DAMS

CSE 551 WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

Handout No. 7

Lecturer: Eng. Joseck Maloba

DAMS

Introduction to Dams
Introduction
A dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious material built across a river to create a reservoir on its
upstream side for impounding water for various purposes. A dam and a reservoir are complements of each other.
Dams are generally constructed in the mountainous reach of the river where the valley is narrow and the
foundation is good.
Generally, a hydropower station is also constructed at or near the dam site to develop hydropower. Dams are
probably the most important hydraulic structure built on the rivers. These are very huge structure and require
huge money, skill, manpower and time to construct.

Types and general design considerations and criteria

Classification
Based on Function Served
1. Storage dams
2. Detention dams
3. Diversion dams
4. Debris dams
5. Coffer dams - a temporary dam constructed for facilitating construction. It is an enclosure constructed
around a site to exclude water so that the construction can be done in dry.

Based on Hydraulic Design

1. Overflow dams
2. Non-overflow dams

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Based on Materials of Construction

1. Masonry dam
2. Concrete dam
3. Earth dam
4. Rockfill dam
5. Timber dam
6. Steel dam
7. Combined concrete-cum-earth dam
8. Composite dam.

Based on Rigidity
1. Rigid dams: A rigid dam is quite stiff. It is constructed of stiff materials such as concrete, masonry,
steel and timber. These dams deflect and deform very little when subjected to water pressure and other
forces
2. Non-rigid dams: A non-rigid dam is relatively less stiff compared to a rigid dam. The dams constructed
of earth and rockfill are non-rigid dams. There are relatively large settlements and deformations in a
non-rigid dam.
3. Rockfill dams are actually neither fully rigid nor fully non-rigid. These are sometimes classified as
semi-rigid dams.

Based on structural action

1. Gravity dams
2. Embankment dams
i. Earth dams
ii. Rockfill dams
3. Arch dams
4. Buttress dams
5. Others
i. Steel dams
ii. Timber dams

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Gravity dams
i. A gravity dam resists the water pressure and other forces due to its weight (or gravitational forces).
ii. Usually made of cement concrete and straight in plan.
iii. Are approx triangular in cross-section, with apex at the top.
iv. The past, the gravity dams were made of stone masonry
Give examples in Kenya

Masonry Gravity Dam (Non Overflow)

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Concrete Gravity Dam with Overflow Section

Advantages
i. Gravity dams are quite strong, stable and durable.
ii. Are quite suitable across moderately wide valleys and gorges having steep slopes where earth dams, if
constructed, might slip.
iii. Can be constructed to very great heights, provided good rock foundations are available.
iv. Are well adapted for use as an overflow spillway section. Earth dams cannot be used as an overflow
section. Even in earth dams, the overflow section is usually a gravity dam.
v. Are specially suited to such areas where there is very heavy downpour. The slopes of the earth dams
might be washed away in such an area.
vi. Maintenance cost of a gravity dam is very low.
vii. Does not fail suddenly. There is enough warning of the imminent failure and the valuable property and
human life can be saved to some extent.
viii. Can be constructed during all types of climatic conditions.
ix. Sedimentation in the reservoir on the upstream of a gravity dam can be somewhat reduced by operation
of deep-set sluices

Disadvantages
i. Gravity dams of great height can be constructed only on sound rock foundations. These cannot be
constructed on weak or permeable foundations on which earth dams can be constructed.
ii. Initial cost of a gravity dam is usually more than that of an earth dam. At the sites where good earth is
available for construction and funds are limited, earth dams are better.
iii. Usually take a longer time in construction than earth dams, especially when mechanised plants for
batching, mixing and transporting concrete are not available.
iv. Require more skilled labour than that in earth dams.
v. Subsequent raising is not possible in a gravity dam

Earth dams
i. An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) and resists the forces exerted upon it mainly due to shear
strength of the soil.
ii. Are usually built in wide valleys having flat slopes at flanks (abutments).
iii. Can be homogeneous when the height of the dam is not great.
iv. Are of zoned sections, with an impervious zone (called core) in the middle and relatively pervious
zones (called shells or shoulders) enclosing the impervious zone on both sides. Nowadays majority of
dams constructed are of this type.
v. The highest dams of the world are earth dams (Rongunsky dam Rusia, 325 m and Nurek dam, Rusia,
317 m) as well as the largest capacity dams (New Cornelia dam, USA and Tarbela dam, Pakistan).
Give examples in Kenya????

