Received 26 July 2024, accepted 17 August 2024, date of publication 23 August 2024, date of current version 26 September 2024.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3449217

Design and Implementation of IoT-Enabled

Device for Real-Time Monitoring of
Greenhouse Gas Emissions, and
Pressure in Anaerobic Reactors
ADITYA PANDEY 1,2 , (Senior Member, IEEE), OMEED MOMENI 1, (Senior Member, IEEE),
AND PRAMOD PANDEY 2 , (Member, IEEE)
1 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
2 Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
Corresponding author: Pramod Pandey ([email protected])
This work was supported by the UC Davis Science Translation and Innovative Research, and funding from Dean, School of Veterinary
Medicine, UC Davis.

ABSTRACT Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and consequential global warming are grand societal
challenges, and mitigating it requires improved control measures as well as advanced monitoring systems.
Currently, many countries have set time-bound targets for controlling GHG emissions from various sources
including the emissions from livestock, however, affordable GHG monitoring devices, which are usable in a
farm and rural environment, are yet to be investigated. This paper presents a simple, lightweight, sensitive,
and a low-cost monitoring device for determining the GHG emissions from livestock waste. Application
results suggest that it can be easily deployed, and it uses low power for real-time GHG measurements, making
it practical for using in rural and farm environment. In addition, it can be used for IoT based application.
The device offers precise measurement of biogas emissions from waste in anaerobic reactors, which are
used for trapping the methane produced by waste consuming bacteria. This pressure controlled device can
monitor low level of biogas production from livestock waste. Through a series of experiments, we found
that currently available gas flow monitoring system alone may not be sufficient for real-time continuous
monitoring of low level GHGs emissions, particularly in smaller reactors, where methane production rate
is low. The pressure controlled flow sensors similar to proposed here offer improved real-time monitoring
of GHG emissions. The comparison between the gas production estimation based on this novel device, and
actual monitoring resulted in R2 value of 0.997 and RMSE value of 0.09. The monitoring device proposed
here could assist in deriving the strategies capable of reducing methane and carbon dioxide emissions from
livestock waste under various on-farm environmental conditions towards meeting the goal of global GHGs
emission reduction.

INDEX TERMS Environment, greenhouse gas emissions, global warming, solid waste, IoT environment
device, decision support system.

I. INTRODUCTION from solid waste [2]. Previous research have shown that
The implementation of currently available greenhouse gas the increase in global surface temperature is mainly driven
(GHG) reduction technologies are considered to be a way by anthropogenic activities [3], [4], [5], and emissions
to control global warming and stabilize climate [1], [2], and from solid wastes such as municipal solid waste (MSW)
a particular emphasis is given to control GHG emissions and livestock waste is significant [5], [6], [7]. Waste
management and treatment activities accounted for 16.9%
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and of total U.S. anthropogenic methane emissions, which is
approving it for publication was Zeev Zalevsky . about 169.2 MMT CO2 equivalent, and the GHG emissions

2024 The Authors. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.
133848 For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ VOLUME 12, 2024
A. Pandey et al.: Design and Implementation of IoT-Enabled Device for Real-Time Monitoring

