GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GRID

Grids were invented by Dr Gustave Bucky in 1913. Grids are used to decrease patients radiation dose
and scattered radiation. The secondary radiation grid consists of alternate parallel strips of radio-
opaque and radiolucent material. The radio-opaque strips or slats are usually made of lead or tungsten
and the radiolucent spacing material of aluminium, paper or wood. It has protective covering, front
and back, of thin aluminium or plastic and protective strips around the edges of the grid.

GRID RATIO; this the relationship between the height of the lead strips to their distance apart. The
higher the grid ratio the more effective is the grid in the absorption of scatter the grid factor; however,
which is the number of times we must increase the exposure when using a particular grid as opposed
to the exposure required without the grid, it also increases with grid ratio from 4:1 to 16:1 are
available and most units have the facility of interchangability of grid. A low ratio grid is used for low kV
work and one of high ratio for techniques involving the use of high kVp, or the production of high
amount of scatter. The number of lead strips per centimeters measured across the grid is known as
grid lattice. Thickness of lead strip is usually 0,05mm.

TYPES OF GRID PATTERN

PARALLEL GRID OR NON-FOCUSED GRID

The parallel grid is frequently used in conjunction with a mobile unit for radiography in wards or
theatre. The focused grid distance is not critical as it is with the focused grid but it should not be too
short as the peripheral cut of increases as the focus grid distance decreases. Limitation of field size
also reduces peripheral cut off. Centering of the beam to the grid is not critical providing part of the
grid is positioned under the area of interest. The radiation must be kept as nearly as possible parallel
to the strips of lead. This means that the tube can be angled parallel to the strips but not against
them. The grid should not be tilted transversely otherwise they will be cut off on one side. Some
parallel have shorted lead strips at the edges to allow more peripheral radiation to pass through.

THE FOCUSED GRID; The focused grid is composed of strips of lead angled towards the edges of the
grid. The lead strips are set at particular angles.it should be noted that even when the tubes is
positioned at the correct focal grid distance (grid focus) some primary radiation is absorbed by the
lead strips. The greater the lead content of the gris e.g the greater the number of lines per cm or the
thicker the lead the greater the absorption oof primary radiation. If the focal grid distance is greater or
less than the grid focus there is geometric cut off. The primary radiation instead of passing through the
interspace parallel to the strips of lead if the grid is tilted transversely to the beam of radiation there is
cut of particularly at one side of the grid. If the beam off centered transversely to the length ideally a
grid should absorb a little of the primary radiation as possible e.g the grid factor should be close to
unity as possible. Grid-loss is a term frequently used to donate the amount of primary radiation
absorbed by grid

CROSS HATCH GRIDS

Cross hatched grids consists of two parallel or focused grids placed at right angle to one another. The
parting recorded on the radiograph is of tiny squares when a high kV is used as in examinations such
as biplane angiocardiography, a lot of scatter is produce din all directions and a cross hatched grid may
be used to good effect
GRID CASSETTES

Whilst the stationary grid may be used by simply placing it on the cassette it possible to obtain
cassettes in which grid is fitted as an integral part. Grid cassettes are very convenient to use if a
number of exposures have to be made. Example, in award or theatre, a number of grid cassettes,
possibly of different sizes will be require and the expense may be prohibitive

BEAM CENTERING DEVICES

APERTURE DIAPHRAGMS ; These are the simplest x-ray restrictors made up of a sheet of lead and a
hole in it’s center. The simplicity is its advantage and it can be altered to any shape because lead is
soft. But its disadvantage is that is produces large penumbra which can be reduced by the placing of
the diaphragm away from the x-ray tube.

CONES AND CYLINDERS; Cones in shape of cones and cylinders reduce the unexposed areas at the
edge. The disadvantage is that it strictly restricts the beam to just one shape of cone and cylinder.
Inconvenience of always changing to the required field of interest can be challenging.

