied torsional moment, T is
3 2 
1 2 v t .hmin
= 2. hmin .
1
+ hmin .
vt .hmin 
.( hmax − hmin )
calculated from the expression:
3 2 2 2 
3
vt .hmin v .h
2
2T
=
3
+ t min (hmax − hmin )
2 vt =
2 h 
2
vt .hmin  2.hmin 
=
2  3
+ hmax − hmin 
 hmin  hmax − min 
v .h 
2
h 
= t min  hmax − min   3 
2  3 

Example 5.7: Find torsional capacity of a 300 x500

mm concrete beam, fcu = 30 MPa, vt = 0.37 N/mm2
0.37.300 2  300 
T= 500 − 3  = 6.66 kN.m
2  

5.6 Columns: Analysis of Ultimate Limit State

Consider an axially Loaded R.C Column

A short column is one for which the effective height /depth

ratios in both axes is less than 10, so no buckling occurs.

Applied load = load resistance by column

N = Ac.fc + As.fs
The eqn is adjusted by introducing safety factors for materials
(1.15 & 1.5 for steel and concrete) and further modified for 10%
reduction to account for possible eccentricity due to
construction inaccuracies. The design eqn then becomes

Nu = 0.4fcu.Ac + 0.65fy.As

105
 .

5.6.2 Eccentrically Loaded R.C Column

Considerations:
• As = As1+As2
• Equal d’ from both faces (s1 & s2)

The shaded area indicates concrete under compression while the

unshaded area is the tension zone.

Design strength of concrete under compression = 0.45 fcu

Design strength of steel under compression = 0.72 fy (fs1)
Design strength of steel under tension = 0.87 fy (fs2)

Steel in the shaded zone will always be under compression provided

x >2d’. But steel in the unshaded area may be under tension or
compression depending on the value of x. we will then denoted.
fs1 = steel stress when reinft is always under compression
fs2 = steel stress when reinft is under tension or compression

106
 .

Force supported by the column,

N = load by concrete in shaded area + load by s1 steel bars + load by s2 bars
As A
= 0.45 f cu .b (0.9 x ) + f s1 + f s2 s
2 2
Dividing both sides by bh, we obtain:
N (0.9) x f s1 + f s 2  As 
i.e = 0.45 f cu +   ----------------------------------------------------------- (1)
bh h 2 bh 
The internal moment of resistance against external moment is obtained by taking
moment about the centre-line of the section:
h 0.9 x A h A h
M iR = 0.45 f cu b (0.9 x ) ( − ) + f s1 s ( − d ' ) + f s 2 s ( − d ' )
2 2 2 2 2 2
h 0.9 x As h As h
= 0.45 f cu b (0.9 x ) ( − ) + f s1 ( − d ' ) + f s 2 ( − d')
2 2 2 2 2 2

Dividing both sides by bh2:

M  1 0.9 x  0.9 x  f s1 + f s 2  1 d '  As
= 0.45 f cu  −  +  −  ------------------------------------------------------(2)
b h2 2 h  2h  2  2 h  bh

By varying ratios of As/bh and x/h, an important chart type referred to as column
interaction diagram can be plotted. These graphs are used as design charts for
eccentrically loaded columns. Using these charts eliminates a tedious mathematical
process of trying to obtain a solution through direct calculations.

Column interaction diagram for symmetrical column of the

stated section parameters

107
 .

DESIGN CHART C-3

108
 .

Reinforced Concrete Design

(Struc Engrg SUS4A11)

General Design Procedures for

Structural Elements
(Topics 6-8)
Prof. Stephen O. Ekolu
B1 Lab Rm 222
Department of Civil Engineering Science
University of Johannesburg

The next topics 6 to 8 consist of design of R.C.

beams, slabs, columns and foundations. R.C design of
structural elements generally takes the following steps:
General Design Process

1. Member dimensions are initially guessed, selected or

estimated from Code requirements & Rules of Thumb.
2. Steel reinft reqd is determined based on the estimated
member size.
3. Adequacy checked on the steel reinft & est. member
size, to meet Code limits, specific to the particular
member type.
4. If found unsatisfactory, the member size & steel reinft
are adjusted and the process repeated until Code limits
are satisfied.
The member size and reinft. satisfying the Code limits is
the final design

109
 .

General Design Process

Check Code Estimate

requirements member size
is Spiral

Keep Adjusting Size

& Reinft till Code
limits are met

Design
steel reinft

Golden ratio – 1.62

110
 .

Reinforced Concrete Design

(Struc Engrg SUS4A11)

Beam Design
(Topic 6)

Prof. Stephen O. Ekolu

B1 Lab Rm 222
Department of Civil Engineering Science
University of Johannesburg

Beam Design
(Read along with Sec 5.1 & 5.2)

6.1 Design for Bending (Eqns)

Mi
d C
z
T
V b

Taking moments about C-axis:

M = T.Z. But T = 0.87fy.As

∴ As =
M  
z = d 0,5 +  0, 25 −
K  
 ≤ 0,95d
0,9  
0.87f y .z Where
 
M
K= 2
bd f cu
Pause here & check!!:
a) If z > 0.95d, use z = 0,95d
b) If K > 0.156 provide compr. reinft or simply increase beam size

111
 .

6.2 Design for Shear (Eqns)

X-Section

Average shear stress, ν = V

b.d
Check that:
a) v < 0.75 f cu or 4.75 N/mm
2
1 1 1 SABS cl
0.79  f cu  3  100 As  3  400  4
b) v < vc where vc =       4.3.4.1.2, from
γ m  25   bd   d  exptal tests
If v ≤ vc still have to provide min shear reinft Asv = 0.2% b.Sv (D.t 12)
b.(v − vc ).sv
If v > vc design for shear reinft Asv ≥ (D.t.14)
0,87 f yv
In both situations ensure that Sv ≤ 0,75d

6.3 Checking for Deflection (method)

(1) Empirical method: Calc actual L/d & compare with nominal L/d in D.table
13. If Actual L/d is < nominal L/d then deflection OK otherwise follow steps
2-4.
(2) Calc the SLS design loads (deflection is a serviceability state, therefore,
SLS design loads must be used in the following steps)
(3) Calc service stress, fs (cl. 4.3.6.3)
SLS design load A s_req 1
f s = 0.87f y . . .
ULS design load A s_prov β b
β = ratio of moment at tension zone e.g midspan, to overall max
moment from BMD; can be simplified to β = 1.0
(3) Determine modification factor for tension reinft (M.F) – D.table 9.2
(4) Calc max allowed L/d = m.f x L/d from D.table 13
Compare with actual L/d
If actual L/d < max allowed L/d - deflection OK
(5) Theoretical method: If in step 4 the deflec check fails, then deflection value
(in mm) can be calculated from formula & compared with span/250 limit

112
 .

DESIGN TABLE 9.2 Modification factors for tension reinft

6.4 Beam Design Procedure

Decide:
Determine: Estimate:
Concrete grade e.g 30 MPa
Preliminary section size Dead loads
Main steel reinft grade e.g 450 MPa
- h, b, d, cover Live loads
Shear reinft grade e.g 250 MPa

Determine:
ULS /SLS design loads
Calculate K Design moment /BMD
Design shear force /SFD

Design beam as No Yes Design beam as

Is
Doubly Reinforced Singly Reinforced
i.e tension & compr reinft K <0.156 i.e tension reinft

Design shear reinft

Check deflection

Prepare reinft details

113
 .

Preliminary Sizing
1. Concrete cover
Use min req for durability (D. table 8)
Use min req. for fire (D. table 9)
Choose the largest

2. Beam depth (estimate)

Use span-effective depths ratios to obtain, d (D. table 13)
Assume a link dia., from common sizes of 8 to 12 mm dia
Assume tension reinft dia., from common sizes of 12 to 25 mm dia
h ≈ d + 0,5φmain bar + φlink + cover
Use rule-of-thumb: h ~L/12
Estimate h using the largest of the two

3. Beam width (estimate)

Use min req. for fire resistance (D. table 8)
Use rule-of-thumb for rect. sections
Estimate b using largest of the two

From steps 1-3, you have a preliminary beam size,

CONTINUE on detailed design

Detailed Design: The 6 Primary Formulae

4. Design loads (D. table 3)
e.g. w (ULS) = 1.2Gn + 1.6Qn

5. Max M and V (Beam formula, D. table 4 /5 or Moment Distr Method)

6. Steel areas for tension /compression reinfts

M M
(a) Calc and check if K < 0.156 As = K=
0.87f y .z bd 2 f cu
(b) Calc and check if z < 0.95d
(c) Calc As and check against min and max.   K  
z = d 0,5 +  0, 25 −   ≤ 0,95d
(Use the relevant eqns)   0,9  
Select size & number of steel bars
1 1 1

7. Shear reinft: V 0.75  f cu  3  100 As  3  400  4

ν= vc =      
(a) Calc normal shear stress b.d γ m  25   bd   d 
(b) Calc critical shear
A sv b(v − vc )
(c) Calc Asv/Sv and check against min =
(Use the relevant eqns) sv 0.87f yv

8. Deflection (check) (D. table 13)

If any check in steps 6 to 8 is not satisfied RETURN to preliminary design & change
beam sizes then continue until all the checks are satisfied. Design is COMPLETE

114
 .