from MSW are expected to double by 2050 [7], [8]. The specially designed reactors, where biological processes take
livestock sector is responsible for global GHG emissions of place under anaerobic environment. In these anaerobic
5.6-7.5 GtCO2e annually [5], and recently substantial reactors, greenhouse gases such as CH4 and CO2 is produced
attempts are made to reduce GHG emissions from livestock as a result of anaerobic biological processes by methane
waste [9], [10], [11], [12]. Currently, 10-14% of total GHG producing bacteria inside the reactors [2], [10], [11], [32].
emissions is caused by cropping and animal production The real time monitoring of greenhouse gas emissions is often
system, and this GHG emission can also nearly double by challenging, specially, when gas production is low [11], [13],
2050 [12], [13]. [31]. Often livestock farms and anaerobic reactors are located
While currently the majority of the GHG emissions-related in rural and underdeveloped communities with relatively
data are based on theoretical calculations [14], [15], [16], weak infrastructure and low to unskilled labor availability,
[17], the improvement in GHG monitoring devices can help and currently available expensive GHG monitoring systems
in reducing the substantial uncertainties associated when are cost prohibitive for most farms. In these remote farms,
calculating GHG emissions. In waste treatment facilities, monitoring through IoT enabled sensors could play crucial
the GHG emissions from waste such as livestock waste and role in improving the agriculture production and also could
municipal wastewater substantially depends on the bacterial help in identifying the strategies for reducing the negative
activities under anaerobic conditions [18], [19], [20], [21], impacts of agriculture on environment [33], [34], [35].
[22] and the efficiency of the processes depends on climate Therefore, the goal of this study was to develop a simple
conditions such as temperature. For example, in the wastew- and cost effective IoT device for real-time monitoring of
ater treatment plants WWTP, anaerobic reactors are used GHG emissions in anaerobic reactors, without excessive
to stabilize sewage sludge, and biological activities inside human intervention, and automate the monitoring processes
the reactors that emits the GHGs such as carbon dioxide, to provide the data remotely for decision making and process
methane, and nitrous oxide [23], [24], [25]. These biological control.
processes, GHG emissions, and sludge reduction in the The specific objectives of this study are to: 1) design
WWTP are substantially influenced by unpredictable weather a framework for automated monitoring, measurement, and
conditions [26], [27], [28], and one of the major challenges to evaluation of biogas production in anaerobic reactors using
understand the impacts of weather on waste water treatment is a dedicated microcontroller; 2) built a prototype circuit
difficulties in the deployment of time consuming, expensive, on perfboard for ESP32 microcontroller, pressure sensor,
local sampling and monitoring systems [28]. The Internet of solenoid air valve, mass flow sensor, temperature sensor,
Thing (IoT) based devices could assist in overcoming these TFT display module, and SD card module, which can
monitoring challenges. capture, display, and record signals of biogas production;
While monitoring of GHG is essential in anaerobic 3) develop algorithm to control the system, and connect
reactors, improved understanding of mechanisms that allows the system with IoT platform for real-time remote moni-
the conversion of waste into energy in the form of biogas toring; and 4) design and operate experimental anaerobic
inside the reactors is needed. These insights and data from reactors equipped with the developed device, and verify the
IoT based devices can assist in enhancing the performance measurements.
of the reactors. In large-scale dairy farms, controlling
GHG emission from livestock waste requires implementing II. RELATED WORK
on-farm technologies capable of either mitigating GHG The main challenge in the field of environment and health is
emissions from livestock or capturing GHGs (i.e., biogas) how to quantitatively analyze the data in real-time, and effec-
from waste using anaerobic digester [9], [29], [30]. In these tively communicate, share, and use quantitative knowledge
dairy farms, the captured biogas is converted into a renewable for decision and policy making [36], [37]. As an example,
energy fuel. quantitatively monitoring of GHG emissions from dairy
In livestock sector, which is often decentralized, the waste poses multiple challenges because of the considerable
implementation of improved manure management strategies interfarm variations, climate, and the processes used for
are challenging because of lack of options but important for handling manure. Uncontrolled and unwanted disposal of
mitigating the greenhouse gas emissions. The intensification waste of human origin to air and water is an existential
in animal-agriculture system has led to the increase in manure threat to public, animal, and environmental health [38], and
production and consequential impacts on environment [10], one of the key areas in which a greater emphasis is needed
[13], [31]. A substantial amount of manure is produced in include air pollution. Electrochemical sensors are playing
confined livestock farms, which is considered to be a source crucial role in monitoring concentrations of toxic gases and
of greenhouse gases such as methane (CH4), nitrous oxide air pollutants, and IoT enabled these sensors collect, analyze,
(N2O), and carbon dioxide (CO2) [30], [32], however, often transmit data in real-time, and could assist monitoring and
difficult to measure these. improving the environment [39], [40]. Sensors connected
One of most commonly used technologies for miti- with IoT are used in agriculture, roads, hospitals, and urban
gating methane emissions from dairy waste is anaerobic areas to collect and communicate the information through an
digesters [4], [10], [11], [32]. Anaerobic digesters are internet connection [41], [42]. As an example, IoT network