COLLIMNATORS; The best beam restricting device provides an infinite variety of rectangular x-ray field.
It shows the center point of the x-ray beam. It consists of two sets of shutters which moves inopposite
direction to remove the penumbra produced by each other. One set of shutter can be move d without
moving the other shutters which provides a number of rectangular shapes plus sign mounted on the
front of the collimnator helps to identify the center.

BEAM ALIGNMENT TEST

Load the film in cassette and place it over the x-ray table. Open the shutter to a convenient size
“10*10”. Carefully place four L-shaped wires at the corners of the light beam. Place the Lead at the
right corner of the collimnated area then expose.

Result; area of the light beam exposed area will be clearly shown

X-RAY TUBE CONTRUCTIONS AND OPERATION

The main feature of an x-ray tube

1. The filament; this is usually the spiral of tungsten wire. It is heated by passing an electric
current through it from allow voltage supply. Electrons are the released from the filament by
thermionic emission at temperature well below it’s melting point. A source of electrons;
cathodes assembly i.e (filament and focusing cup)
TUNGSTEN is used as filament material because of the following reasons;
 It has high melting point 3370degree celcius)
 Less tendency to vaporize.
 High tenstile strength means it can be drawn into wires
 High thermal conductivity and specific heat
2. THE CATHODE; Has a negative electrical charge. It contains two major components small and
large filaments. There is a device surrounding the cathode filament in a x-ray tube (focusing
cup. Because of the force of the mutual force of repulsion on the electrons, these electron
stream would tend to spread itself out and result in bombardment of large are area on the
 anode of the x-ray tube. Thus prevented by a focusing cup which surrounds the filament. The
focusing is achieved by keeping the focusing cup at the same, or slightly higher, negative
potential as that of the cathode filament. It is usually made up of nickel (Ni) because of [;
 Light weight
 Poor thermalconductivity
 High melting point
 It’s inability to operate the current and voltage of the x-ray

When filament is heated emission of electrons takes place (thermal emission= thermionic emission).
In the absence of high voltage these electrons remain around the filament. This cloud repels electrons
from the filament this tendency is known as ‘space charge effect’. Since, space charge is negatively
charged so its presence around filament prevent further emission of electron. When high voltage is
applied electrons move toward anodes therefore, space charge effect is diminished. Most x-ray tubes
have two filaments and thus two focal spots only one used at a time. small focus has improved
resolution while large focus has improved heat rating and electron beam strike s larger portion of
target thus spreading heat produced to a large area. Focusing of the electrons to the desired target
area is achieved, during manufacture, by setting the filament to the correct depth in the focusing cup.

