Chapter 1: Introduction to Networking

What is a Computer Network?

o Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through wires,
optical fibres or optical links so that various devices can interact with each other
through a network.
o The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices.
o In the case of computer network technology, there are several types of networks that
vary from simple to complex level.

Components Of Computer Network:

Major components of a computer network are:

NIC (National interface card)
NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device. The
network interface card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol
use this address to identify the system on the network so that it transfers the data to
the correct destination.
There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.
o Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a
connection is made using the antenna that employs the radio wave technology.
o Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium.
Hub
Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices. When
computer requests for information from a computer, it sends the request to the Hub.
Hub distributes this request to all the interconnected computers.

Switches
Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to transfer
the data to another device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the
message over the network, i.e., it sends the message to the device for which it belongs
to. Therefore, we can say that switch sends the message directly from source to the
destination.

Cables and connectors

Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. There are
three types of cables:
o Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over 1Gbps or more.
o Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial cable is more
expensive than twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data transmission speed.
o Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the data using
light beams. It provides high data transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is
more expensive as compared to other cables, so it is installed at the government level.

Router
Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly used to
connect the distinct networks or connect the internet to multiple computers.

Modem
Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A
modem is not integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is a separate part
on the PC slot found on the motherboard.
A modem, which stands for "modulator-demodulator," is a device connecting your
home to your internet service provider (ISP) through a physical connection. The
modem translates the data from your ISP into a format that your home network
devices can use.

Uses Of Computer Network

o Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs,
printers, and data among the users on the network without the requirement of the
physical location of the resource and user.
o Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A server
is a central computer used to store the information and maintained by the system
 administrator. Clients are the machines used to access the information stored in the
server remotely.
o Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium
among the users. For example, a company contains more than one computer has an
email system which the employees use for daily communication.
o E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the
business over the internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the
internet, i.e., they are doing their business over the internet.

Computer Network Components

Computer networks components comprise both physical parts as well as the
software required for installing computer networks, both at organizations and
at home. The hardware components are the server, client, peer, transmission
medium, and connecting devices. The software components are operating
system and protocols.

The following figure shows a network along with its components −

Hardware Components
● Servers −Servers are high-configuration computers that manage the resources
of the network. The network operating system is typically installed in the server
and so they give user accesses to the network resources. Servers can be of
various kinds: file servers, database servers, print servers etc.
● Clients − Clients are computers that request and receive service from the
servers to
● access and use the network resources.
● Peers − Peers are computers that provide as well as receive services from other
peers in a workgroup network.
● Transmission Media − Transmission media are the channels through which data
is transferred from one device to another in a network. Transmission media may
be guided media like coaxial cable, fibre optic cables etc; or maybe unguided
media like microwaves, infra-red waves etc.
● Connecting Devices − Connecting devices act as middleware between networks
or computers, by binding the network media together. Some of the common
connecting devices are:

a. Routers

b. Bridges

c. Hubs

d. Repeaters

e. Gateways

f. Switches

Software Components
● Networking Operating System − Network Operating Systems is typically
installed in the server and facilitate workstations in a network to share files,
database, applications, printers etc.
● Protocol Suite − A protocol is a rule or guideline followed by each computer for
data communication. Protocol suite is a set of related protocols that are laid down
for computer networks. The two popular protocol suites are −
o a. OSI Model ( Open System Interconnections)
o b. TCP / IP Model

What is Network Topology?

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical
topology.

Types of Network Topology

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network. There
are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology, Tree
Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.
1) Bus Topology

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o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a
single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the
network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it
has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is
broadcast to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access).

CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is
maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative ways of handling
the problems that occur when two nodes send the messages simultaneously.
o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect the
collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop transmitting the data.
Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".
o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid the
collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy or not. If busy, then the
sender waits until the media becomes idle. This technique effectively reduces the
possibility of the collision. It does not work on "recovery after the collision".
Advantages of Bus topology:
o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without
passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based
networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily
available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable
faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all
the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of
both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters
are used to regenerate the signal.

2) Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the
next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
 o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one
node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing

o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until it
reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address
matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then it sends the
acknowledgment to the sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without
bringing the network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and
monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation
cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable
faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all
the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding
new devices increases the communication delay.
3) Star Topology

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the
central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the
server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

Advantages of Star topology

o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as
compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers
of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to the centralized network.
Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the
problem.
 o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the
star topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically
accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable,
therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open
ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial
cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is
one of the most popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected
nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing
is required.

4) Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with
each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are
the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it
forms a parent-child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide
broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being
attenuated.
 o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we
can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known
as star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to
troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable
will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.

5) Mesh topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are

interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
 o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central
point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures
are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:
o Fully connected mesh topology
o Partially connected mesh topology

o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the
computers available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are
connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will
not affect the communication between connected computers.
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication
between other devices.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router
and more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and
manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure
goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency
of the network.
6) Hybrid Topology

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the
data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid
topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in
Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank
and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will
result in Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the
rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without
affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the
strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the
Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
 o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are
different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a
lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

What is Protocol?
A protocol is simp
ly defined as a set of rules and regulations for data communication. Rules
are defined for every step and process at the time of communication
among two or more computers. Networks are needed to follow these
protocols to transmit the data successfully. All protocols might be
implemented using hardware, software, or a combination of both of them.
There are three aspects of protocols given below :
● Syntax – It is used to explain the data format that is needed to be
sent or received.
● Semantics – It is used to explain the exact meaning of each of the
sections of bits that are usually transferred.
● Timings – This is used to explain the exact time at which data is
generally transferred along with the speed at which it is
transferred.
Protocol Hierarchies
Generally, Computer networks are comprised of or contain a large number
of hardware and software. For network design, various networks are
organized and arranged as a stack of layers of hardware and software, one
on top of another. The number, name, content, and function of each layer
might vary and can be different from one network to another. The main
purpose of each layer is to provide services to higher layers that are
present. Every layer has some particular task or function. The networks
are organized and arranged as different layers or levels simply to reduce
and minimize the complexity of the design of network software.
 Protocol Hierarchy

Example of Protocol Hierarchy

Below is diagram representing a five-layer network. The diagram shows
communication between Host 1 and Host 2. The data stream is passed
through a number of layers from one host to other. Virtual communication
is represented using dotted lines between peer layers. Physical
communication is represented using solid arrows between adjacent layers.
Through physical medium, actual communication occurs. The layers at
same level are commonly known as peers. The peer basically has a set of
communication protocols. An interface is present between each of layers
that are used to explain services provided by lower layer to higher layer.
Advantages of Protocol Hierarchy
● The layers generally reduce complexity of communication
between networks
● It increases network lifetime.
● It also uses energy efficiently.
● It does not require overall knowledge and understanding of
network.
Disadvantages of Protocol Hierarchy
● Protocol Hierarchy require a deep understanding of each layers
of OSI model.
● Implementation of protocol hierarchy is very costly.
 ● Every layer in protocol hierarchy introduce overheading in terms
of memory, bandwidth and processing.
● Protocol Hierarchy is not scalable for complex networks.

Design Issues for the Layers of Computer

Networks
Introduction
Computer networks are the lifelines of our digital era, supporting the flow of
information, data, and communication across a wide range of devices and in an
increasingly linked world. However, the complicated web of interconnected networks
that enables our daily interactions and global connectedness is anything from simple.
To ensure the seamless operation and scalability of computer networks, one must
delve into the intricacies of design issues that span the layers of these intricate systems.

The design issues in computer network layers are not mere technical details; they are
the foundation upon which the reliability, security, and efficiency of our digital
interactions are built. In this comprehensive exploration, we will dissect the critical
challenges that network architects and engineers must address to craft networks that
function smoothly and adapt to the ever-evolving landscape of technology. In this read,
we will look into the problems that might occur while designing the network.
1. Reliability
Reliability is a cornerstone design issue in computer networks. Networks are composed
of various components, and some of these components may be inherently unreliable,
leading to potential data loss during transmission. Ensuring that data is transferred
without distortion or corruption is paramount. Robust error detection and correction
mechanisms are essential for preserving data integrity, especially in the face of
unreliable communication channels.

2. Addressing
Addressing is a fundamental aspect of network layers. In a network, numerous
processes run on multiple machines, and each layer requires a mechanism to identify
both senders and receivers accurately. Effectively assigning and managing addresses
helps facilitate efficient communication, ensuring that data reaches its intended
destination.