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Advantages
i. Are usually cheaper than gravity dams if suitable earth for construction is available near the site.
ii. Can be constructed on almost all types of foundations, provided suitable measures of foundation
treatment and seepage control are taken.
iii. Can be constructed in a relatively short period.
iv. Skilled labour is not required in construction of an earth dam.
v. Can be raised subsequently.
vi. Are aesthetically more pleasing than gravity dams.
vii. Are more earthquake-resistant than gravity dams.

Disadvantages
i. Are not suitable for narrow gorges with steep slopes.
ii. Cannot be designed as an overflow section. A spillway has to be located away from the dam.
iii. Cannot be constructed in regions with heavy downpour, as the slopes might be washed away.
iv. Maintenance cost of an earth dam is quite high. It requires constant supervision.
v. Sluices cannot be provided in a high earth dam to remove slit.
vi. Fails suddenly without any sign of imminent failure. A sudden failure causes havoc and untold
miseries.

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Rockfill dams
i. A rockfill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size.
ii. An impervious membrane (cement concrete or asphaltic concrete or earth core) is placed on the rockfill
on the upstream side to reduce the seepage through the dam.
iii. A dry rubble cushion is placed between the rockfill and the membrane for the distribution of water load
and for providing a support to the membrane.
iv. Side slopes of rockfill are usually kept equal to the angle of repose of rock (1.4:1 or 1.3:1).
v. Rockfill dams are quite economical when a large quantity of rock is easily available near the site.
Thiem dam (PJ), Ramganga dam (UP), etc. are rockfill dams in India, while Mica dam (242 m,
Canada), and Chicoasen dam (240 m, Maxico) are highest rockfill dams. Which are examples in
Kenya????

Advantages
Rockfill dams have almost the same advantages and disadvantages over gravity dams as discussed for earth
dams.
Particular advantages and disadvantages over earth dams.

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i. Are quite inexpensive if rock fragments are easily available.

ii. Can be constructed quite rapidly.
iii. Can better withstand the shocks due to earthquake than earth dams.
iv. Can be constructed even in adverse climates

Disadvantages
i. Rockfill dams require more strong foundations than earth dams.
ii. Rockfill dams require heavy machines for transporting, dumping and compacting rocks

Arch dams
i. An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the upstream side.
ii. Transfers the water pressure and other forces mainly to the abutments by arch action.
iii. Is quite suitable for narrow canyons with strong flanks which are capable of resisting the thrust
produced by the arch action.
iv. Section is triangular and is comparatively thinner.
v. May have a single curvature or double curvature in the vertical plane.
vi. Are subjected to large stresses because of changes in temperature shrinkage of concrete and yielding of
abutments.
vii. Examples - Juguri dam (272 m), Russia, Vaiont dam (262 m), Italy, Manvoisin dam (237 m)
Switzerland. Examples in Kenya????

Advantages
i. An arch dam requires less concrete as compared to a gravity dam as the section is thinner.
ii. Arch dams are more suited to narrow, V-shaped valley, having very steep slopes.
iii. Uplift pressure is not an important factor in the design of an arch dam because the arch dam has less
width and the reduction in weight due to uplift does not affect the stability.
iv. An arch dam can be constructed on a relatively less strong foundation because a small part of load is
transferred to base, whereas in a gravity dam full load is transferred to base.