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was evaluated and tested for precision farming to improve A. ANAEROBIC REACTOR DESIGN
the agricultural productivity [43]. IoT-based sensors are In this study, an anaerobic reactor (2L) was designed to
light weight, and assist in detecting plant diseases [44]. perform the experiments, and anaerobic experiment was
Another field, where these sensors could play a major role conducted in the Department of Population Health and
is waste treatment. Substantial amount of waste is produced Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of
daily in homes, and IOT based systems could be used to California Davis. To design the anaerobic reactor, we used
evaluate the quality and conditions of waste produced in Dionex Eluent Reservoir (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham
homes, and the availability of this information in real-time MA, USA), the reservoir material was plastic, and it was
assist in identifying the waste categories and required included with non-twist stopper, retaining ring, and marked
disposal methods [45]. Further, IoT based devices employed graduation. This reactor was modified by drilling a hole at
for indoor air quality monitoring, and has been used to the upper part of the bottle to insert the temperature sensor
measure CO2 , and other air pollutants such as PM2.5 in probe, and after inserting the sensor, the hole was sealed
real-time to understand the impacts of air quality on public using a super glue (Gorilla Super Glue TM ). This reactor
health [46]. Previous work attempted to develop IoT based has two outlet ports, and one port was used to collect the
device, however, real-time monitoring, and visualization gas produced in the reactor, and another port was used to
requires additional work for monitoring low level of gas sparge the reactor with the nitrogen gas prior to starting the
production [47]. In addition, gas production measurement on experiment in order to create anaerobic environment inside
volumetric basis for small reactors are often challenging [48]. the reactor. After starting the experiment, only gas outlet
There are published work on monitoring biogas content such port was open, and other sparge outlet was closed with a
as methane, carbon, dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide [49], mechanical valve. To fill the reactor with feedstock, the fresh
however, the performance of these systems yet to be tested dairy manure was collected from DaSilva Dairy Farms, LP,
in real world scenarios [48], [50], [51], [52], [53], [54], [55], Escalon, CA, USA. This farm is located in Central Valley
particularly for dairy farms to evaluate the GHG production in California. The feedstock was prepared by mixing 500 gm of
anaerobic digestion process [47], [48], [49], [50], [51], [52], fresh dairy manure with 750 mL of tap water, and the reactor
[53], [54], [55], [56], [57], [58], [59], [60]. was fed with the freshly prepared feedstock. The reactor
was kept in a water shaker bath (New Brunswick Scientific,
III. GHG BIOGAS MONITORING SYSTEM Edison, NJ, USA) to maintain a constant temperature of
The overall design of GHG biogas monitoring system is 40-42 ◦ C inside the reactor (Fig.1). The reactor was shaken
shown in Fig.1, which includes anaerobic reactor, feed- at 100 rpm, and water bath temperature was set to 51.5 ◦ C in
stock, biogas outlet, and monitoring system. To design the order to overcome the temperature gradient due to the reactor
monitoring system, multiple sensors (pressure, temperature, wall.
and flow) were used, and embedded onto a perfboard.
In terms of application, remote users can access real-time data B. HARDWARE OF GHG BIOGAS MONITORING SYSTEM
either in graphical format or download data in CSV format.
The GHG biogas monitoring system (BMS) was designed
A flowchart shown in Fig.2 illustrate the workflow outlining
with capability of monitoring and logging the live data
all the steps starting from conceptualizing the device to
for the pressure, temperature, GHG biogas flow rate, and
completing the anaerobic reactor experiment generating real
cumulative biogas production with the timestamps. Fig.3
world data.
shows the schematic for the GHG biogas monitoring system.
The components name and price of the product is provided
in Table 1. In the system, a 12V DC adapter and 12V to 5V
Buck converter provided a constant and stable 5V DC supply
to the board. The Adafruit’s MPRLS ported pressure sensor
was used for the pressure measurement, which works with
5V DC and transmits data via I2C communication protocol.
The Renesas FS2012-1100-NG Mass Flow Sensor provided
the gas flow rate measurement, which works with 5V DC
and transmits data via I2C communication protocol. A series
connected circuit of 10k NTC Thermistor (Temperature)
probe with a 10k resistor acts as a voltage divider, whose
junction performs as the sensor output, and generates analog
signal for temperature, requiring 3.3V DC. The Hiletgo’s
12V DC self-locking relay module was used as solenoid
valve actuator, which works with momentary pulse of 3.3V
FIGURE 1. Experimental setup with anaerobic reactor and GHG biogas
DC (max.) signal. The solenoid valve works with 5V DC
monitoring system. supply and is in Normally Closed (NC) position. The

