CALCULUS I

Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS OF ONE VARIABLE (Cont.)

LÊ THÁI THANH ([email protected])

HCMC University of Technology

LIMITS OF A FUNCTION

Definition 1: Let f be a function defined on some open

interval that contains the number a, except possibly at a
itself. Then we say that the limit of f px q as x approaches a
is L, and we write lim f px q “ L if for every number ε ą 0
x Ña
there is a number δ ą 0 such that if 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ then
|f px q ´ L| ă ε. That is

@ε ą 0, Dδ ą 0, 0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ ñ |f px q ´ L| ă ε
LIMITS OF A FUNCTION
LIMITS OF A FUNCTION

Example 1: Show that lim p3x ´ 2q “ 4.

x Ñ2

Solution : We have a “ 2, L “ 4, f px q “ 3x ´2 and we need

to find a number δ ą 0 such that @ε ą 0, if 0 ă |x ´ 2| ă δ
then |p3x ´ 2q ´ 4| ă ε. From the last inequality, we have

|p3x ´ 2q ´ 4| ă ε ô |3x ´ 6| ă ε ô |3px ´ 2q| ă ε

ε
ô |x ´ 2| ă
3
ε
This suggests that we should choose δ “ .
3
THE LIMIT LAWS

Theorem 1 (Algebraic Laws): Suppose that C is a constant

and the limits lim f px q and lim gpx q exist. Then
x Ña x Ña
(1) lim rf px q ` gpx qs “ lim f px q ` lim gpx q
x Ña x Ña x Ña
(2) lim rf px q ´ gpx qs “ lim f px q ´ lim gpx q
x Ña x Ña x Ña
(3) lim rCf px qs “ C lim f px q
x Ña x Ña
(4) lim rf px qgpx qs “ lim f px q ¨ lim gpx q
x Ña x Ña x Ña

f px q lim f px q
(5) lim “ x Ña if lim gpx q ­“ 0
x Ña gpx q lim gpx q x Ña
x Ña
THE LIMIT LAWS

Theorem 2 (Limit of Composite Functions):

If lim f px q “ L and lim gpx q “ b, then lim f pgpx qq “ L
x Ñb x Ña x Ña

Example 2: Suppose that lim f px q “ 3 and lim gpx q “ 2.

x Ñ2 x Ñ1
Then lim f pgpx qq “ 3.
x Ñ1

NOTE:
From the above laws, we have, if lim f px q “ L, then
x Ña

1. lim rf px qsn “ Ln
x Ña
a ?
n
2. lim n f px q “ L pL ą 0q
x Ña
THE LIMIT LAWS

Theorem 3 (Direct Substitution Property): If f is a com-

bination or composition of elementary functions and a is in
the domain of f , then
lim f px q “ f paq
x Ña

?3
x 2 ` 2x ´ 7
Example 3: Find lim f px q where f px q “ ? .
x Ñ1 3x 3 ` 5x ` 8
Since the function f px q is an algebraic function and a “ 1 is
in its domain, then
?3 2
?
3
?
3
1 `2¨1´7 ´4 4
lim f px q “ f p1q “ ? “ ? “´
x Ñ1 3 ¨ 13 ` 5 ¨ 1 ` 8 16 4
THE LIMIT LAWS

Theorem 4 (The Inequality Theorem): If f px q ď gpx q

when x is near a and the limits of f and g both exist as x
approaches a, then

lim f px q ď lim gpx q

x Ña x Ña

Theorem 5 (The Squeeze Theorem):

Suppose f px q ď gpx q ď hpx q when x is near a and if
lim f px q “ lim hpx q “ L, then lim gpx q “ L.
x Ña x Ña x Ña
THE LIMIT LAWS

1
Example 4: Find lim x 2 sin2 .
x Ñ0 x

1
Solution : We know that 0 ď x 2 sin2 ď x 2 , and lim x 2 “
x x Ñ0
2 2 1
0. By the Squeeze Theorem, we obtain lim x sin “ 0.
x Ñ0 x
INFINITE LIMITS

