CALCULUS I

Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS OF ONE VARIABLE

LÊ THÁI THANH ([email protected])

HCMC University of Technology

DEFINITION OF A FUNCTION

Definition 1: A function f is a rule that assigns to each

element x in a set D exactly one element, called f px q, in a
set E .

The set D is called the domain of the function. The range of f is

the set of all possible values of f px q as x varies throughout the
domain.
GRAPH OF A FUNCTION

Definition 2: If f is a function with domain D, then its graph

is the set of ordered pairs

tpx , f px qq | x P Du

In the other words, the graph of f consists of all points px , y q in

the coordinate plane such that y “ f px q and x is in the domain of
f . The graph of a function is a curve in the xy -plane.
GRAPH OF A FUNCTION
The following test is used to test any curves, which are graphs of
functions.

The Vertical Line Test

A curve in the xy -plane is the graph of a function of x if and only
if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.
REPRESENTATION OF A FUNCTION
Four Ways to Represent a Function

verbally (by a description in words). For example, the

area of a circle as a function of its radius.
algebraically (by an explicit formula). For example,
A “ πr 2
numerically (by a table of values). For example,

r 1 2 3 ...
A π 4π 9π . . .

visually (by a graph). We can sketch a graph of A (half

a parabola).
Because a circle has to have a positive radius, the domain is
tr | r ą 0u “ p0, 8q, and the range is also p0, 8q.
EXAMPLE

Example 1:
A rectangular storage con-
tainer with an open top has
a volume of 10m3 . The length
of its base is twice its width.
Material for the base costs $10
per square meter; material for
the sides costs $6 per square
meter. Express the cost of ma-
terials as a function of the
width of the base.
EXAMPLE

Solution : Let w , 2w , h be the width, length, and height of

the container (w ą 0). The total cost is

C pw q “ 10p2w 2 q ` 6r2pwhq ` 2p2whqs

5
Since the volume of the container is 10m3 , we have h “ .
w2
Finally, we obtain
180
C pw q “ 20w 2 ` pw ą 0q
w
EXAMPLE

Example 2: Find the domain of each function.

?
(1) f px q “ x ` 2
1
(2) gpx q “ 2
x ´x

Solution :
(1) The domain of f consists of all values of x such that
x ` 2 ě 0 ô x ě ´2, so the domain is the interval
r´2, `8q.
1
(2) Since gpx q “ and division by 0 is not
x px ´ 1q
allowed, we see that gpx q is not defined when x “ 0 or
x “ 1. Thus the domain of g is tx | x ‰ 0, x ‰ 1u.
THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

Definition 3 (The Power Function): The function f px q “

x α , where α is a real constant, is called a power function.

The domain and graph are dependent on α. Here are graphs of

power functions for some values of α.

y y

x x
y “x y “ x2
pα “ 1q pα “ 2q
THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

y y

x x
? 1
y “ x 1{2 “ x y “ x ´1 “ x
pα “ 1{2q pα “ ´1q
THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

Definition 4 (Polynomials): A function P is called a poly-

nomial if

Ppx q “ an x n ` an´1 x n´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` a1 x ` a0

where n is a non-negative integer and the numbers

a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an are constants called the coefficients of
the polynomial. The domain of any polynomial is R “
p´8, `8q. If the leading coefficient an ‰ 0, then the de-
gree of the polynomial is n.
THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

Example 3:
A polynomial of degree 1: Ppx q “ ax ` b is called a
linear function.
A polynomial of degree 2: Ppx q “ ax 2 ` bx ` c is
called a quadratic function.
A polynomial of degree 3: Ppx q “ ax 3 ` bx 2 ` cx ` d
is called a cubic function.
THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

Definition 5 (Rational Functions): A rational function f is

Ppx q
a ratio of two polynomials: f px q “ , where P and Q
Qpx q
are polynomials. The domain consists of all values of x such
that Qpx q ‰ 0.

Example 4:

The function
2x 4 ´ x 2 ` 1
f px q “
x2 ´ 4
is a rational function with do-
main tx | x ‰ ˘2u.
THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

Definition 6 (Algebraic Functions): A function f is called

an algebraic function if it can be constructed using algebraic
operations (such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, di-
vision, and taking roots) starting with polynomials. Any ra-
tional function is automatically an algebraic function.

Example 5: Here are examples of algebraic functions:

?
f px q “ x 2 ` 1
x 4 ´ 5x 2 ?
gpx q “ ? ` px ` 3q 3 x ´ 1
2x ` x
?
px ` 2q3 ` 4 x
hpx q “ ?
p1 ` x q5 ` 3x 2
THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

Definition 7 (The Exponential Functions): The function

f px q “ ax , where a is a real constant (a ą 0, a ‰ 1), is
called an exponential function.

The exponential function is defined for all x P R.