Example 6.1: Singly Reinforced beam

15 kN/m

4.2 m
Double garage

Preliminary Sizing
Cover:
Durability (assume moderate conditions), c = 30 mm (D. table 8)
1 hr fire resistance, c = 25 mm (D. table 9)
Use cover c = 30 mm
Beam depth:
Effec depth for simply supported, d ≥ L/20 = 4200/20 = 210 mm (D. table 13)
Assume links 8 mm dia. & reinft of 20 mm dia
Hence, h = 210 + 0,5x20+8+30 = 258 mm, round off nearest 25mm
i.e. h = 300 mm
Rule-of thumb: h ~L/12 = 350 mm (pg 22)
Use h = 300 mm, then re-calculate d = h-0,5φ-link dia-cover = 300-0,5x20-8-
30 = 252, say 250 h = 300 mm, d = 250 mm
Beam width:
Ihr fire resistance, min b = 110 mm (Design table 8)
Rule-of thumb: b ~2.210/3 =140 mm (pg 22)
Use say b = 150 mm
Hence preliminary beam size, 150 width x 300 height, d = 250 mm

115
 .

h = d+0,5φ+link dia+cover

0.5ø
Link dia
c

Detailed Design
Design Load:
Dead load:-
Self-weight of beam = 0,15 x 0,3 x 24 = 1,1 kN/m (D.table 1)
Applied dead load above lintel = 15,0 kN/m
Total, Gn = 16.1 kN/m

Live Load:-
Qn = 0
ULS = 1.5Gn (for dead load only, factor = 1,5) (D. table 3)
ULS design load w = 1,5 x 16.1 = 24.2 kN/m

Max BM & SF:

Max. design BM, M = wL2/8 = 24.2x 4,22/8 = 53.4 kN.m (D. table 4)
SF at support = wL/2 = 24x 4,2/2 = 50,8 kN

116
 .

Tension (bottom) reinft design:

M 53 x106
As = K=
M
= = 0,188
0,87. f y .z bd 2 . f cu 150.2502.30

Problem: K = 0,188 which is > 0,156

This means we either provide compr. reinft at top or increase beam size
Solution: Let’s increase beam width to b = 250 mm.
Now re-calculate ULS design load, BM & SF
Total UDL now becomes 16.8 kN/m, M = 56 kN.m & SF= 53 kN
56x106
Then K = = 0.119 < 0.156
250.2502.30
Now, K =0,113 is < 0,156, there’s no need for top compr. reinft.
We can then proceed with beam design 250 width x 300 height

  0.119  
z = d 0.5 +  0.25 −   = 0 .84
  0.9  
56x106
As = = 681 mm 2 > Min As = 0.13% 250.300 =
0.87.450.(0.84.250) 97.5 mm2

Bar selection
From D. table 15, you can choose
Either 4#-16mm dia (804 mm2) - OK but check clear spacing between bars
Or 2#-25mm dia (982 mm2) - OK but may be uneconomical
Or 3#-20mm dia (942 mm2) - OK but may be uneconomical
Or 2#-20mm +1#-10mm dia (707 mm2) – OK but marginal

Use 2-Y20+1-Y10

Top (compression) reinft

No compr. reinft is required, so provide min size used for main reinft (12mm dia)
As = 0,13%bh = 97.5 mm2 i.e..2Y12 (226 mm2): This is required to hold up links in
addition making the beam more formidable.
Top reinft: Use 2-Y12
Now, may return to bottom reinft. & replace Y10 with Y12 for easy handling of
orders of different steel sizes.

i.e. Bottom reinft : 2-Y20+1-Y12 (854 mm2)

Top reinft: 2Y12

117
 .

Shear reinft design:

V 53x10 3
Av. shear stress, v = = = 0.85 < 4.1(0.75 fcu ) or 4.75 OK
b.d 250.250
1 1 1
0.75  30   100.854   400 
3 3 4

Crit shear stress vc =      

1.4  25   250.250   250 
= 0.536(1.2) 0.333 (1.366) 0.333 (1.600) 0.25 = 0.711
v = 0.85 > vc = 0.71 Not OK, design for shear reinft reqd

A sv b(v − vc ) 250(0.85 − 0.71)

= = = 0.16
sv 0.87f yv 0.87.250
Check: min Asv/Sv = 0.2%b > 0.16 (D.table 12 & 16)
A sv 0.2(250)
≥ 0.2%b = = 0.5
sv 100
From D. table 16
Use R8 at 200 c/c (= 0,503) Check max spacing Sv < 0.75d = 187.5!!
Use R8 at 175 c/c (= 0,575)
Deflection check (Empirical method):
Actual L/d = 4200/250 = 16.8 < nominal L/d = 20 OK (D.table 13)

Deflection calc (Theoretical method):

Can also calc actual deflection by theoretical method:

Short term modulus, Ec = 28 GPa (see table in Topic 1)
Long-term modulus, Ece = Ec/2 = 14 GPa(Ref. Kong & Evans)

I = bd3/12 = 250.2503/12 = 325.52x106 mm4

SLS design load should be used in the deflection eqn, but SABS 0160
(table 2) does not provide load factor for SLS where there are no live
loads (as the case is in this example). So it is conservative to use ULS
design loads (24.2 kN/m) for the theoretical calculation of deflection
SABS 0160 table 2

wl 4 24.2(4200) 4
∂= = = 4.31 mm (See R.C Databk 2, Fig 23)
384EI 384(14x10 3 )325x10 6

Allowable deflection limit = span/250 =4200/250= 16.8 mm (SANS 10100-

1, cl. 4.3.6.2.1)

118
 .

Deflection check:
V 53x10 3
Av. shear stress, v = = = 0.85 < 4.1(0.75 fcu ) or 4.75 OK
b.d 250.250
1 1 1
0.75  30   100.854   400 
3 3 4

Crit shear stress vc =      

1.4  25   250.250   250 
= 0.536(1.2) 0.333 (1.366) 0.333 (1.600) 0.25 = 0.711
v = 0.85 > vc = 0.71 Not OK, design for shear reinft reqd

A sv b(v − vc ) 250(0.85 − 0.71)

= = = 0.16
sv 0.87f yv 0.87.250
Check: min Asv/Sv = 0.2%b > 0.16, use min (D.table 12 & 16)
A sv 0.2(250)
≥ 0.2%b = = 0.5
sv 100
From D. table 16
Use R8 at 200 c/c (= 0,503) Check max spacing Sv < 0.75d = 187.5!!
Use R8 at 175 c/c (= 0,575)
Deflection check:
L/20 = 210 < d = 250 mm OK

Complete design:

Cover =30 mm
Preliminary size was 150 x 300 mm
Final size is 250 x 300 mm
Bottom reinft. 2-Y20 + 1-Y12
Top reinft 2-Y12
Shear links R8 at 175 c/c

119
 .

Example 6.2: Doubly Reinforced beam

Referring to Example 6.1, it was found that for M = 53 kN.m, V = 50.4
KN, the beam size 300 x 150 mm, d = 250 mm, cover = 30 mm required
compression reinft. since K = 0,188 > 0,156. Suppose we decided to
proceed with the beam design as doubly reinforced (instead of
increasing the beam size), the design would then unfold as follows:

Steel reinft:
d’ = cover + (0.5x20) +8 (assuming 8 mm links & 20 mm dia bars)
= 30 +10 + 8 = 48 mm
53x106 − 0.156.30.150.2502 9.125x106
A's = = = 139.4 mm 2
0.72.450.(250 − 48) 65.448x103
0.156.30.150.2502
As = + A's = 533.7 + 139.4 = 673.1mm2
0.87.450.0.84(250)

A’s provided : 2Y10 (157mm2) is sufficient but it is more appropriate to use

Y12 as minimum size to avoid wobble effects with small sizes.
Provide 2Y12 (226 mm2). Check min compression reinft = 0.20%bh = 90
mm2 < 226 mm2 OK.

As provided : 2Y20+ 1Y10 (707 mm2) would be ok, however the narrow width
(b = 150 mm) will leave insufficient spacing (12 mm) between 3 bars is < the
min φ =20 mm dia (Sec 4.3.1). Two bar arrangement is suited which leads to
2Y25 (982 mm2) (though uneconomical) giving a better spacing of 24 mm.