Definition 2 (Infinite Limits):

lim f px q “ `8 ô @M ą 0, Dδ ą 0, such that

x Ña
0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ ñ f px q ą M

lim f px q “ ´8 ô @N ă 0, Dδ ą 0, such that

x Ña
0 ă |x ´ a| ă δ ñ f px q ă N
LIMITS AT INFINITY

Definition 3 (Limits at Infinity): Let f px q be a function

defined on some interval pa, 8q. Then

lim f px q “ L ô @ε ą 0, DN ą 0, @x ą N ñ |f px q ´ L| ă ε
x Ñ8

and

lim f px q “ 8 ô @M ą 0, DN ą 0, @x ą N ñ f px q ą M
x Ñ8
SOME USEFUL LIMITS

We consider some useful limits of the elementary functions

when x approaches ˘8.
α ą 0 ùñ lim x α “ `8 and
x Ñ`8
α ă 0 ùñ lim xα “ 0
x Ñ`8
If a ą 1, then lim ax “ `8 and lim ax “ 0
x Ñ`8 x Ñ´8
If a ą 1, then lim loga x “ `8
x Ñ`8
$
’
’ 0, if n ă m
a0 x n ` a1 x n´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` an &a
0
lim “ , if n “ m
x Ñ`8 b0 x m ` b1 x m´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` bm ’
’ b 0
if n ą m
%
8,
SOME USEFUL LIMITS

The trigonometric functions (sin x , cos x , tan x , cot x )

have no limits when x approaches ˘8.
π
We have lim arctan x “ and
x Ñ`8 2
π
lim arctan x “ ´ . Sometime, we can write
x Ñ´8 2
π π
arctanp`8q “ and arctanp´8q “ ´
2 2
lim cosh x “ `8, lim sinh x “ ˘8,
x Ñ˘8 x Ñ˘8
lim tanh x “ 1
x Ñ˘8
ONE-SIDE LIMITS

Definition 4 (The Left-Hand Limit):

lim f px q “ L ô @ε ą 0, Dδ ą 0, such that

x Ña´
a ´ δ ă x ă a ñ |f px q ´ L| ă ε

Definition 5 (The Right-Hand Limit):

lim f px q “ L ô @ε ą 0, Dδ ą 0, such that

x Ña`
a ă x ă a ` δ ñ |f px q ´ L| ă ε
ONE-SIDE LIMITS

1
Example 5: Consider the function f px q “ . We have
x
1 1
lim “ `8 and lim “ ´8
x Ñ0` x x Ñ0´ x

Example 6: Consider the function

#
1 ´ x , if x ă 1
f px q “
x 2, if x ě 1

We have

lim f px q “ lim p1´x q “ 0 and lim f px q “ lim x 2 “ 1

x Ñ1´ x Ñ1´ x Ñ1` x Ñ1`
ONE-SIDE LIMITS

1
Example 7: Consider the function f px q “ 1 . When x
2 `1
x
1 1
approaches 0 from the left, we haveÝÑ ´8, then 2 x ÝÑ
1
x
0, so that 2 x ` 1 ÝÑ 1. This means that lim f px q “ 1.
x Ñ0´
On the other hand, when x approaches 0 from the right, we
1 1 1
have ÝÑ 8, then 2 x ÝÑ `8, and 2 x ` 1 ÝÑ `8. This
x
means that lim f px q “ 0.
x Ñ0`
ONE-SIDE LIMITS

Theorem 6:
lim f px q “ L if and only if lim f px q “ L “ lim f px q.
x Ña x Ña´ x Ña`