Properties of Exponential Functions

ax ą 0 for all x P R
a0 “ 1
ax `y “ ax ¨ ay
ax 1
ax ´y “ y ùñ a´x “ x
a a
pax qy “ axy
THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

When a “ e pe « 2.718281828...q we have the most popular

function y “ ex , that has many applications in all sciences.
The graphs of the exponential functions are dependent on a.

y y

x x
y “ ax y “ ax
pa ą 1q p0 ă a ă 1q
THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

Definition 8 (The Logarithmic Functions): The function

f px q “ loga x , where a is a real constant (a ą 0, a ‰ 1), is
called a logarithmic function.

The logarithmic function is defined for all x ą 0.

Properties of Logarithmic Functions

loga 1 “ 0
loga pxy q “ loga x ` loga y
x 1
loga “ loga x ´ loga y ùñ loga “ ´ loga x
y x
loga x y “ y loga x
THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

When a “ e pe « 2.718281828...q we denote y “ ln x , and we have

ln x
loga x “
ln a
The graphs of the logarithmic functions are dependent on a.

y y

x x
y “ loga x y “ loga x
pa ą 1q p0 ă a ă 1q
THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

Definition 9 (The Trigonometric Functions): We have

the following trigonometric functions and their graphs.
y “ sin x : its domain is R, its range is r´1, 1s.
y “ cos x : its domain is R, its range is r´1, 1s.
y y

x x

y “ sin x y “ cos x
THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

Definition 10 (The Trigonometric Functions):

" *
sin x π
y “ tan x “ : its domain is R ´ ` kπ, k P Z .
cos x 2
1 cos x
y “ cot x “ “ : its domain is R ´ tkπ, k P Zu.
tan x sin x

y y

x x

y “ tan x y “ cot x
THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS
Properties of Trigonometric Functions

cos2 x ` sin2 x “ 1
sin 2x “ 2 sin x cos x
cos 2x “ cos2 x ´ sin2 x “ 1 ´ 2 sin2 x “ 2 cos2 x ´ 1.
From this property we obtain the following useful
formulas:
1 ` cos 2x 1 ´ cos 2x
cos2 x “ ; sin2 x “
2 2
1
1 ` tan2 x “ , and from this we have
cos2 x
1 tan2 x
cos2 x “ ; sin2 x “
1 ` tan2 x 1 ` tan2 x
And more ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨
THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

Definition 11 (The Hyperbolic Functions): The following

functions are called the hyperbolic functions:
(1) The Sine Hyperbolic Function:
exp x ´ exp ´x
y “ sinh x “
2
(2) The Cosine Hyperbolic Function:
exp x ` exp ´x
y “ cosh x “
2
(3) The Tangent Hyperbolic Function:
sinh x exp x ´ exp ´x
y “ tanh x “ “
cosh x exp x ` exp ´x
(4) The Cotangent Hyperbolic Function: y “ coth x “
1 cosh x exp x ` exp ´x
“ “
tanh x sinh x exp x ´ exp ´x
THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

Properties of Hyperbolic Functions

cosh2 x ´ sinh2 x “ 1
sinh 2x “ 2 sinh x cosh x
cosh 2x “ cosh2 x ` sinh2 x “ 2 cosh2 x ´ 1 “
1 ` 2 sinh2 x . From this we have
1 ` cosh 2x cosh 2x ´ 1
cosh2 x “ sinh2 x “
2 2
And more ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨
THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

Definition 12 (Piecewise Defined Functions): The func-

tions in the following examples are defined by different for-
mulas in different parts of their domains. Such functions are
called piecewise defined functions.

Example 6: A function f is defined by

#
1 ´ x , if x ď ´1
f px q “
x 2, if x ą ´1

Then
Since ´2 ď ´1, we have f p´2q “ 1 ´ p´2q “ 3
Since 0 ą ´1, we have f p0q “ 02 “ 0
THE ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS

Example 7:

The next example of a piece-

wise defined function is the ab-
solute value function
#
x, if x ě 0
f px q “ |x | “
´x , if x ă 0

We see that the graph of f coincides with the line y “ x to

the right of the y -axis and coincides with the line y “ ´x to
the left of the y -axis.
PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS

Definition 13 (Even Functions):

If a function f px q satisfies
f p´x q “ f px q for every num-
ber x in its domain, then f
is called an even function. For
instance, the function f px q “
x 2 is even because f p´x q “
p´x q2 “ x 2 “ f px q.
The geometric significance of an even function is that its
graph is symmetric with respect to the y -axis (see Figure).
This means that if we have plotted the graph of f for x ě 0,
we obtain the entire graph simply by reflecting this portion
about the y -axis.
PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS

Definition 14 (Odd Functions):