Shear reinft:
1 1 1
Design is done as in example 6.1: 0.75  30  3  100 .982  3  400  4
vc =      
v = 0.81 > vc = 0.745 1 .4  25   250 . 250   250 
Asv/Sv = 0.075 < min 0.5, provide minimum = 0 .536 (1 .2 ) 0 .333
(1 .571 ) 0 . 333
(1 .600 ) 0 .25 = 0 .745
R8 @ 175 c/c
Important note: In applying
the critical shear, vc eqn, only
tension reinft As must be
used i.e no A’s included.

120
 .

6.5 Flanged Beam Design

(Read along with Sec 5.2.3)

• Design of flanged beams depends on the position of the NA i.e.

whether NA lies in the flange or in the web area
• At supports, the beam sections are always designed as a rectangular
section (bw, d) since concrete (and flange area) above the NA is under
tension and can be considered ‘inconsequential’.
• At mid-span, the sections are designed as T-beam (or L-beams)

6.5.1 Design Procedure

Preliminary Sizing
(follow steps 1-3 of Sec 6.3)
• Estimate beam depth, d as for rect. beams
• Estimate beam breadth, bw as for rect. beams
• Estimate effective flange breadth from:
T-beam: bf = bw + 0,2LZ; L-beam: bf = bw + 0,1LZ
LZ = 0.7L (interior spans); LZ = 0.85L (pin end spans)
(Sec 4.3.3)

121
 .

Detailed Design
• Determine loading, following steps 4-5 of Sec 6.3
• Design tension reinft (Refer to Sec 5.2.3)
(i) At supports design as a rect. section with b = bw
(ii) At midspan, calculate the position of NA then:
- If NA is x < hf, design as rect. beam with b = bf,
- If NA is x > hf (not often!), design as T-beam or L-
beam using the designated formula for As

• Design for shear reinft, following step 7 of Sec 6.3 and

using b = bw for shear design
• Check for deflection as in step 8 (Sec 6.3)

Reinforced Concrete Design

(Struc Engrg SUS4A11)

Slab Design
(Topic 7)

Prof. Stephen O. Ekolu

B1 Lab Rm 222
Department of Civil Engineering Science
University of Johannesburg

122
 .

Slab Design
Slab types

(SANS10100-1
cl. 4.4.3) Cable–like deflection Plate-like deflection

Load on beam

on wall
Load

on wall
Load
Load on beam
45o

BS 8110
uses Ly/Lx One - way slab Two - way slab
ratio of 2 ly/lx >3 ly/lx ≤ 3

1-way slab with

columns

2-way slab with

columns

123
 .

Slab are organized into bays and panels

In slab design, first

- Identify the slab panel & bay
- Determine if one or two way
slab: lx/ly of a panel
- If one-way, identify direction of
1 m strip

7.1 Design of one-way slab

Design Procedure:
One-way slabs are designed as for
beams with the following exceptions:
• Width of strip b = 1000 mm
(spanning btwn supports)
• Tension (longitudinal) reinft is Longitudinal reinft
designed as for beams but min As
must be provided in both
longitudinal & transverse
directions
(As = 0.13%bh, D.table 10)
• Usu no normal shear reinft Transverse reinft
needed but must be checked
(shear stresses usu. too low!).
Punching shear may be a concern
with concentrated loads

124
 .

In slab design always first

identify a slab panel
ly = ? 18000
lx = ? 3500
ly/lx? = 18/3.5 = 5.14 > 3
i.e. design as one-way slab

Now suppose we have a new

set up with horizontal beams
as shown, identify a panel
ly = ? 6000
lx = ? 3500
ly/lx = 6.0/3.5 = 1.71 <3
i.e. design as two-way slab

Example 7.1 (one-way floor slab)

Moderate exposure, fcu = 30 MPa

In slab design always first

identify slab panel
ly = ? 18000
lx = ? 3500
ly/lx? = 18/3.5 = 5.14 > 3
i.e. design as one-way slab

125
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Preliminary Sizing

Cover (as in beams):

30 mm (dur D .t 7), 15 mm (fire D.t 8), c = 30 mm

Depth, d and thickness, h (as in beams)

d = 100 mm (fire, D.t 8); d = 3500/24 = 145.8 mm (defl. D.t 12)
With d = 146, h = 146 + 0,5.12+30 = 182 mm
Use h = 200 mm

Slab width:
b = 1000 mm (always)

Preliminary size: h = 200, d ~ 164 mm

Detailed Design
Design load (as for beams):
200 mm thick slab = 4.80 kN/m2
3 mm PVC flooring, 3x0.016 = 0.05
19 mm cement screed, 19x0.023 = 0.44 0.086wL2
12.5 mm ceiling finish,12.5x0.019 = 0.24
120 mm perforated brick partitions = 2.20
Total = 7.73 0.086wL2 0.063wL2

Use Dead Load, DL ~ 8.0 kN/m2

Live Load, LL = 3.0 kN/m2
ULS design load
= 1.2DL + 1.6LL = 14.4 kN/m
Fr. D.table 6
Max M = 0.086 wL2= 0.086.14.4.(3.5)2 = 15.2 kN.m
Tension reinft (as for beams): 1000
s= −φ
(# bars − 1)
K = 0.019 <0.156 Ok, z = 0.98d >0.95d;
use 0.95d.
As = 249.2 mm2, 4Y10 (314 mm/m),
s = 323 mm. Provide Y 10 -300 c/c
Transverse reinft (min As = 0.13%bh=
260 mm2): Provide Y10-300 c/c

126
 .

Suppose we decide reduce the slab, h

Slab, h (mm) 200 150 125

d (mm) 164 114 89
M (KN.m) 15.2 13.3 12.6
K 0.019 0.034 0.053
Z 0.98d 0.96d 0.94d
As (mm2) 249.2 313.7 384.7
Provide 4Y10 4Y10 4Y12
(314 mm2) (314 mm2) (452 mm2)

By varying the size of slab and calculating the required reinforcement,

it can be seen that there is no advantage in using h >125 m

127
 .

7.2 Design of two-way slabs

• ly/lx ≤ 3 1m

• Cut 1m strips in both direction

Msx
• BM’s in occur both directions

1m
• Design reinft in both directions
as in one-way slabs /beams.
However, the magnitude of
these moments depend on Msy
support conditions i.e simply
supported or restrained.
• Shear forces is always = wlx/2

7.2.1 Simply supported 2-way slabs

• Here, the edge supports are unable to
provide resistance to moments or torsion
and will tend to lift and curl up.
• In this case, the bending moments occurring
in both directions are calculated using 1m
coefficients in D. table 7 as follows:
Msx = ∝sx n lx2 (in direc of span lx)
Msy
1m

Msy = ∝sy n lx2 (in direc of span ly)

n = ULS design load
∝sx, ∝sy = coefficients Msx
(D.table 7)
• Shear force V = wlx/2
• Deflection checks: are based on short-
span L/d ratio (SANS 10100-1, cl. 4.4.6)

128
 .

Shear forces in 2-way slabs

Cut 1 m strips in both directions

Load on trapezoid a-b-e-f is carried by beam a-b
Load on triangle a-c-e is carried by beam a-c
Length of the two x-x strips = length of the y-y strip = lx.
For this reason 2-way slabs are usually analysed based
on short-span, lx i.e.
• Moments, shear forces, deflections are calculated on
the basis of the short-span
• Since the supports are simply supported (or fixed), the
SF at support
V = wlx/2

7.2.1 Restrained 2-way slabs

• Under this case, the edge support are
fixed / to prevent or resist lifting at
edges or torsion at corners by 1m
providing reinft.
• The bending moments here occurring
Msx

in both directions are calculated using

1m

specific coefficients (table 15,

SABS100-1) as follows:
Msx = βsx n lx2
Msy
Msy = βsy n lx2
n = ULS design load
βsx, βsy = coefficients
(See R.C Design Databook, table 2.10 )

129
 .

The diagram below gives an interpretation of the various

panel types 1-9 (of the table 15 in the Code, SABS100-1)

130
 .

Example 7.2 (simply supported two-way floor slab)

Design the slab shown, referring to relevant in Exple 7.1

ly = 6000
lx = 3500
ly/lx = 1.71 < 3
i.e. design as a two-way slab

From D.table 7
αsx = 0.100
αsy = 0.015
h = 125, DL = 6.0kN/m2, LL = 3.0 kN/m2

n = 12.0 kN/m
Msx = 0.100(12)3.52 =14.7 kN.m /m width
Msy = 0.015(12)3.52 =2.21 kN.m /m width

BMDs and SFDs are irrelevant

in 2-way slabs!!!