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FIGURE 2. A stepwise methodological flowchart for the Biogas Monitoring System development outlining all the steps.

FIGURE 3. Schermatics of GHG biogas monitoring system.

Hiletgo’s 2.8’’ TFT LCD Display is used to display the live widely used as a development board because of its unique
parameters, which works with 5V DC and receives data via capability in communicating with the sensors via digital and
SPI communication protocol. The TFT LCD Display is also analog pins, I2C, SPI and UART communication protocols.
equipped with an integrated SD Card module which works It is equipped with a flash memory for program storage
with 3.3V supply and communicates via SPI protocol. The of 2MB, and it has inbuilt 2.4GHz RF module, which
PNY 16GB SDHC SD Card is the storage device used for can connect to any wireless network (Wi-Fi or Bluetooth),
the live data logging which is inserted into the integrated SD and therefore, no separate wireless module was needed.
card module behind the display. The ESP32 microcontroller On powering the BMS, the software uploaded to the ESP32,
was used as the brain of the whole system. The ESP32 is performs booting of the board, communicates with all the

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TABLE 1. A summary of BMS components and price.

FIGURE 4. Architecture of GHG biogas monitoring system (top) with the

prototype built on perfboard (bottom).
peripheral components for their presence and functionality,
connects to the Wi-Fi for extraction of local date and time,
for flow sensor was calculated to determine the total flow
and subsequently it starts monitoring and logging the live
volume in a time period.
data until powered off. The onboard pneumatics were used
n  
to guide and interface the biogas progression line with X 1
V (mL) = [Flow (i) + Flow (i + 1)] × t ×
the monitoring system. Fig.4 shows the architecture of the 2 × 60
i=0
monitoring system, in which the BMS board and onboard
pneumatics is shown in detailed view with the path for the (1)
gas flow and sensor interfaces. where, V is total volume (L), and flow is gas flow rate (L/min)
at i th time, i is time in second, and t is total time (s).
C. SOFTWARE DESIGN OF MONITORING SYSTEM
In addition to the embedded software design of the BMS, D. IoT FRAMEWORK FOR MONITORING SYSTEM
an algorithmic program was written, and flow chart is The BMS was enabled with the IoT capabilities using
provided in Fig.5. The operating conditions of the solenoid the ThingSpeak IoT platform offered by MathWorks
valve was based on the requirement of the sensors and need (MATLAB ®, Natick, MA, USA) [61]. In order to design
for monitoring parameter values in real-time. The BMS code IoT-enabled GHG biogas monitoring system, the algorithm
was modified to initiate the sensors, display parameter values, (Fig.5) was modified, and the ESP32 code was updated
and initiate the data logging with a sampling rate of 1 Hz. to add the IoT functionality in the monitoring system.
The instructions were provided in the BMS code, and updated The IoT-enabled system provided pressure, temperature, and
code was uploaded to ESP32 for closing and opening of the cumulative biogas flow data on ThingSpeak, and the data
solenoid value. This was needed in order to maintain the was updated every minute on a dedicated channel. In the IoT
minimum pressure needed in anaerobic reactor and perform platform combined algorithm the gas flow rate measurement
the monitoring of biogas flow from the reactor. The code in and cumulative gas production volume calculations was
ESP32 provided the instructions for the starting and stopping prioritized. In order to avoid breaking in data recording, the
of the gas flow from reactor by opening and closing the flow rate and cumulative gas volume measurements were kept
solenoid valve. During operation, if the gas pressure inside in a separate conditional loop, which was not intervened in
the reactor reaches 15.10 psia, the solenoid valve opens and a condition, when the 1 minute interval of IoT update was
when the flow goes lower than 0.05 L/min, then the solenoid surpassed. This priority was set due to the fact that updating
valve is closed to stop the gas release. In addition, program the data in ThingSpeak IoT platform requires few seconds and
calculates cumulative flow and flow rate using the trapezoidal having a separate and dedicated conditional loop avoids data
rule of discrete integration (equation 1). The area under curve loss during data update in the IoT platform. The data for flow