If a function f px q satisfies
f p´x q “ ´f px q for every
number x in its domain, then
f is called an odd function. For
instance, the function f px q “
x 3 is odd because f p´x q “
p´x q3 “ ´x 3 “ ´f px q.
The geometric significance of an even function is that its
graph is symmetric about the origin (see Figure). This means
that if we have plotted the graph of f for x ě 0, we obtain
the entire graph simply by rotating this portion through 180o
about the origin.
PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS

Example 8: Determine whether each of the following func-

tions is even, odd, or neither even nor odd.
p1q f px q “ x 5 `x ; p2q gpx q “ 1´x 4 ; p3q hpx q “ 2x ´x 2

Solution :
(1) f p´x q “ p´x q5 ` p´x q “ ´x 5 ´ x “ ´px 5 ` x q “
´f px q. Therefore f is an odd function.
(2) gp´x q “ 1 ´ p´x q4 “ 1 ´ x 4 “ gpx q. So g is even.
(3) Since hp´x q ‰ hpx q and hp´x q ‰ ´hpx q, we conclude
that h is neither even nor odd.
PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS

Definition 15 (Increasing and Decreasing Function): A

function f is called increasing on an interval I if f px1 q ă
f px2 q whenever x1 ă x2 in I. It is called decreasing on I if
f px1 q ą f px2 q whenever x1 ă x2 in I.

Example 9:

The function y “ x 2 is de-

creasing on p´8, 0q and in-
creasing on p0, `8q.
PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS

Definition 16 (Periodic Functions): A function f is called

periodic if there exists a positive constant τ such that for all
x from its domain f px ` τ q “ f px q. The smallest positive
value T of all values of τ is call the period of this function.

Example 10:
The functions y “ sin x and y “ cos x are periodic
with T “ 2π.
The functions y “ tan x and y “ cot x are periodic
with T “ π.
PROPERTIES OF FUNCTIONS

Example 11:
2π
The function y “ sin kx is periodic with T “ .
k
x x
The functions y “ tan and y “ tan are periodic
2 3
with the periods T “ 2π and T “ 3π, respectively.
x x
Then the function f px q “ tan ` tan is periodic with
2 3
the period T “ SCMp2π, 3πq “ 6π.

(SCM = Smallest Common Multiple)

TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

Vertical and Horizontal Shifts

Suppose C ą 0. To obtain the graph of
y “ f px q ` C , shift the graph of y “ f px q a distance C
units upward
y “ f px q ´ C , shift the graph of y “ f px q a distance C
units downward
y “ f px ´ C q, shift the graph of y “ f px q a distance C
units to the right
y “ f px ` C q, shift the graph of y “ f px q a distance C
units to the left
TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS
TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

Vertical and Horizontal Stretching and Reflecting

Suppose C ą 1. To obtain the graph of

y “ Cf px q, stretch the graph of y “ f px q vertically by
a factor of C
1
y “ f px q, shrink the graph of y “ f px q vertically by
C
a factor of C
y “ ´f px q, reflect the graph of y “ f px q about the
x -axis
y “ f p´x q, reflect the graph of y “ f px q about the
y -axis
TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS
TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

Example 12: The following figure illustrates these stretching

transformations when applied to the function y “ cos x with
1
C “ 2 to obtain the graphs of y “ 2 cos x , y “ 2 cos x ,
y “ cos 2x , and y “ cos 21 x .
COMBINATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division of

Functions: Two functions f and g can be combined to form new
functions f ` g, f ´ g, fg, and f {g in a manner similar to the way
we add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers. The sum,
difference, product, and quotient functions are defined by

pf ` gqpx q “ f px q ` gpx q, pf ´ gqpx q “ f px q ´ gpx q

f px q
pfgqpx q “ f px qgpx q, pf {gqpx q “
gpx q
Note that if the domain of f is A and the domain of g is B, then
the domain of f ˘ g is the intersection A X B because both f px q
and gpx q have to be defined. The domain of fg is A X B too,
however, the domain of f {g is tx P A X B | gpx q ‰ 0u.
COMBINATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

?
Example 13: The domain of f px q “ x is r0, `8q and the
?
domain of gpx q “ 2 ´ x is p´8, 2s. Therefore
? ?
The domain of f px q ` gpx q “ x ` 2 ´ x is
r0, `8q X p´8, 2s “ r0, 2s.
? ?
The domain of f px q ´ gpx q “ x´ 2 ´ x is also
r0, 2s.
The domain of
? ? a
f px q ¨ gpx q “ x ¨ 2 ´ x “ x p2 ´ x q is also r0, 2s.
? c
f px q x x
The domain of “? “ is
gpx q 2´x 2´x
r0, 2s ´ t2u “ r0, 2q.
COMBINATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

Definition 17 (The Composite Function): Given two func-

tions f and g, the composite function f ˝ g (also called the
composition) of f and g is defined by

pf ˝ gqpx q “ f pgpx qq

The domain of f ˝g is the set of all x in the domain of g such

that gpx q is in the domain of f . In other words, pf ˝ gqpx q is
defined whenever both gpx q and f pgpx qq are defined.
COMBINATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

Example 14: If f px q “ x 2 and gpx q “ x ` 3, find the com-

posite functions f ˝ g and g ˝ f .