131
 .

Short Span, lx
Tension reinft
K = 14.7x106/(1000.892.30) = 0.062<0.156 OK, no compression reinft
z = d(0.5+(0.25-0.062/0.9)0.5)= 0.93d <0.95d OK
Use z = 0.93d
As = 14.7x106/(0.87.450.(0.93).89) = 454 m2 /m width:
Check Min As = 0.13%bh = 0.13%.1000.125 = 162.5 < 471
Check max spacing = 750 or 3d (3x89 = 267 mm)
Min spacing: bars are always spaced wide apart, hardly any need to check min!
Provide 5Y12 mm (565 mm2/m), spacing 1000/4-10 = 240c/c < max spacing (267mm) OK
Y12 @ 240 c/c

Deflection
ULS = = 1.2DL + 1.6LL = 12.0 kN/m
SLS = 1.1 (6.0)+1.0(3.0)= 9.6 kN/m
SLS design load A s_req 1 9.6 454 1
Service stress f s = 0.87 f y . . . = 0.87( 450). . . = 252
ULS design load A s_prov β b 12.0 565 1
M/bd2 = 12 x106/(1000.892) = 1.51
m.f = 1.33 (table 11, SANS 10100-1)
Max allowed L/d = 20x1.33 = 26.6
Actual L/d = 3500/89 = 39.3 < max allowed (26.6) - FAILS

Check further using theoretical deflection method

Short term modulus, Ec = 28 GPa (see table in Topic 1)
Long-term modulus, Ece = Ec/2 = 14 GPa(Ref. Kong & Evans)
I = bd3/12 = 1000.893/12 = 58.75x106 mm4

wl 4 12.0(3500) 4
∂= = = 5.7 mm
384EI 384(14x10 3 )58.75x10 6
Allowable deflection limit = span/250 =3500/250= 14 mm (SANS 10100-1, cl.
4.3.6.2.1). Deflection check OK

Long Span, ly
K = 2.21x106/(1000.892.30) = 0.009 < 0.156 Ok
z = d(0.5+(0.25-0.009/0.9)0.5)= 0.99d > 0.95d; use 0.95d
As = 2.21x106/(0.87.450.0.95.89) = 66.8 mm2 /m width < min As (162.5 mm2)
Use min As

Provide 3Y10 (236 mm2/m) would be sufficient but spacing 1000/2-10 = 490 mm is
greater than max spacing of 267 mm. Hence use
, 5Y10 (393 mm2/m) spacing 240 mm OK
Y10 @ 240 mm c/c

Deflection
(All deflection checks are based on short-span only )

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 .

Normal shear (this check covers both short &long spans)

V = wlx/2 = 12.0x3.5/2 = 21.0 kN per m width

Shear stress, v = 12.0x103/(1000.89) = 0.135
1 1 1
0.75  30  3  100.565  3  400  4
Critical shear stress, vc =      
1.4  25   1000.89   89 
= 0.536(1.2) 0.333 (0.635) 0.333 (4.494) 0.25 = 0.713
v = 0.135 < vc (= 0.713) – shear OK

7.3 Punching shear

If a slab is to support a major concentrated load, it will experience
shearing stresses around the perimeter of the loading force, resulting in
a tendency to ‘punch out’. This impact of concentrated loading is thus
regarded as punching shear.

133
 .

If a slab is to support a major concentrated load, it will experience

shearing stresses around the perimeter of the loading force, resulting in
a tendency to ‘punch out’. This impact of concentrated loading is thus
regarded as punching shear.

Shear perimeters: Uo = 2(a+b)

U1 = 2(a+b)+12d
U2 = 2(a+b)+18d
U3 = 2(a+b)+24d
U4 = 2(a+b)+30d etc.

• Normal shear is checked for the loaded perimeter, against max shear
stress i.e 0.75√fcu or 4.75 MPa
• Punching shear stress, v is calculated as:

v=
N U = perimeter of section subject to punch out
U.d av
dav = avge effective depth considering both layers of
tension reinft
• Failure zones are demarcated, with initial zone perimeter being 1.5d
from Uo, followed by zonal perimeters spaced at intervals of 0.75d.
• Punching shear is checked (and designed for) at:
U1 (i.e 1.5d), followed by U2 (next 0.75d), U3 .. until such a point
where v< vc at which point no shear reinft will be needed
• vc is calculated from the usual expression but As = avge steel area for
both layers of tension steel

134
 .

• Shear reinft area is designed using eqns:

(v - v c ) u d
ΣA sv ≥ for v c < v ≤ 1.6v c
0.87f yv
5(0.7v - v c ) u d
ΣA sv ≥ for 1.6v c < v ≤ 2v c
0.87f yv
and min (v − v c ) ≥ 0.40 N/mm 2

• Punching shear reinft should not be designed for thin slabs <200mm
thick and where v > 2vc
• Shear reinft is provided in form of vertical links spaced at ≤1.5d. Legs
of each vertical link must be ≤ 0.75d apart. The vertical links form kind
of beam cages as shown.

Example 7.3 (Punching shear)

A slab 350mm thick supports 300x400 column of load 1375 kN. The slab is
reinforced with Y12 @100 c/c in both directions. Cover = 25 mm (mild exposure),
fcu 25 Mpa. Check and design punching shear. Use 8 mm links.

dav = 350-cover-(12+12)/2 = 313 mm

Max shear stress allowed vmax = 0.75√fcu = 3.75 or 4.75
Avg As = (transv As + Longit As)/2 = [113(1000/100)+113(1000/100)]/2 = 1130mm2
1 1 1
0.75  25  3  100 . 1130  3  400  4
Critical shear stress, vc =      
1 . 4  25   1000 . 313   313 
= 0 . 536 (1 ) 0 . 333
( 0 . 361 ) 0 . 333
(1 . 278 ) 0 . 25
= 0 . 406

135
 .

(a) Normal shear at load perimeter

Uo = 2(a+b) = 2(400+300)=1400 mm
v = N/Uo.d = 1375x103/ (1400.313) = 3.14 < 3.75 OK

(b) Critical shear stress at U1

U1 = 2(a+b) +12d = 1400+12.313=5156 mm
v = N/U1.d = 1375x103/ (5156.313) = 0.852 > vc
Checks: (1) v-vc = 0.852-0.406 = 0.446 > 0.40, use 0.446 - OK
(2) v/vc = 0.852/0.406 =2, design shear reinft using 2nd eqn
5(0.7v - v c ) u d
A sv ≥ for 1.6v c < v ≤ 2v c
0.87f yv
5(0.70x852 - 0.406) . 5156 . 313
= = 3924 mm 2

0.87.450

Each link has two legs, therefore,

(2xπφ2link/4) x No. of links = 3924
(2x113)x no of links = 3924;
No. of 12mm links on perimeter U1 = 17.4 ~ 18 (-2 space taken by for column area) = 16

(c) Critical shear stress at U2

U2 = 2(a+b) +18d = 1400+18.313=7034 mm
v = N/Uo.d = 1375x103/ (7034.313) = 0.625 > vc
Checks: (1) v-vc = 0.625-0.406 = 0.219 < 0.40, use 0.40
(2) v/vc = 0.625/0.406 =1.24, design shear reinft using 1st eqn
(v - v c ) u d
ΣA sv ≥ for v c < v ≤ 1.6v c
0.87f yv
0.40.7034. 313
A sv = = 2249 mm 2

0.87.450

Each link has two legs, therefore,

(2xπφ2link/4) x No. of links = 2249
(2x50)x no. of links = 2249;
No. of 8mm links on perimeter U1 = 23 ~ 24

(d) Critical shear stress at U3

U3 = 2(a+b) +24d = 1400+24.313=8912 mm
v = N/Uo.d = 1375x103/ (8912.313) = 0.493 > vc
Checks: (1) v-vc = 0.492-0.406 = 0.087 < 0.40, use 0.40
Asv = 0.40.8912.313/(0.87.450) = 2850 mm2
No of 8 mm links on perimeter U2 = 2850/(2.50) = 28.5 ~ 29

(d) Critical shear stress at U4

U3 = 2(a+b) +30d = 1400+30.313=10790 mm
v = N/Uo.d = 1375x103/ (10790.313) = 0.407 > vc
Checks: (1) v-vc = 0.407-0.406 = 0.01 < 0.40, use 0.40
Asv = 0.40.10790.313/(0.87.450) = 3450 mm2
No of 8 mm links on perimeter U2 = 3450/(2.50) = 34.5 ~ 36

136
 .

Highlighting shear reinft

Planned set up of links U1-U3 no. of links for U1

Example 7.3 designed shear reinft

highlighting no. of links for U1

137
 .