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FIGURE 5. Flow chart for algorithm used for GHG biogas monitoring from anaerobic reactor.

rate and cumulative gas production volume measurement subsequently the data was uploaded on the cloud. Before
along with pressure, temperature, and valve state data with starting the experiment, the IoT functionality of GHG biogas
time stamp were logged every second on the SD card, and monitoring was tested and the system utilized UC Davis

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Wi-Fi for internet access, and finally, the data from the ESP32 A. GAS FLOW AND PRESSURE VALIDATION
was visualized on the ThingSpeak platform. The IoT feature To validate the biogas flow monitoring, a standard mass
is integrated using the HTTPS protocol due to its ease of flow meter by Omega (FMA-1609A Flow Meter), which
programming in Arduino IDE and proven secure connection. can measure the flow ranging from 0 to 50 SLPM was
The BMS was enabled with the IoT capabilities using connected with the outlet of BMS as shown in Fig.6. This
the ThingSpeak IoT platform, however, there are multiple allowed us to compare the gas flow data obtained from
other options such as ThingsBoard [62]. Arduino Cloud [63], the Renesas FS2012-NG-1100 mass flow sensor with the
Blynk IoT [64], AWS IoT [65], and OpenRemote [66]. standard sensor. In this test, a controlled pressurized air
To authors’ knowledge, the most popular platforms which cylinder was connected with the inlet of the BMS, and the
are available with a free version are ThingSpeak and air was released at a preset flow rate. In this approach,
ThingsBoard. ThingsBoard offers an UI for data visualization the known air flow rate was passed through the BMS, and
whereas ThingSpeak offers UI and options for customizing then eventually it was passed through the standard flow
the process. ThingsBoard and ThingSpeak both offers MQTT meter. The flow monitoring and comparison of the flow data
and HTTPS protocols for establishing connection and data by the two methods are shown in Fig.7. Prior to validation,
transfer. the BMS code was modified and was uploaded to ESP32
ThingsBoard offers connections with unlimited number which allowed us to open the solenoid valve continuously
of devices, but ThingSpeak offers only 4 devices on free for the time the BMS was operational. After the BMS
version [67], [68]. Despite ThingSpeak’s ability to connect was turned on with solenoid valve open, the data logging
with fewer number of devices supporting feature, we selected on BMS was started. In addition, Omega’s OM-CP data
this platform primarily due to familiarity and its ease of use logger software was also initiated in an attached laptop to
and interconnectivity with MATLAB. record the data with a sampling rate of 1Hz (1 flow rate
measurement each second). To create the different level of
E. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS flow rate, the regulator attached with pressurized cylinder
In order to evaluate the accuracy of measurements, the was controlled, and the cylinder valve was open to a flow
various data (i.e., pressure, and gas flow) of developed GHG rate of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 SLPM, and corresponding data
biogas monitoring system were compared with the actual was recorded by both devices (i.e., BMS, and Omega flow
lab controlled data, and parameters such as R2 , and Root sensor). Comparison of flow rates of these two sensors are
Mean Square Error (RMSE) were determined to validate the shown in Fig.7, and R2 value of 0.997 and RMSE value of
monitoring performance of the designed IoT-enabled device. 0.09 was obtained indicating the accuracy of the BMS flow
After the data recording, tabular data from SD card were monitoring.
transferred to the JMP, statistical software (SAS Institute,
Cary, NC, USA). The flow measurement recorded by the
Renesas flow sensor used in the BMS was compared with
the measurement by a standard mass and volumetric flow
meter (FMA 1600-Series) by Omega (Omega Engineering
Inc., Norwalk, CT, USA). In order to validate the pressure
measurements of Adafruit MPRLS Ported Pressure Sensor
used in the BMS, we compared the BMS pressure data
with rugged pressure and temperature recorder OM-CP-
PRTEMP1000IS data logger (Omega Engineering Inc.,
Norwalk, CT, USA).