3. A HIGH VOLTAGE; This is needed between the filaments which acts as the cathodes and target
which acts the anode of the tube to accelerate the electrons from the filament to the target.
THE TARGET (CATHODE /ANODE ASSEMBLY)
 The anode in a simple rotation anode tube is a solid disc of tungsten (for rhenium tungsten alloy)
about 80nm in diameter. Speed of anode rotation is approximately 3000 rev/min. such a tube is
used for general radiography. The target is usually made of tungsten because it has high melting
point, adequate thermal conductivity, it doesn’t vapourize easily and it has a high atomic number.
 it consists of a focal spot and cylindrical copper block
THE ANODE AND THE ANODE DISC;
The anode ROTATES AT HIGH APEED OF ABOUT 3200rpm or 10000rpm. The anode disc is
composed of molybneum. The target focal track rhenium and tungsten are backed by graphite for
improved heat loading.
THE FOCAL SPOT; This is the area actually bombarde by the electron stream on the target. It can be
larger or smaller in size. A small focal spot is required for producing good radiographic detail but it
may also lead to over heating of the target. Whereas large focal spot allows greater heat loading
but doesn’t produce sharp image. It states that as the anode is mad small, the apparent focal spot
also becomes small but with increased heat loading. Focal spot steeply slanted 7-15 degrees is
typical. This slope allows x-rays produced at focal spot to leave the tube sideways in such a way
that the x-ray beam emerges at the right angle to the long axis of the x-ray tube. It permits large
area for electron bombardment and a small x-ray source more heat loading with good radiographic
detail
Sin 6 degrees= 0.104
Sin 21 deegrees= 0.358
Target angle is the angle between target and perpendicular to the tube axis typically 7-15 degrees.
LINE FOCUS PRINCIPLE; The are of the x-ray tube anode from which the x-ray photon are emitted
called ACTUAL FOCAL SPOT. The projection perpendicular to the central x-ray which is its area from
the position of the film is the effective focal spot. Line focus principle was incoperated into x-rays
 targets to allow a larger area for heating while maintaining a small focal spot. The effective focal
spot is the area projected onto the patient and the film. Focal spot sizes always make reference to
effective focal spot. The lower the target angle the smaller the effective focal spot size.
LIMITATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLE
Firstly, for a given focal spot size , the real are covered by the electron beam is larger for smaller
target angles which as stated above allows a greater area to dissipate heat.
Secondly, for a smaller target angled the area covered by the x-ray will be smaller so it is not
possible to cover large areas at smaller FFDs, therefore it can be appreciated that choice of target
angle is a compromise between tube loading, geometric unsharpness and desired area to be
covered by the useful beam. For practical purposes, at 40 degrees FFD the anode angle should be
no smaller than 15 degrees. A decrease angle below 6 degrees will result in anode heal effect
THE STATIONARY ANODE X-RAY TUBE
The stationary anode x-ray tube is the simplest type and is used in some but not all mobile units,
most dental units and all portable equipment. Its great simplicity particularly suits it to low
powered simple circuit. It may be connected electrically to the high-tension transformer by means
of high tension cables or alternatively and probably more likely, the stationary anode tube will be
placed the same casing as the high tension transformer. An arrangement called the tank
construction or the tube head.
CRAZING OF THE ANODE SURFACE
During an exposure the surface of the target area is raised to a very high temperature. They atoms
of tungsten immediately below the surface are, however, at a much lower temperature and in
consequent tremendous stresses are set up in the metal. These stresses cause crazing of the target
surface. Such crazing results in the loss of radiation output from the tube (photons of radiations
being absorbed to a greater extent they must now penetrate a greater thickness of metal). Crazing
is reduced by using rhenium tungsten alloy (10% rhenium, 90% tungsten) as the target material.
THE ROTOR ASSEMBLY;
The anode disc is mounted centrally on a slender molybdenum stem which is, in its turn, secured to
a copper rotor. The rotor is mounted on a steel spindle, rotation being achieved by a rotational
magnetic field set up by a stator winding which, although fitted around the rotor, is situated
outside the glass insert. Heat produced at the target during an exposure is rapidly conducted to
the mass of the anode, which experience a rise in temperature. Subsequent conduction of heat
through the molybdenum stem to the copper rotor is minimal due to the fact that
1. the stem is made of molybdenum, which is a metal of relatively low conductivity
2. the stem is of small cross-sectional area

The thermal insulation the rotor from the anode is of prime importance as the rotor bearing are
heat sensitive, i.e if the bearings become over heated they seize up. As heat cannot readily pass
through the molybdenum, it builds up with the anode causing a rapid rise in its temperature. It is for
this reason, i.e it’s high temperature that heat is transferred to the oil mainly by the process of
radiation rather than being conducted through the stem.

THE PROPERTIES OF HIGH TENSION CABLES

1. HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION; high tension cables transmit high voltage (up to 100kV) to the
x-ray tube enabling CT imaging.
2. INSULATION AND SHIELDING; Cables are insulated and shielded to prevent electric shock and
radiation exposure.
3. FLEXIBILITY AND DURABILITY; Cables are deigned to withstand repetitive bending and flexing
during gantry rotation.
4. High current capacity; cables can carry current up to 1000 milli amperes required for CT
imaging
5. LOW VOLTAGE DROP; Cables are designed to minimize voltage drop ensuring consistent x-ray
energy and image quality
6. EMI FILTERING; SOME CABBLES INCLUDE EMI filters to reduce electromagnetic interference
and ensure accurate image reconstruction
7. CONNECTIONS AND FITTINGS Specialized connectors and fittings ensure secure connections
and minimize electrical noise