Reinforced Concrete Design

(Struc Engrg SUS4A11)

Column Design
(Topic 8)

Prof. Stephen O. Ekolu

B1 Lab Rm 222
Department of Civil Engineering Science
University of Johannesburg

138
 .

Column Design
8. Introduction

Columns are compression members, unlike beams and slabs (flexural

members). Columns carry loads from beams, slabs and roof all the way
to the foundations of the structure. As for beams and slabs, column
design is governed by ULS and checks conducted for deflection and
cracking (SLS). Despite the understanding that concrete is good in
compression and that columns are primarily in compression, designers
need to reinforce concrete columns with steel.

Steel reinforcement requirements

Buckling is the tendency to produce tension on one side and
compression on the other e.g. when floors surrounding the column are
unloaded above and heavily loaded below. Tension cracking resulting
from such situations can be prevented if the column is provided with
vertical reinforcement.

Columns - transmit loads from beams, slabs and roof to the

foundation

139
 .

Consequently, the necessary reinforcement provisions are usually

required in design:
- Min As longitudinal reinft to guard against buckling,
- Max As longitudinal reinft to allow proper placement of concrete,
- Links to prevent main bars from buckling under load, and from
wandering out of position during concreting.
Hence the code requirements:
SABS 0100-1: 1992, Table 23, cl.4.11.4.2.2,
cl. 4.11.4.5
Min. no. of bars 4 bars for rect column, 6 bars for circular
columns
Size of longitudinal bar ≥ 12 mm (usu. 16 to 32 mm)
Min. area of longitudinal reinft As ≥ 0.4%Ac (Table 10)
Max. area of longitudinal reinft As ≤ 6% Ac (Table 11)
Links: Minimum size greater of 6 mm or 0,25Φlargest longit. bar
Spacing < 12Φsmallest longit. bar

Longitudinal
steel bars

links Long reinft

Min no. 4 (rect), 6 (circ)
Min size 12 mm dia (usu 16-32)
Min As 0.4%bh (Table 10)
Max As 6%bh (Table 11)
Links
Min size 6 mm dia or 0.25φ
Max spacing 12φ

140
 .

Typical arrangement of column reinforcement

Column sections are typically square, rectangular or circular

8.1 Axially loaded columns

8.1.1 Bracing: braced or unbraced

Braced columns - not intended to resist lateral loads e.g winds.

Here, a provision is made to provide shear walls, lifts & other
systems that will resist all lateral loading on the building structure.
It can therefore be assumed that both ends of the columns are not
capable of resisting rotation i.e. column ends are simple supports
to beams and slabs.

Unbraced columns - designed to resist bending moments and

shear forces from lateral loads.

A structure may be braced in one direction (e.g. E-W) and unbraced

in the other orthogonal direction (N-S).

141
 .

Unbraced in both directions

Braced in one direction (N-S)

Braced in both directions

• Braced or unbraced i.e. braced Lifts

columns do not resist lateral loads
(winds etc.). In such a structure, other Shear
elements (shear walls, lifts, ties etc) are walls
provided to resist lateral loads

• Axially or eccentrically loaded relates

to line of applied load in relation to
column axis

Axial loading Eccentric

142
 .

8.1.2 Effective height

The length of a column is a critical design consideration. The

behaviour of a column and its failure mode is determined by column
length. However, fixity of end conditions of columns influence the
‘effective’ length of column that may be subject to failure. Hence,
designs are based on effective length, Le and not full length L.

Effective length is calculated as:-

Le = β Lo
Where, Lo is a clear height btwn column
ends as illustrated.

Also note that where beams are running in one direction (e.g E-W
only and none in the N-S direction) the clear height of the column
will be different in each case, as illustrated in the diagrams below.

Lo equal in both planes Lo unequal in the two planes

143
 .

Coefficient, β is obtained from D.table 14 and is influenced by the

end fixity condition of the (braced or unbraced) column. The end
conditions may fall into anyone of the three categories, as illustrated:

End condition 1: h > b, h

End condition 2: h < b, h

End condition 3: Nominal end restraint i.e pinned

End condition 4: unrestrained e.g cantilever

8.1.3 Slenderness: short or slender

The mode of failure of a column is determined by its height.

Short (stocky) columns - fail by compression mode i.e lateral bulging of

the concrete & steel reinft
Slender (long) columns - fail by buckling

Because the failure modes for short and slender columns differ, the design
procedures are used for each column type are different.

Compression failure Buckling failure

144
 .

Compression failure Buckling failure

Where lies the difference?

Slenderness ratio (SR) is a parameter used to determine if a column

should be designed as a short or slender column. It is defined as the
ratio of effective height to the column width or breadth.

SR (about x-axis) = lex/h

SR (about y-axis) = ley/b

Lex Ley
Braced column : , < 15 − Short
h b
L L
Unbraced column : ex , ey < 10 − Short
h b
SANS0100-1 uses 17-7M1/M2

145
 .

Column types

• Short or slender. A short column is defined

as having Le /b & Le/h <10
Where Le = βLo,
Lo is clear height btwn column ends
β is determined from table 14

e.g.
Lo = ? 3750 -500 = 3250
Beam 500x300 From. D table 14
Column 300x300 Top end condition = ? 1
Bottom end condition = ? 1
3750

Unbraced
Lo β = ? 1.2
y
x Le =? 3900
Short or slender ? Le/b = 13 > 10
i.e. slender

Example 8.1 (Short or slender)

Determine if the braced column shown is short or slender.
Slabs 150 mm thick, beams 500x220, storey height 4.5 m

About x-axis
Lox = 4500-150-500 = 3850 mm
Col depth (350 mm) < beam /slab depth (500 mm)
i.e. end condition at top = 1
end condition at bottom = 1
braced column
β = 0.75
Lex/h = β.Lox/h = 0.75.3850/350 = 8.25 < 15 short

146
 .

About y-axis
Loy = 4500-150 = 4350 mm
Col depth (220 mm) > slab depth (150 mm)
i.e. end condition at top = 2
end condition at bottom = 2
braced column
β = 0.85
Ley/h = β Loy/h = 0.85.4350/220 = 16.8 >15 slender

The column should be designed as slender

8.2 Design of short columns

8.2.1 Axially loaded

The load carrying capacity of axially loaded short columns is given by

N = 0.40 fcu.Ac + 0.67fy. As

The equation allows line of loading to fall out from column axis by a max
of 1/20 of overall width of column. The e = 0.05 is referred to as nominal
eccentricity (cl. 4.7.2.3).

If the short column is braced, it is not expected to withstand moments or

rotational forces thus not necessary to check deflections or shear. The
design simply involves column sizing and reinft calculation.

147
 .

8.2.1.1 Design procedure for axially loaded short column

(1) Estimate side (b, h) dimensions

Use min. dimensions required for fire resistance
Calculate max. dimm. from slenderness ratio, Le/b < 10
Use column loading formula, assuming min area of reinft
(2) Determine loading and ULS design loads
(3) Determine bending moment (M), M = 0 for axially loaded columns
(4) Calculate longit reinft and check against min. and max. required
(5) Check for shear (cl. 4.7.4.5). No shear check required for axially
loaded rect./square columns if v ≤ 0.75 fcu or 4 MPa
(6) Finally check for deflection. No check required for braced columns
provided slenderness limits are met.

Example 8.2 (Axially loaded column)

Design a short, braced reinforced column to support an ultimate axial
load of 1767 kN given fcu = 30 MPa, fy = 450 MPa

Size
To use loading formula, first assume min As = 0.4%Ac (D.table 10)
Subst in N = 0.40 fcu.Ac + 0.67fy. As

1767 x 103 = (0.40.30 + 0.67.450.0.4%). Ac , Ac = 133,803mm2

i.e. square column b = 380mm, or use b = 350 mm sq.

Use 350x350 mm Use 380x380 mm

Using the eqn with the column dimm Using the eqn
1767.103 = 0,40x30x(3502-As)+0.67x450As 1767.103 = 0,40x30x(3802-As)+0.67x450As
As = 1025 mm2 As = 118.1 <577 mm2 , min As
Provide 4Y20 mm (1257 mm2) Provide 4Y16 mm (803 mm2)
6Y12 (679 mm2)
Check, min As = 490 mm2 Ok, max As = 7350
mm2 OK. Check min As = 577 OK, max As= 8664 Ok
Load capacity, N = 1849 kN > 1767 OK Load capacity = 1965 kN > 1767 OK

148
 .

8.2.2 Eccentrically loaded

Eccentric loading applies to edge columns and corner columns. Bending in these
columns occurs due to deflection of the connecting beams subjecting the column
to compression as well as bending a shown in the diagram.