NOTE:
From the Direct Substitution Property we see that if a func-
tion f px q is defined at a number a then the limit of this
function when x approaches a can be found by replacing x
by a. Therefore, in reality, we often encounter with limits of
functions which are not defined at a. In these cases, we need
to apply other tools to calculate these limits.
THE LIMIT LAWS

x 2 ´ 3x ` 2
Example 8: Find lim .
x Ñ2 x ´2

x 2 ´ 3x ` 2
Solution : The function f px q “ is not defined
x ´2
at x “ 2, so we can not replace x by 2. In order to find the
limit we factor the numerator as x 2 ´ 3x ` 2 “ px ´ 1qpx ´ 2q
and
x 2 ´ 3x ` 2 px ´ 1qpx ´ 2q
lim “ lim “ lim px ´ 1q “ 1
x Ñ2 x ´2 x Ñ2 x ´2 x Ñ2
INDETERMINATE FORMS AND SOME USEFUL
LIMITS

Definition 6: We used to find the limits of following indeter-

minate forms:
0 8
, , 8 ´ 8, 18 , 08 , 0 ¨ 8, ...
0 8

SOME USEFUL LIMITS

sin x tan x 1 ´ cos x 1
(1) lim “ 1, lim “ 1, lim “
x Ñ0 x x Ñ0 x x Ñ0 x2 2
x
e ´1 lnp1 ` x q
(2) lim “ 1, lim “1
x Ñ0 x x Ñ0 x
p1 ` x qα ´ 1
(3) lim “α
x Ñ0 x
INDETERMINATE FORMS AND SOME USEFUL
LIMITS

SOME USEFUL LIMITS

sinh x tanh x 1 ´ cosh x 1
(4) lim “ 1, lim “ 1, lim 2
“
x Ñ0
ˆx
x Ñ0 x x Ñ0 x 2
1 x
˙
1
(5) lim 1 ` “ e, lim p1 ` x q x “ e
x Ñ8 x x Ñ0
$
’
’ 0, if n ă m
a0 x n ` a1 x n´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` an &a
0
(6) lim “ , if n “ m
x Ñ8 b0 x m ` b1 x m´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` bm ’
’ b0
8, if n ą m
%
EXAMPLES

sin 7x
Example 9: Find lim . We can rewrite
x Ñ0 tan 3x
sin 7x sin 7x 3x 7 7
lim “ lim ¨ ¨ “
x Ñ0 tan 3x x Ñ0 7x tan 3x 3 3

tan x ´ sin x
Example 10: Find lim . We can rewrite
x Ñ0 x3
sin x
tan x ´ sin x ´ sin x
lim “ lim cos x 3
x Ñ0 x3 x Ñ0 x
sin x ´ sin x cos x
“ lim
x Ñ0 x 3 cos x
sin x 1 ´ cos x 1
“ lim ¨ ¨
x Ñ0 x x2 cos x
1 1 1
“ 1¨ ¨ “
2 1 2
EXAMPLES

´? ? ¯
Example 11: Find lim x 3{2 x3 ` 2 ´ x 3 ´ 2 . We
x Ñ`8
have
px 3 ` 2q ´ px 3 ´ 2q
lim f px q “ lim x 3{2 ? ?
x Ñ`8 x Ñ`8 x3 ` 2 ` x3 ´ 2
?
4 x3
“ lim ? ?
x Ñ`8 x3 ` 2 ` x3 ´ 2
4 4
“ lim c c “ “2
x Ñ`8 2 2 2
1` 3 ` 1´ 3
x x
EXAMPLES

x `2 x
ˆ ˙
Example 12: Find lim .
x Ñ8 x ´ 2

x `2 x x ´2`4 x
ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
lim “ lim
x Ñ8 x ´ 2 x Ñ8 x ´2
ˆ ˙x ˜ ¸x
4 1
“ lim 1 ` “ lim 1 ` x ´2
x Ñ8 x ´2 x Ñ8
4
˜ ¸ x ´2 ¨ 4 ¨x » ˜ ¸ x ´2 fi x4x´2
4 x ´2 4
1 1
“ lim 1 ` x ´2 “ lim – 1 ` x ´2 fl
x Ñ8 x Ñ8
4 4
4
“ e
EXAMPLES