IV. RESULTS
The quantitative measurements obtained by the developed
IOT-enabled GHG biogas monitoring system (i.e. BMS),
and the data consistency and stability was verified by
multiple approaches. The first approach was to validate the
measurements by the sensor used in the BMS with the
standard monitoring devices such as pressure transducer,
and mass flow meter by Omega (Omega Engineering Inc.,
Norwalk, CT, USA). In the second approach, we designed
the experiment, and used the IoT enabled BMS under
real-world conditions to monitor the pressure, temperature,
and gas production for over 20 days for testing the long FIGURE 6. Schematic of gas flow monitoring by two methods. Top
sketches shows BMS connected with pressurized cylinder and mass flow
term performance and activity without interrupting the sensor, and bottom image shows the data logging and real-time
experiments. measurement by the two methods.

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FIGURE 9. Pressure validation by two methods. The pressure data

FIGURE 7. Gas flow validation. Top figure shows the gas flow data with
between Omega pressure sensor and BMS pressure sensor with time is
time, and bottom figure shows the comparison between standard sensor
shown (top) indicating the high level of similarities in the measurements.
data (Omega Sensor) and the data from the BMS sensor.
Bottom figure showed the comparison of pressure and statistical values
of the comparison.

of this sensor were validated against the measurement

by Omega’s OM-CP-PRETEMP1000IS temperature and
pressure sensor and data logger. The schematic of pressure
validation process is shown in Fig.8. The Adafruit’s pressure
sensor range was 0 – 25 psia (absolute pressure in psi),
and it delivers output in digital form, which can be read
through I2C communication protocol. The Omega’s pressure
sensor provides the output in analog form and Omega’s
OM-CP-Data Logger Software logs and plot the real-time
data (Fig.8 & Fig.9). The setup for pressure validation was
similar to the flow sensor validation, however, the monitoring
sensors were different. The BMS code was modified to
open the solenoid valve during validation process. After the
setup was ready, the validation testing was initiated with the
BMS turned on and data logging was started with sampling
rate of 1Hz for Adafruit’s pressure sensor. The OM-CP
Data logger was also initiated to record the pressure data
at sampling rate of 1Hz using Omega’s pressure sensor.
Multiple levels of pressure (15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20 psia)
was created by regulating the control valve of pressurized
FIGURE 8. Pressure monitoring. Top sketch shows BMS connected with
Omega pressure sensor and pressurized cylinder. Flow from the cylinder cylinder, and subsequently observation from both the sensors
passed through the BMS sensor and Omega sensor. Bottom figure shows were compared and results are shown in Fig.9. Results
the real-time pressure monitoring by two sensor methods.
showed the well matched observations from both the sensors,
and comparison of results resulted R2 and RMSE values of
In the BMS, Adafruit’s MPRLS Ported Pressure Sensor 0.999 and 0.05, respectively, indicating the accuracy of the
was used for pressure measurement, and the measurements BMS for pressure monitoring.

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B. SIMULATION FOR VALVE, AND TEMPERATURE