Eccentrically loaded columns subject to bending moment M at the same time

supporting compression load, N are designed using the equations (see Sec 5.6.2):

N (0.9) x f s1 + f s 2  As 
= 0.45 f cu +  
bh h 2 bh 
M  1 0.9 x  0.9 x  f s1 + f s 2  1 d '  As
= 0.45 f cu  −  +  − 
b h2 2 h  2h  2  2 h  bh

Using these equations directly requires trials of various values of x and As. This
would be tedious and prone to errors. To simplify use of the equations, standard
design charts (column interaction diagrams) are used. The design charts are
developed for each value of fy, fcu, and d’/h. See the design charts given for fy =
450 mm2, fcu = 30 N/mm2 and varied values of d’/h= 0.05 to 0.25.

By using charts, column design will be greatly reduced to choosing the section
size (b,h), determining N, M then simply read off the percentage of steel required.

Note: where the d’/h lies between two charts, both charts can be read and the
steel percentage found by interpolation.

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 .

8.2.2.1 Design procedure for uniaxial bending (braced or unbraced)

(1) Follow steps 1-2, Sec 7.2.1.1

(2) Determine bending moment and check min design moment
= N x 0.05h (Cl. 4.7.2.3), h = dimension for the plane under consideration
d' N M
(3) Calculate , ,
h b h b h2
(4) Use design charts to estimate the longitudinal reinforcement, As.
N M
, → As
b h b h2
(5) Follow steps 5-6, Sec 7.2.1.1

Example 8.2 (Uniaxial bending)

Design longitudinal reinforcement for the column in worked example 1
(250 mm x250 mm) to carry N = 1767 kN, M = 34 kN.m about the y-
axis. Given fcu = 30 N/mm2, fy = 450 N/mm2, mild exposure.

Solution
Mild exposure c = 20 mm.
d’ = 20+0.5(20)+8 = 38 (assume 8 mm links, 20 mm bars)
Min design moment = 0.05x250x10-3x1767 = 22.1 kN.m
d’/h = 38/250 ~ 0.15, N/bh = 1767x103/(250x250) = 28.3 N/mm2
M/bh2 = 34x106/(250.2502) = 2.2 N/mm2

From Design chart C-3, As = 6.7%bh = 4187 mm2

Provide 6Y32 mm (4825mm2)
i.e As = 3.9%bh (> 0.4%, <6%bh) OK
Links: 6 mm or 0.25φ = 0.25.32 = 8mm, use 8 mm links
Spacing: 12φ = 384 mm,
Use R8 links at 350 c/c

150
 .

8.2.3 Biaxial bending

The code (SANS 10100-1) gives a simplified method for bi-axial bending design.
According to the method:
• A column (rectangular, symmetrical) subjected to (N, Mx, My) is designed for uni-
axial bending but with an increased (enhanced) moment (M’x or M’y) in one axis.
• The axis to be used for the design is one having the greater moment/depth ratio,
Mx/h or My/b.

If Mx/h > My/b: design about x-axis h

M'x = M x + β b M y
uniaxial bending using b
My/b > Mx/h: design about y-axis b
uniaxial bending using M' y = M y + β b h M x
• The column can now be designed as uniaxial based on M’x or M’y, the values
of coefficient β being taken from D.table 14b.

DESIGN TABLE 14B

Values of coefficient for biaxial bending

N/bhfcu βb

0.000 0.50

0.075 0.60

0.150 0.70

0.250 0.70

0.300 0.65

0.400 0.53

0.500 0.42

≥0.600 0.30

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8.2.3.1 Design procedure for biaxial bending

(1) Follow steps 1-2, Sec 7.2.1.1

(2) Determine bending moments in both planes (N, Mx, My)
(3) Determine the increased design moment M’x or M’y. and check min design
moment = N x 0.05h (Cl. 4.7.2.3), h = dimension for the plane under
consideration
(4) Follow steps 3-4 of Sec 7.2.2.1 for uniaxial bending design, using the
increased design moment (M’x or M’y) in the eqns.

Example 8.3 (Biaxial bending)

Referring to the column in example 8.1, design for biaxial bending
N = 938 kN, Mx = 37 kN.m, My = 21 kN.m . Assume severe exposure.

Mx/h = 37/300 = 0.12

My/b = 21/225 = 0.09
Since Mx/h (0.12) > My/b (0.09), design uniaxial bending about x-axis

N/b.h.fcu = 938x103/(225.300.30) = 0.46

From the D. table 14.1, βb = 0.464
Mx’ = Mx+ βb (h/b)My = 37+0.464(300/225).21
= 50kN.m

Severe exposure c = 40 mm.

d’ = 40+0.5(20)+8 = 58 (assume 8 mm links, 20 mm bars)
Min design moment = 0.05x300x10-3x938 = 14.1 kN.m
d’/h = 58/300 =0.193~0.2, N/bh = 938x103/(225x300) = 14 N/mm2
M/bh2 = 50x106/(225.3002) = 2.47 N/mm2
chart d’/h = 0.20, 100As/bh ~ 2.5
As = 2.5(225.300)/100 = 1687.5 mm2

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The area required for each x-axis face = 1688/2 = 844 mm2
Provide 3Y20 (942 mm2)
i.e As = 100.(942x2)/(225x300) = 2.8% (> 0.4%, <6%bh) OK
Links: 6 mm or 0.25φ = 0.25.20 (use largest bar) = 5.25mm, use 8 mm links
Spacing: 12φ = 12.20 (use smallest bar) = 240 mm
Use R8 links at 225 c/c

Closing note on biaxial bending: In most cases, biaxial bending (corner

columns) in buildings will not usually provide the worst case loading as to
govern the design. Corner columns may resist major bending moments in
both axes but their axial loads are quite small. Instead, edge columns (uni-
axial bending) close to the corner columns will normally provide the (N,M)
loadings sufficient to control the design.

8.3 Design of slender columns

A column is categorised as slender when:

Lex/h, Ley/b > 15 for braced columns
Lex/h, Ley/b > 10 for unbraced columns

In slender columns, additional moments are induced due to

its lateral deflection when subjected to compressive loading,
causing the P-∆ effect .

The additional moment = P.∆

And induced deflection is given as au = βaKh …… (1)
Where:
βa = (SR)2/2000. Use max SR except in biaxial bending where the
SR for axis under consideration should be used.
h = dimm perpendicular to axis under consideration
N uz − N
K= ≤ 1.0
N uz − N bal where: Nuz = 0.45fcuAc+0.75fyAs
Nbal = 0.25 fcu b.d

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 .

If K > 1 from above eqn, it means N is > Nbal, k is obtained from

Mi
K= where: 0.87fyAs(d-d’)/2 +0.046fcubd2
M bal
Mi = initial design moment before additional
moments from slenderness effect were added

Nomenclature: As = area of longit reinft

Ac = net area of concrete i.e bh-As
b = dimm parallel to the axis of bending
h = dimm perpendicular to the axis of bending
d = cover - link dia - φ(bar dia)/2

It can be seen in that to calculate K, the area of reinft As is needed (which

at this point is not know). As such, a trial and error approach is normally
undertaken, starting by assuming k = 1.0 and subsequently adjusting it.
Note that the knee part of the design charts represents K = 1.0

The additional moment in a slender column,

Madd = N.au …... (2)

8.3.1 Braced slender columns, uniaxial bending

In a situation where a column is slender in one axis only, the additional
moment (from eqn (2) above) should be considered only in that plane of
bending.
• Full Madd is assumed to occur at mid-height of column
• 0.5Madd (ahalf) is assumed to occur at fixed ends
• Pinned ends resist zero moments
The additional moments as influenced by end conditions are shown in
the additional bending moment diagrams (ABMD) below.

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 .

The design moment used to determine the steel reinft in a slender column is
obtained by combining ABMD and primary BMD, as shown in the diagrams
below (Fig 21, SANS 10100-1).

At near mid-height: Madd is maximum

Mi = 0.4M1+0.6M2 ≥ 0.4M2
M1 – smaller primary moment at ends
M2 – larger primary moment at ends
The final design moment is the greater of the following:
• M2
• Mi+Madd
• M1+Madd/2
• Mmin = N x 0.05h
Using the final design moment, the slender column can now be
designed as uniaxial based on the final designed moment.

8.3.1.1 Design procedure for braced slender columns, uniaxial

(1) Follow steps 1-2, Sec 7.2.1.1
(2) Determine bending moments in both planes (N, Mx, My)
(3) Check SRs to determine if the column buckles by double curvature (both
lex/h, ley/b are 15) or single curvature
(4) Calculate Mi and calculate Madd by iteration procedure
(5) Determine the final design moment. and check min design moment = N
x 0.05h (Cl. 4.7.2.3), h = dimension for the plane under consideration
(4) Follow steps 3-4 of Sec 7.2.2.1 for uniaxial bending design, using the
final design moment in the eqns.