3. Error Control
The inherent imperfections in physical communication circuits necessitate error control
as a vital design issue. To safeguard data integrity, error-detecting and error-correcting
codes are employed. However, it's imperative that both the sending and receiving ends
reach a consensus on the specific error detection and correction codes to be used,
ensuring effective data packet protection.

4. Flow Control
Maintaining an equilibrium between data senders and receivers is essential to prevent
data loss due to speed mismatches. A fast sender transmitting data to a slower receiver
necessitates the implementation of a flow control mechanism. Several approaches are
used, such as increasing buffer sizes at receivers or slowing down the fast
sender. Additionally, the network should handle processes that cannot accommodate
arbitrarily long messages by disassembling, transmitting, and reassembling messages
as required.

5. Multiplexing and De-multiplexing

Efficient data transmission on a network often involves transmitting data separately on
the transmission medium. Setting up separate connections for every pair of
communicating processes is neither practical nor cost-effective. To address this
challenge, multiplexing is employed at the sender's end, allowing data from multiple
sources to be combined into a single transmission stream. De-multiplexing is then
performed at the receiver's end to separate and direct the data to the appropriate
recipients.

6. Scalability
As networks expand in size and complexity, new challenges inevitably arise. Scalability
is crucial to ensuring that networks can continue to function effectively as they grow.
The network's design should accommodate increasing sizes, reducing the risk of
congestion and compatibility issues when new technologies are introduced. Scalability
is a cornerstone for ensuring the network's long-term viability.

7. Routing
Routing is a critical function within the network layer. When multiple paths exist
between a source and destination, the network must select the most optimal route for
data transmission. Various routing algorithms are utilized to make this determination,
with the aim of minimizing cost and time, thereby ensuring efficient and reliable data
transfer.

8. Confidentiality and Integrity

The security of a network is critical. Confidentiality methods are critical for protecting
against risks like eavesdropping and preventing unauthorized parties from accessing
sensitive data. Data integrity is also crucial since it protects against tampering and
unauthorized changes to messages during transmission.

9. Service Quality (QoS):

QoS refers to a network's ability to deliver varying levels of service to different types of
traffic. Video streaming, VoIP, and data transmission all have varying bandwidth,
latency, and reliability needs. It is a difficult challenge to ensure that the network can
prioritize and distribute resources effectively to satisfy these objectives.

10. Network management:

Network management includes monitoring and maintaining the health and
performance of different network components such as routers, switches, and servers.
Device configuration, fault detection, performance analysis, and security monitoring all
need network management tools and protocols. Effective network administration is
critical for detecting and resolving problems in real time, optimizing resource utilization,
and maintaining a positive user experience.

11. Load Balancing:

In scenarios where a network has multiple servers or paths to handle incoming traffic,
load balancing becomes critical. The challenge is to distribute network traffic evenly
across these resources to prevent overloads and optimize resource utilization. Load
balancing can be achieved through hardware or software solutions, and it may require
advanced algorithms to make intelligent decisions based on factors like server health
and current traffic loads.

12. Network Topology Design:

The choice of network topology can significantly impact the network's performance,
scalability, and fault tolerance. Designing the right topology for a given scenario
involves considering factors such as cost, reliability, ease of expansion, and fault
tolerance. For example, a star topology might be suitable for a small office network,
while a mesh or hybrid topology could be preferred for a large-scale data center.

13. Energy Efficiency:

With increasing concerns about energy consumption and its environmental impact,
designing energy-efficient networks is essential. This includes using energy-efficient
hardware, optimizing network protocols, and implementing strategies for turning off or
reducing power to unused network components during periods of low demand.
Energy-efficient network design helps reduce operational costs and minimizes the
carbon footprint.

14. Interoperability:
It is a huge task to ensure that these components can function together seamlessly.
Adherence to industry standards and protocols, as well as testing and certification
processes, are used to achieve interoperability. It's crucial to ensure that data can flow
smoothly between diverse network elements.