In order to test the performance of valve state, and
corresponding pressure, temperature, and flow, we passed the
pressurized air through BMS, and corresponding changes in
valve state, pressure, temperature, and flow was recorded.
This simulation was performed to evaluate the BMS opera-
tion in the real-world conditions, where pressure condition
varies and valve opening and closing are crucial in order to
maintain a minimum pressure in the reactor and measure the
cumulative gas production. The data plot for this simulation
is shown in Fig.10.
Pressure plot shows the reduction in pressure when the
valve was opened (valve open at 1, and close at 0). The
pressure buildup started at valve’s ‘‘0’’ position, and pressure
drop occurred at valve’s ‘‘1’’ position. Consequential change
in flow rate, and cumulative gas release is shown (Fig.10).
Once pressure reached to 17.0 psi (upper pressure limit)
solenoid valve opens, and after pressure drops to 15.0 psi
(lower pressure limit) the solenoid valve closes. The pressure
conditions for opening and closing the valve was set in
algorithm, and these conditions can be changed easily by
modifying the algorithm shown in Fig.5.
These simulations were performed in room temperature
conditions, and the temperature graph (Fig.10) shows that
the temperature stays roughly between 21.0 ◦ C to 23.0 ◦ C
(about room temperature). After the gas passes through
the flow sensor, flow rate is recorded, and logged with
timestamp. As expected, the flow rate is highest at the time
of valve opening and flow rate drops with time and reaches
to 1.25 SLPM (the lower flow rate which is also in ‘and’
condition with lower pressure limit for valve close condition)
before the solenoid valve gets closed. The cumulative gas
volume released through BMS sensor vs. time is shown in
Fig.10. This simulation was performed for 300 seconds, and
about 6000 mL of gas was released, and flow rate varied
between 1 and 3 L/min. These results showed that the BMS
system performed as expected, and it was ready to be used in
the real-world application.

C. APPLICATION FOR ANAEROBIC REACTORS

In this experiment, an anaerobic reactor was designed with
an ability to store GHG biogas in head space, temperature
sensor, and it was equipped with an outlet port for gas
flow/release. The reactor setup is shown in Fig.1, and
feedstock preparation and feeding of the reactor is described
in section III under anaerobic reactor design. The code in
ESP32 was updated with modifications for the gas release and
gas stop threshold values. For the gas release, the conditions
were set to open the solenoid valve, when the pressure in the
reactor vessel reaches 15.10 psia. After the valve was opened,
the biogas produced in the reactor was passed through the FIGURE 10. Valve state (open and close) and regulation of pressure,
BMS device, and it resulted in low pressure in reactor. The temperature, flow, and cumulative gas flow.

valve was closed with the condition when the flow rate of
biogas reaches lower than 0.05 L/min. This condition was set and subsequently the gas flow rate drops. In addition to gas
to maintain a minimum pressure in the reactor. As the gas flow rate measurement, the cumulative gas production in
starts to flow, initially the gas flow rate will give a spike, reactor was also recorded. The cumulative gas production

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FIGURE 12. Magnified view for plots of pressure, temperature, flow, and
cumulative biogas production measurements in anaerobic reactor.
FIGURE 11. Temperature, pressure, flow, and cumulative biogas
production measurements in anaerobic reactor.
the anaerobic reactor was operated for 20 days, and pressure,
was estimated from the gas flow rate values and total time temperature, flow rate, and cumulative gas production was
of flow using equation 1. The calculations were based on the recorded continuously on real-time (Fig.11). This experiment
trapezoidal rule of discrete integration. In this experiment, was performed in constant temperature conditions as shown

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FIGURE 13. Temperature, pressure, flow, and cumulative biogas production data visualization in an IoT platform. The anaerobic experiment was
carried out for 20 days, and the data were monitored remotely through IoT platform.

in Fig.11. In the starting of the experiment, where reactor was D. APPLICATION IoT PLATEFORM
plated in water bath, the temperature started to rise from room The IoT platform was used to monitor and record the
temperature to roughly around 45 ◦ C. Temperature of the anaerobic reactor experiment remotely. The output of data
reactor oscillated roughly between 35-43 ◦ C depending on the in ThingSpeak IoT platform is shown in Fig.13. The IoT
water level in the water bath which is maintained manually by platform’s webpage view shows the changes in total gas
refilling the shaker once every day. Water bath uses electric production, pressure, and temperature. This IoT platform
heating system to maintain the desired temperature of water allowed the monitoring of the performance of the reactor
in the bath. Parameters were recorded in SD card every five remotely regardless of the location through the internet, and
minutes when the valve was closed and every second when recorded data can be downloaded from ThingSpeak platform
the valve was open. Fig.12 shows a magnified view of the in CSV format. The platform visualized the time series data,
plots from Fig.12. The magnified version shows the plot for and time steps (parameters vs. time) for measurement are
the day March 8th , 2024, from time 2:50 PM to 4:13 PM. changeable depending on the monitoring requirement. Fig.13