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8.3.2 Unbraced slender columns, uniaxial bending

The lateral sway of an unbraced building will result in further additional
moments (in addition to Madd from deflection – sec 7.2.1)
The additional moment due to sway will take one of the following forms
influenced by end conditions (fixed or pinned) in the unbraced slender
columns.

Madd due to sway Madd due to deflection

Comparing the Madd from sway and Madd from lateral deflection (sec 7.2.1), it is
clear that Madd_d, from deflection will tend to reduce the combined moments at
ends whereas Madd_s from sway will always add to the end moments. In
unbraced slender columns, the largest design moments will always result at the
ends. It is therefore conservative to neglect Madd from deflection and consider
only Madd from sway, in which case the final design moments is the greater of:
• M2+Madd
• Mmin = N x 0.05h

Points to note

(1) Slender columns, biaxial bending (braced or unbraced)

If the slender column is subject to biaxial bending, it should be
designed for bending about each axis separately following the
procedures in 8.3.1 and 8.3.2
• Design for uniaxial bending about x-axis (N, Mx)
• Design for uniaxial bending about y-axis (N, My)

(2) Short columns, uniaxial bending, braced or unbraced

The procedure in 8.2.2.1 for uniaxial bending applies to braced
and unbraced short columns alike.

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Column Design Charts

C-1 Column design chart d’/h = 0.05

C-2 Column design chart d’/h = 0.10
C-3 Column design chart d’/h = 0.15
C-4 Column design chart d’/h = 0.20
C-5 Column design chart d’/h = 0.25

DESIGN CHART C-1

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DESIGN CHART C-2

DESIGN CHART C-3

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 .

DESIGN CHART C-4

DESIGN CHART C-5

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 .

Reinforced Concrete Design

(Struc Engrg SUS4A11)

Foundation Design
(Topic 9)

Prof. Stephen O. Ekolu

B1 Lab Rm 222
Department of Civil Engineering Science
University of Johannesburg

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Foundation Design
Foundations serve the crucial role of transferring and spreading out
loads from the superstructure elements to the ground where they will be
dissipated beneath the earth surface. Therefore the soil upon which the
structure is built must have the capacity (referred to as ‘soil bearing
pressure’) to resist pressure arising from superstructure loading.
Inadequate bearing pressures result in building settlement, tilting and
even overturning. Foundations types are classified into two categories
of:
(a) Shallow or spread foundations, consisting of
• Pad (Isolated) footing: Supports a single concentrated load e.g.
column base
• Combined footing: Supports two or more concentrated loads e.g
in a row of close columns
• Strip footing: Continuous base supporting a UDL e.g. wall footing
• Strap footing or tied bases: are two individual bases connected
by tie-beam, which relieves moments and allows concentric design
• Raft or mat footing: combination of all isolated footings into a
single mat to prevent differential settlements in subsoils of low
bearing capacity

(b) Deep foundations

Typically involving boring deep into deeper layers of soil strata to

transmit loads of superstructure through installation of piles or piers.
Use of deep foundations is common when upper layers of soil are
compressible and too weak. However, there are other important
reasons where use of pile foundations becomes relevant such as
need to:
• Go below water table (e.g in offshore platforms, transmission
towers, mat foundations at high water table etc.)
• Go below layers of expansive soils
• Resist horizontal forces e.g earth pressures in retaining walls,
wind/earthquake forces in tall buildings etc
• Avoid loss of bearing capacity which may occur in case of surface
soil erosion in shallow footings e.g bridge abutments and piers

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Isolated column footing

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 .

http://www.ce.udel.edu/courses/CIEG%20667%20Geotech%20Design/Lesson
%2008-Chapter%208%20Shallow%20Foundations.pdf

http://www.ce.udel.edu/courses/CIEG%20667%20Geotech%20Design/Lesson
%2008-Chapter%208%20Shallow%20Foundations.pdf

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 .

http://www.ce.udel.edu/courses/CIEG%20667%20Geotech%20Design/Lesson
%2008-Chapter%208%20Shallow%20Foundations.pdf

http://www.ce.udel.edu/courses/CIEG%20667%20Geotech%20Design/Lesson
%2008-Chapter%208%20Shallow%20Foundations.pdf

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http://www.ce.udel.edu/courses/CIEG%20667%20Geotech%20Design/Lesson
%2008-Chapter%208%20Shallow%20Foundations.pdf

Deformations
in bridge
structures

http://www.ce.udel.edu/courses/CIEG%20667%20Geotech%20Design/Lesson
%2008-Chapter%208%20Shallow%20Foundations.pdf

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A number of factors have to be taken into consideration in choosing the

suitable type of foundation chosen in a particular design viz:

• Soil type: pile foundations suit poor soil conditions

• Closeness to property boundary: strap footings are used where a
footing lies too close to property boundary such that the full size of
footing cannot be constructed
• Restricted differential settlement /site conditions e.g storeyed
structures built on poor soil or site conditions may require rafting
piling
• Load types: concentrated loads such as columns may be supporting
through pad or combined footings whereas UDL loadings as in a
wall require strip footings.

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Support single Support several Support UDL

conc load e.g spaced conc e.g. wall base
column base loads e.g row of
close columns

Foundation types

9.1 Design of Isolated footings

The 3 criteria for pad footing design are bending, shear and punching
Footing size
• Isolated footings are square or rectangular. Consider the more general
case of a rectangular footing.

Where: L ≥ B
b≥h

To achieve equal moments in both directions, the distances from

column face to footing edge should be the same i.e
L-b = B-h ….. (1)
By trial an error, l and B are adjusted to meet the required base area, A

• Base Area, A = Ns /soil pressure, where Ns is SLS (1.0Dn+1.0Ln)

loading (not ULS) as settlement is expected to occur during the use
or service of the structure.

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Bending
Isolated footings are considered to act as cantilevered beams in two
directions and the critical section where bending failure is likely to
occur is at the face of the column, from bottom of footing.

Pressure
ρ = N/(L.B)

N u .(L − b) 2 .u
The design moment is given by M = …. (2)
8L.B
Where N = 1.2Dn+1.6Ln (ULS design loading)
L, b = are the larger dimm of base & and column resp.

Normal (vertical) shear

In foundations it is preferred not to have shear reinft. Rather the
purpose of the design is to achieve adequate shear resistance through
the depth, d of the footing.
N
vn =
B.d av
Shear is assessed at a distance,1.5d from column face (cl. 4.10.3.3.2)

Pressure
ρ = N/(L.B)

For a rect. footing, shear stress is given by:

N u .(L − b - 3d) …. (3)
v=
2L.B.d

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Punching shear

Refer to diagrams Sec 7.3. Punching shear is also assessed at

distance 1.5d from the column face by considering critical ‘punch out’
perimeter, U1.
N
vp =
U1.d av

For rectangular base (L>B) and column (b>h), punching shear stress is
given by: …. (4)
N  L.B − (b + 3d )(h + 3d ) 
vp =  
L.B.d  2( h + b) + 12d 

Design procedure for isolated footings

(1) Estimate cover from durability requirements

(2) Calculate SLS (Ns) and ULS design loads (Nu)
(3) Estimate size of footing based on SLS loadings
Calculate Ns = 1.0Dn+1.0Ln
Area of base, A = Ns /soil pressure
Determine L, B such that L-b = B-h (eqn 1)
For square footing, L=B= SQRT(A)
(3) Estimate thickness, h & effective depth, d
Choose trial thickness such that min 300 mm, h ~ L/6 (rule of thumb)
Calculate d from, d ≈ h - 0.5φmain bar - links - cover
(4) Calculate bending reinft & spacing as in beams, and check that it exceeds min As
N u .(L − b) 2 .u M
M= , As =
8.L.B 0.87f y .Z
(5) Check normal shear stress, v < vc;
N (L − b - 3d)
Calc shear stress from eqn 3, v = u
2L.B.d
Obtain vc using the same formula as for beams

(6) Check punching shear stress, vp < vc

N u  L.B − (b + 3d )( h + 3d ) 
Calc punching shear stress from eqn 4, v p =  
L.B.d  2( h + b) + 12d 

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Example 9.1 (Pad footing)

Design a rectangular footing for 850 x250 mm column carrying DL = 980 kN and
LL = 400 kN. fcu = 25 MPa, soil bearing pressure = 200 kPa.
Assume self-weight of footing to be 80 kN and extreme cover of 50 mm