Solution : We have
pf ˝ gqpx q “ f pgpx qq “ rgpx qs2 “ px ` 3q2
pg ˝ f qpx q “ gpf px qq “ f px q ` 3 “ x 2 ` 3
We see that, in general, f ˝ g ‰ g ˝ f .
COMBINATIONS OF FUNCTIONS
? ?
Example 15: If f px q “ x and gpx q “ 2 ´ x , find each
function and its domain: f ˝ g, g ˝ f , f ˝ f , and g ˝ g.

Solution : We have
a a? ?
4
pf ˝ gqpx q “ f pgpx qq “ gpx q “ 2´x “ 2 ´ x.
Its domain is p´8, 2s.
a a ?
pg ˝ f qpx q “ gpf px qq “ 2 ´ f px q “ 2 ´ x . Its
domain is r0, 4s.
a a? ?
4
pf ˝ f qpx q “ f pf px qq “ f px q “ x“ x . Its
domain is r0, `8q.
a a ?
pg ˝ gqpx q “ gpgpx qq “ 2 ´ gpx q “ 2 ´ 2 ´ x .
Its domain is r´2, 2s.
COMBINATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

It is possible to take the composition of three or more functions.

For instance, the composite function f ˝ g ˝ h is found by first
applying h, then g, and then f as follows:

pf ˝ g ˝ hqpx q “ f pgphpx qqq

x
Example 16: If f px q “ , gpx q “ x 5 , and hpx q “ x ` 2,
x `1
then
gphpx qq rhpx qs5
pf ˝ g ˝ hqpx q “ f pgphpx qqq “ “
gphpx qq ` 1 rhpx qs5 ` 1
px ` 2q5
“
px ` 2q5 ` 1
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Definition 18: A function f is called a one-to-one function if

it never takes on the same value twice; that is f px1 q ­“ f px2 q
whenever x1 ­“ x2 .

Horizontal Line Test

A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line intersects
its graph more than once.

This function is not

one-to-one because x1 ‰ x2
and f px1 q “ f px2 q.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Example 17: The function f px q “ x 3 is one-to-one on R,

because if x1 ­“ x2 , then x13 ­“ x23 . The function gpx q “ x 2 is
not one-to-one on R, because 1 ­“ ´1 but gp´1q “ gp1q “ 1.
However, gpx q is one-to-one on R` “ r0, `8q.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Definition 19: Let f be a one-to-one function with domain

D and range E . Then its inverse function f ´1 has domain E
and range D and is defined by f ´1 py q “ x ô f px q “ y for
any y in E .

The following procedure shows you how to find the inverse

function of a one-to-one function f :
Step 1 Write y “ f px q
Step 2 Solve this equation for x in terms of y (if possible)
Step 3 To express f ´1 as a function of x , interchange x and
y . The resulting equation is y “ f ´1 px q.
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Example 18: Find the inverse function of f px q “ 2x ` 3.

Solution : According to the above procedure

We write y “ 2x ` 3.
y ´3
Then we solve this equation for x : x “ .
2
x ´3
Finally, we interchange x and y : y “ .
2
x ´3
Therefore the inverse function is f ´1 px q “ .
2
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

NOTE

Note that

f ´1 pf px qq “ x

f pf ´1 px qq “ x
and the graph of f ´1 px q is
obtained by reflecting the
graph of f px q about the
line y “ x .
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

From the elementary functions we have

aloga x “ x and loga ax “ x

Then the exponential function y “ ax is the inverse function

of the logarithmic function y “ loga x and vice versa.

y “ ax

x
y “ loga x
x
“
y
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Definition 20 (The Inverse Function of y “ sin x ): We

” π πı
consider y “ sin x : ´ , ÝÑ r´1, 1s. This is one-to-
2 2
one function. Therefore, it has an inverse function, that is
” π πı
denoted by y “ arcsin x : r´1, 1s ÝÑ ´ ,
2 2
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Definition 21 (The Inverse Function of y “ cos x ): We

consider y “ cos x : r0, πs ÝÑ r´1, 1s. This is one-to-one
function. Therefore, it has an inverse function, that is denoted
by y “ arccos x : r´1, 1s ÝÑ r0, πs
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Definition 22 (The Inverse Function of y “ tan x ): We

´ π π¯
consider y “ tan x : ´ , ÝÑ p´8, `8q. This is one-
2 2
to-one function. Therefore, it has an inverse function, that is
´ π π¯
denoted by y “ arctan x : p´8, `8q ÝÑ ´ ,
2 2
—– THE END —–