1
Example 13: Find lim pcos x q x 2 . We have
x Ñ0

1 1
lim pcos x q x 2 “ lim p1 ` cos x ´ 1q x 2
x Ñ0 x Ñ0
” 1
ı cos x ´1
2
“ lim p1 ` pcos x ´ 1qq cos x ´1 x
x Ñ0
´1{2
“ e
THE VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES

Definition 7: The line x “ a is called a vertical asymptote of

the curve y “ f px q if at least one of the following statements
is true

lim f px q “ 8 lim f px q “ 8 lim f px q “ 8

x Ña x Ña´ x Ña`

lim f px q “ ´8 lim f px q “ ´8 lim f px q “ ´8

x Ña x Ña´ x Ña`

Definition 8: The line y “ L is called a horizontal asymptote

of the curve y “ f px q if either

lim f px q “ L or lim f px q “ L
x Ñ8 x Ñ´8
THE VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES

Example 14: Find vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the

function
2x 2 ` 3
f px q “
x2 ´ 1

Solution : We have
2x 2 ` 3
lim f px q “ lim “2
x Ñ8 x Ñ8 x 2 ´ 1

Then, the horizontal asymptote is y “ 2. And

2x 2 ` 3
lim f px q “ lim “ ˘8
x Ñ˘1 x Ñ˘1 x 2 ´ 1

Therefore, the vertical asymptotes are x “ ´1 and x “ 1.

THE SLANT ASYMPTOTES

Definition 9: The line y “ mx `b is called a slant asymptote

of the curve y “ f px q if there exist the following limits

f px q
m “ lim , b “ lim rf px q ´ mx s
x Ñ8 x x Ñ8

2x 2 ` 1
Example 15: Find all asymptotes of the curve y “ .
x ´2

Solution : First of all, we have

2x 2 ` 1
lim f px q “ lim “ ˘8
x Ñ2 x Ñ2 x ´ 2

Therefore, the vertical asymptote is x “ 2.

THE SLANT ASYMPTOTES

We see that
f px q 2x 2 ` 1
m “ lim “ “2
x Ñ8 x x px ´ 2q
„ 2 ȷ
2x ` 1
b “ lim rf px q ´ mx s “ lim ´ 2x
x Ñ8 x Ñ8 x ´2
p2x 2 ` 1q ´ 2x px ´ 2q 4x ` 1
“ lim “ lim “4
x Ñ8 x ´2 x Ñ8 x ´ 2

So, the slant asymptote is y “ 2x ` 4.

INFINITESIMALS

Definition 10: A function αpx q is called an infinitesimal when

x approaches a if
lim αpx q “ 0
x Ña

Example 16:
The functions x 2 , sin x , tan x , 1 ´ cos x , . . . are
infinitesimals when x Ñ 0.
1
The functions , 2´x , . . . are infinitesimals when
x
x Ñ `8.
πx
The function x 3 ´ 1, cot , . . . are infinitesimals when
2
x Ñ 1.
INFINITESIMALS

Definition 11: Two infinitesimals αpx q and βpx q when x

approaches a are called equivalent if
αpx q
lim “1
x Ña βpx q

In this case, we denote

αpx q „ βpx q px Ñ aq

Example 17:
sin x
sin x „ x px Ñ 0q, since lim “1
x Ñ0 x
x2 1 ´ cos x 1
1 ´ cos x „ px Ñ 0q, since lim “
2 x Ñ0 x2 2
INFINITESIMALS

We have some useful equivalent infinitesimals when x ap-

proaches 0

x3
$
’
’sin x „ x ´
6
’
’
’
’
’
x3
’
’
tan x x
’
’
’ „ `
’
’
’ 3
’
x2 x4
’
&
1 ´ cos x „ ´
’
’ 2 24
’ 2
x x3
’
’
’ex ´1 „ x `
’
’ `
’
’
’
’ 2 6
’
’
’ α αpα ´ 1q 2
%p1 ` x q ´ 1 „ αx ` x
’
’
2
INFINITESIMALS