SLS = 1.0(980)+1.0(400) = 1380 kN

ULS = 1.2(900)+1.6(400) = 1720 kN
Base area A = 1380/200 = 6.9 m2
From eqn1: L-0.85 = B-0.25; L = B+0.6
Starting with sq. base, L = B = SQRT(6.9) = 2.63
Try B = 2.4m, L = 3.0m & check base area A = 2.4x3 = 7.2 m2 > 6.9 OK

Footing depth
Trial depth ~ L/6 = 3000/6 = 500 mm
Assume steel reinft.20 mm dia., cover 50 mm
Then d = 500 -0.5(20)-8-50 = 432 mm
Hence h = 500, d = 432 mm

Bending reinft
Design moment M = 1720.(3.0 − 0.85) .u = 138.03u kN.m
2

8(3.0)2.4
For u = 1 m
M 138.03(u = 1)x106
K= = = 0.03 < 0.156 OK
b( = u = 1).d .f cu
2
1000.432 2.25
  0.03  
z = d  0.5 +  0.25 −  = 0.965d > 0.95d
  0.9  

Since, z = 0.97d is > 0.95d, then use 0.95d
138(u = 1)x106
As = = 859 mm2 per u = 1
0.87.450.0.95.432
For bending (Mx) about x-plane, Asx = 859x3 = 2577 mm2
For bending (My) about y-plane, Asy = 859x2.4 = 2061 mm2

i.e bending about y-plane (My), is resisted by Asy i.e reinft in perpend. direc to axis
bending about x-axis (Mx) is resisted by Asx

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Bending about y-plane (long span)

For bending about y-plane, Asy is spread over span B = 2.4)
Asy = 859x2.4 = 2061 mm2

Max spacing = 750 mm or 3d (3x432)

Spacing of bars = (Span-2c-φ)/(#bars-1)
Provide (11Y16 = 2212 mm2) i.e [2400-2(50)-16]/(11-1) = 228 c/c OK
or (7Y20 = 2199 mm2) i.e [2400-2(50)-20]/7-1 = 380 c/c Ok also

Bending about x-plane (short span)

For bending about x-plane, Axs is spread over span L = 3.0m
Asx = 859x3 = 2577 mm2 , provide 13Y16 (2614) = 16@240 c/c or 9Y20(2827) = Y20@360c/c

Recommended: concentrate reinft at middle strip

Since L is the longer span, reinft must be concentrated at:
a middle strip of: (a) width = short span, B
(b) reinft = 2/(1+B/L).Asx

Steel reinft over the middle strip (shaded area) = 2(1+3/2.4).Asx = 2290mm2
Spacing = L-φ /(#bars-1) (no cover in middle strip)
12Y16 = 2413 mm2 i.e Y16@216 c/c or 8Y20 (2513 mm2) i.e Y20@340 c/c
Steel reinft over edge strips,(3-2.4 = 0.6m wide both areas) = 2577-2290 =
287mm2, provide 1 bars 1Y16 or 1Y20 at each edge i.e spacing 300-c-φ/2 =
242 for Y16; 240 for Y20
For 2Y20 (628 mm2) – totals Asx = 628+2513 = 3141 mm2

Normal shear
(Check with Y20 bars)

1720x103.(3000 − 850 − 3x432)

v= = 0.236 N/mm 2
2(3000).2400.432
1 1 1
0.333 0.333 0.25
0,75  f cu  3  100. As  3  400  4 0.75  25   100.2199   400 
vc =       =      
γ m  25   b.d   d  1.4  25   2400.432   432 
= 0.536(1)0.333 (0.212)0.333 (0.926)0.25 = 0.314

v < vc OK

Choose bending about y-plane (Asy - 2199 mm2, B=2.4 m) or bending about x-plane
(Asx = 3141 mm2, L = 3m); use the steel area that gives lease vc.

Punching shear
1720x103  3000x2400 − (850 + 3x432)(250 + 3x432) 
vp = .
3000.2400.432  2(250 + 850) + 12x432) 

 3000x2400 − (2146)(1546) 
= 0.553x10−3.  = 0.291
 7384
vp < vc OK

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9.2 Design of strip footings

Support walls or a series of closely spaced columns. They can be more

economic and simpler than construction of several individual bases. Strip
footings are designed as an inverted continuous T-beam, subjected to
soil bearing pressures as the UDL.

Strip footing
designed as
inverted T-beam

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Example 9.2 (Strip footing)

Design a strip footing 400x400 mm columns equally spaced at 3.5m c/c. Each
column carries DL = 1000 kN and LL = 350 kN. Soil bearing pressure = 200 kPa,
fcu = 25 MPa, fy = 450 MPa.

SLS = 1.0(1000)+1.0(350) = 1350 kN

ULS = 1.2(1000)+1.6(350) = 1760 kN
Footing width = 1350/(200x3.5) = 1.92m
Provide strip footing width 2.0 m
(Note: incl. self-wt may or may not be done. In the end – the design will adjust the preliminary size of the
base)

Footing depth
Trial depth ~ L/6 = 3500/6 = 583 mm ~ 600 mm
Assume steel reinft.20 mm dia., cover 50 mm
Then d = 600 -0.5(20)-8-50 = 532 mm
Hence h = 600, d = 532 mm

Bending reinft
Longitudinal reinft
Design moment
Soil bearing pressure = 1760/(2x3.5) = 251 kN/m2
Soil bearing UDL = 251.4x2 = 503 kN/m
Design based on the interior column (shaded):

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 .

At support/column:
Moment M = 0.08.503.3.52 = 493 kN.m
K= M/bd2.fcu = 493x106/(2x5322.25) = 0.035 <0.156 OK
Z = 0.5+SQRT(0.25-K/0.9) = 0.96 > 0.95d, use 0.95d
As = 493x106/(0.87.450.0.95.532) = 2491.6 mm2
min As = 0.13%bh = 0.13%.2000.600 = 1560 mm2
Provide 8Y20 (2513 mm2), spacing = (2000-2(50)-20-8)/(8-1) = 267 mm
Y20@250 c/c – bottom reinft.

At midspan:
Moment M = 0.07.503.3.52 = 431.3 kN.m
K= M/bd2.fcu = 431.3x106/(2x5322.25) = 0.030 <0.156 OK
Z = 0.5+SQRT(0.25-0.03/0.9) = 0.965 > 0.95d, use 0.95d
As = 431.3x106/(0.87.450.0.95.532) = 2179.8 mm2
min As = 0.13%bh = 0.13%.2000.600 = 1560 mm2
Provide 7Y20 (2199 mm2), spacing = (2000-2(50)-20-8)/(7-1) = 312 mm
Provide Y20@250 c/c – top reinft (to make uniform with bottom reinft)

Tranverse reinft:
In the transverse direction, the arrangement is literally an inverted cantilever with a
a centred column.

Since the bars are spaced aentereing from the multiple 3.5m span, it is convenient
to design for a unit length of 1 m, which can then be replicated throughout the
multiple spans. i.e b = 1000
Moment M = wL2/2 = 503.(1)2 /2 = 251.5 kN.m
K= M/bd2.fcu = 251.5x106/(1000x5322.25) = 0.036 <0.156 OK
Z = 0.5+SQRT(0.25-K/0.9) = 0.96 > 0.95d, use 0.95d
As = 251.5x106/(0.87.450.0.95.532) = 1271.1 mm2
min As = 0.13%bh = 0.13%.1000.600 = 780 mm2
Provide 5Y20 (1571 mm2), spacing = (1000-20)/(5-1) = 245 mm per m along span
Provide Y20@240 c/c – bottom reinft (to make uniform with bottom reinft)

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Punching shear
Punching shear is assessed at 1.5d from column face.
At a perimeter U1 = 2(h+b)+12d
Face 1.5d = 1.5*532 = 798 ~ 800 from either face of the column i.e its within the
footing. U1 = 2(400+400)+12x532 = 7984 m
N 1760 x103
vp = = = 0.414
U1.d av 7984.532
1 1 1
0.333 0.333 0.25
0,75  f cu  3  100. As  3  400  4 0.75  25   100.2199   400 
vc =       =      
γ m  25   b.d   d  1.4  25   2000.532   532 
= 0.536(1) 0.333 (0.207) 0.333 (0.752) 0.25 = 0.295

vp > vc FAILS!
Increase d = 832, vp = 0.264 < vc OK
i.e make h = 900 mm

Normal shear
Normal shear is also assessed at 1.5d from column face.

Shear force V = 0.55wL, where L is distance from the support.

L = 3.5-0.2-1.5d
V = 0.55.503.(3.5-0.2-1.5x0.532) = 692.2 kN
Shear stress v = V/B.d
= 692.2x103/(2000.532) = 0.65 N/mm2
v >vc also FAILS!!

Note:
Note that both the normal and punching shear fail. So instead of designing
shear reinft, it is preferred to increase the section depth (d) or size.

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176