Disadvantages
i. An arch dam requires good rock in the flanks (abutments) to resist the thrust. If the abutments yield,
extra stresses develop which may cause failure.

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ii. The arch dam requires sophisticated formwork, more skilled labour and richer concrete.
iii. The arch dam cannot be constructed in very cold climates because spalling of concrete occurs due to
alternate freezing and thawing.
iv. The arch dams are more prone to sabotage.
v. The speed of construction is relatively slow.

Buttress Dams
i. Buttress dams are of three types: (a) Deck type, (b) Multiple arch-type, and (c) Massive-head type.
ii. A deck type buttress dam consists of a sloping deck supported by buttresses.
iii. Buttresses are triangular concrete walls which transmit the water pressure from the deck slab to the
foundation.
iv. Buttresses are compression members.
v. The deck is usually a reinforced concrete slab supported between the buttresses, which are usually
equally spaced.
vi. In a multiple-arch type buttress dam the deck slab is replaced by horizontal arches supported by
buttresses. The arches are usually of small span and made of concrete.
vii. In a massive-head type buttress dam, there is no deck slab. Instead of the deck, the upstream edges of
the buttresses are flared to form massive heads which span the distance between the buttresses.

Buttress Dam

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Multiple Arch Buttress Dam

Advantages
i. Buttress dams require less concrete than gravity dams.
ii. Uplift/ice pressure is generally not a major factor
iii. Can be constructed on relatively weaker foundations.
iv. Power house and water treatment plants, etc. can be housed between buttresses.
v. Vertical component of the water pressure on deck prevents the dam against overturning and sliding
failures.
vi. Can be designed to accommodate moderate movements of foundations without serious damages.
vii. Heat dissipation is better in buttress dams.

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viii. Back of the deck and the foundation between buttresses are accessible for inspection.
ix. Can be easily raised subsequently by extending buttresses and deck slabs.

Disadvantages
i. Buttress dams require costlier formwork, reinforcement and more skilled labour. Consequently, the
overall cost of construction may be more than that of a gravity dam.
ii. Buttress dams are more susceptible to damage and sabotage.
iii. Buttress dams cannot be constructed in very cold climates because of spalling of concrete.
iv. Because the upstream deck slab is thin, its deterioration may have very serious effect on the stability.

Site Selection for a Dam

A dam is a huge structure requiring a lot of funds. Extreme care shall be taken while selecting the site of a dam.
A wrong decision may lead to excessive cost and difficulties in construction and maintenance. Various factors
should be considered when selecting the site of a dam.

These are:
i. Topography
ii. Suitable Foundation
iii. Good Site for reservoir – (a) Large storage capacity (b) Shape of reservoir basin (c) Water tightness of
the reservoir (d) Good hydrological conditions (e) Deep reservoir (f) Small submerged area (g) Low silt
inflow (h) No objectionable minerals
iv. Spillway site
v. Availability of materials
vi. Accessibility
vii. Healthy surroundings
viii. Minimum overall cost
ix. Other considerations

Selection of Type of Dam

Selection of the most suitable type of dam for a particular site requires a lot of judgment and experience. It is
only in exceptional cases that the most suitable type is obvious. Preliminary designs and estimates are usually
required for several types of dams before making the final selection on economic basis. The salient features of
different types of dams discussed in the preceding sections should be kept in mind while selecting the type of
dam. Various factors govern the selection of type of dam

These are:
i. Topography and valley shape
ii. Geology and foundation conditions
iii. Availability of construction materials
iv. Overall cost
v. Spillway size and location
vi. Earthquake hazards

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vii. Climatic conditions

viii. Diversion problems
ix. Environmental considerations
x. Roadway
xi. Length and height of dam
xii. Life of dam
xiii. Miscellaneous considerations

IN THE NEXT HANDOUT WE SHALL DISCUSS THE DESIGN ASPECTS OF SELECTED TYPES OF
DAMS

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