Definition 12: Given two infinitesimals αpx q and βpx q when

x approaches a. We say that αpx q is an infinitesimal of higher
degree in comparison to βpx q, if

αpx q
lim “0
x Ña βpx q
In this case we denote

αpx q “ opβpx qq, px Ñ aq

INFINITESIMALS

Theorem 7 (Replacement by Equivalent Infinitesimals):

Given two infinitesimals f px q and gpx q when x approaches
a. Suppose that f px q „ αpx q, gpx q „ βpx q, px Ñ aq, and
αpx q
lim “ L. Then
x Ña βpx q

f px q
lim “L
x Ña gpx q
INFINITESIMALS

tan x ´ sin x
Example 18: Find lim .
x Ñ0 x3
We know that
x3 x3
tan x „ x ` , sin x „ x ´ , px Ñ 0q
3 6
Therefore,

x3 x3 x3
ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙
tan x ´ sin x „ x` ´ x´ “ , px Ñ 0q
3 6 2
Then
tan x ´ sin x x 3 {2 1
lim 3
“ lim 3
“
x Ñ0 x x Ñ0 x 2
CONTINUITY

Definition 13: A function f is continuous at a if lim f px q “

x Ña
f paq. Otherwise, we say that f is discontinuous at a.

This definition requires three things if f is continuous at a:

(1) f is defined at a
(2) lim f px q exists
x Ña
(3) lim f px q “ f paq
x Ña
CONTINUITY

$
& x2 ´ 4
Example 19: Given f px q “ , if x “
­ 2 . Find A
x ´2
% A, if x “ 2
such that f is continuous at x “ 2.

Solution : We see that f is defined at x “ 2, f p2q “ A and

x2 ´ 4 px ´ 2qpx ` 2q
lim f px q “ lim “ lim “ lim px `2q “ 4
x Ñ2 x Ñ2 x ´ 2 x Ñ2 x ´2 x Ñ2

From the above definition, f is continuous at x “ 2 if A “ 4.

CONTINUITY

Definition 14: We have the following definitions

(1) A function f is continuous from the right at a if
lim f px q “ f paq
x Ña`
(2) A function f is continuous from the left at a if
lim f px q “ f paq
x Ña´
(3) A function f is continuous on an opened interval pa, bq
if it is continuous at every number in the interval.
(4) A function f is continuous on an close interval ra, bs if
it is continuous on pa, bq, continuous from the right at
a, and continuous from the left at b.
CONTINUITY

Properties of Continuous Functions

(1) A function f is continuous at a when and only when it

is continuous from the left and from the right at a.
(2) The addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
composition of continuous functions are continuous
functions.
(3) The elementary functions are continuous on their
domains.
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM

Theorem 8: Suppose f is continuous on the closed interval

ra, bs and let N be any number between f paq and f pbq, where
f paq ­“ f pbq. Then there exists a number c in pa, bq such that
f pcq “ N.

The Intermediate Value The-

orem states that a continu-
ous function takes on every in-
termediate value between the
function values f paq and f pbq.
It is illustrated by the above
figure. Note that the value can
be taken on once or more than
once.
THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM

Example 20: Show that there is a root of the equation x 3 ´

3x ` 1 “ 0 between 1 and 2.

Solution : Let f px q “ x 3 ´ 3x ` 1. We are looking for a

solution of the given equation, that is, a number c between
1 and 2 such that f pcq “ 0. Therefore we take a “ 1, b “ 2,
and N “ 0 in this theorem. We have f p1q ă 0 ă f p2q;
that is, N “ 0 is a number between f p1q and f p2q. Now f is
continuous since it is a polynomial, so the Intermediate Value
Theorem says there is a number c between 1 and 2 such that
f pcq “ 0. In other words, the equation x 3 ´ 3x ` 1 “ 0 has
at least one root in the interval p1, 2q.
—– THE END —–