15. Virtualization and Network Function Virtualization

(NFV):
Network virtualization involves creating virtual instances of network components and
services, such as virtual routers and firewalls. Managing these virtual networks,
ensuring their security, and dynamically scaling resources to meet changing demands is
a complex task. Network Function Virtualization (NFV) extends this concept by
virtualizing network functions like firewalls and load balancers, enabling flexible and
cost-effective service delivery.
16. Mobile and Wireless Networks:
As the use of mobile devices and wireless connections continues to grow, designing
networks that provide seamless connectivity as users move between different access
points is a challenge. This involves implementing mobility management protocols,
handover procedures, and efficient spectrum management to prevent interference and
optimize wireless performance.

17. Legacy Systems Integration:

Many existing networks include legacy systems and technologies that must be
integrated with modern networking solutions. This can be complex because older
systems may not support the latest standards and security protocols. Network
designers must ensure compatibility while maintaining security during the integration
process.

18. Disaster Recovery and Redundancy:

Planning for network resilience in the face of disasters, equipment failures, or
cyberattacks is critical. Redundancy, failover mechanisms, and disaster recovery
strategies must be in place to maintain network continuity. This involves duplicating
critical components, creating backup data centers, and implementing data backup and
recovery solutions.

Connection-Oriented vs Connectionless Service

OSI Model
o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
 o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer
is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

Characteristics of OSI Model:

o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and
they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end
user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with the software applications.
An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link
layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical
layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The
physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical medium.

7 Layers of OSI Model

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers
are given below:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
 6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

1) Physical layer

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one
node to another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-duplex
or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
2) Data-Link Layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a
local network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the
receiver that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control
layer and the network's physical layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known
as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header
which is added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.
 o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in
the header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that
no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with
higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing
speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then
the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which device has
control over the link at a given time.

3) Network Layer

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the
network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the
network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the
routing services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.
Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking
o
 o : An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer. It provides a logical
connection between different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header of
the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the
best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts
them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet
protocol (IP).

4) Transport Layer

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in
which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol
o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the
internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the
data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the
internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the
destination. The transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the
correct order at the receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
 o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this
reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one
computer to another computer but also from one process to another process. The
transport layer adds the header that contains the address known as a service-point
address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data
from one computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is
to transmit the message to the correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from the
upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is
assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the
message has arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the
message based on their sequence numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service
and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as an
individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A
connection-oriented service makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine before delivering the packets. In connection-oriented service, all
the packets travel in the single route.
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed
end-to-end rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer
ensures that message reach at the destination without any error.

5) Session Layer

o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between
two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes
which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a
sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.

6) Presentation Layer
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o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of
character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding
methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different
encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common
format and changes the common format into receiver-dependent format at the
receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the
resulting message over the network.
 o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces
the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia
such as text, audio, video.

7) Application Layer

o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to
access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to
manage the files in a remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and
storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is
used to provide that global information about various objects.

TCP/IP model
o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network
layer, data link layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these
four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application
layer.
 o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them
provides specific functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more
lower-level protocols.

Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in
the OSI reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices
on the same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

Internet Layer
o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network,
and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.
Following are the protocols used in this layer are:
IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the
entire TCP/IP suite.
Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:
o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses.
The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to
provide internetwork routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be
transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport
layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it
encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by
data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP
datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into
smaller units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done
by the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are
reassembled to form an original message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN,
WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant
network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing
the IP datagram through various devices such as routers.

ARP Protocol
o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP
address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device,
it broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request
and process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends
back its physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the
physical address both to its cache memory and to the datagram header

ICMP Protocol
o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram
problems back to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is
unable to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a
device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the
sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is
responding or not.
 o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them.
The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers
because the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of
the router that it is passed to.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data
which is being sent over the network.
The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.
o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the
error to the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application
program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the
application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does
not contain any ID of a data segment.

o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for
the duration of the transmission.
 o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged
frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and
acknowledged before the transmission is considered to be completed and a
virtual circuit is discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as
segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for
reordering the frames to form an original message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on
sequence numbers.

Application Layer
o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application
layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be
placed inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication
system. For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web
browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an
application layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access
the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio,
video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a
hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used
for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that
supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to
send the data to another e-mail address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names
instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is
known as Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection
between the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal
appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.