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shows the pressure vs. time and temperature vs. time plots. devices [82]. Similarly, another study was performed to
The interval of the measurement is changeable depending analyze the biogas production in anaerobic reactor of dairy
on the need of measurement. For the IoT based monitoring, manure [83], however, the conventional methods were used
the algorithm was slightly modified to record pressure, for monitoring biogas, which are prone to produce error
temperature, and the cumulative gas production volume every while estimating biogas production potential, particularly
minute. Whereas the data logging in local SD card was done when the biogas production is low. Also, anaerobic reactors
every 5 minutes when the solenoid valve is closed and every are a popular technique in wastewater treatment, and the
second when the solenoid valve is open. Through SD card, concept built here can also be extended with desired
data can be downloaded in a local computer/desktop. To start modifications to implement in wastewater treatment plants
the IoT functionality of the BMS, the Wi-Fi was connected for GHG monitoring and evaluation [84], [85]. There are
for internet access, which allowed to connect the BMS numerous studies available that have focused on evaluating
with the ThingSpeak platform from the ESP32. Additional the biogas production potential from different type of waste
information about the details of the IoT platform is described material, determining the retention time and temperature for
in Section III under IoT framework. optimal gas production, and calculating the organic matter
degradation, however, there are very limited information in
V. DISCUSSIONS terms of designing the IoT based devices for monitoring
In animal-agriculture system, an enormous amount of manure GHG biogas production in real-time. Authors anticipate that
is produced, and the excess of manure production in livestock the novel idea and the newly designed system proposed
farms is responsible for GHG biogas emissions. The GHG here will help in deriving the improved control methods for
emissions from livestock waste such as dairy manure is mitigating and evaluating the GHG biogas emissions from
significant, and controlling it requires improved technology animal agriculture system as the proposed system is very
to mitigate and monitor the GHG emissions. In order to precise and have extendable capabilities in reference to both
reduce the GHG emissions from livestock manure, anaerobic hardware and software. This flexibility of the device makes
reactors are often used, which traps the GHG biogas produced it modifiable for several other discussed applications along
from manure, and use this biogas as a renewable energy with scalability options. The key findings of this research
source. This biogas from animal waste contains methane from includes: 1) the development of a small and inexpensive
70-90% depending on the condition of the reactors, and type GHG monitoring device capable of low and high levels of
of feedstock. As many of these reactors are located in remote GHG emissions; 2) enabling the device to work efficiently
and underdeveloped regions, the monitoring and evaluation on IoT platforms; and 3) the development of algorithm for
of the performance of the reactors are often challenging, and controlling the device, data stamping, and data storage and
any improved ability to monitor these reactors remotely will retrieval.
allow to monitor, operate, and evaluate the GHG emission VI. FUTURE DIRECTIONS
control. The IoT-enabled GHG biogas flow monitoring The findings of this research can be further investigated by
devices could play a crucial role, when it comes to monitoring scaling up the IoT enabled device and deploying it in a
GHG emissions under various environmental conditions full scale waste treatment facility such as WWTP and dairy
located remotely. Currently, a substantial emphasis has digesters. The data generated from treatment systems, which
been given for the application of IoT based devices for are operated under various loading rates (high solid and low
agriculture [33], [34], [35]. Previous research have used IoT solid conditions) and various types of waste, will provide
potential for air quality monitoring [69], [70], [71], water opportunities to optimize the device and algorithm further.
quality monitoring [72], [73], [74], [75], health monitor- Furthermore, in response to current emphasize on GHG
ing [76], and other environmental and agricultural parameters emission reduction from livestock waste, the application of
monitoring and applications [77], [78], [79], [80], [81]. The such devices in waste treatment facilities in dairy farms will
unique advantage of IoT platforms is that it facilitates real- provide more comprehensive data containing carbon dioxide,
time data, provide capabilities for remote monitoring, data methane, and nitrous oxide emissions from various types of
acquisition, and remote control of the systems. The cost animal waste treatment facilities and processes.
effective IoT-enabled devices for monitoring GHG biogas
production in dairy farms, however, is yet to be envisioned VII. CONCLUSION
and validated, particularly for the conditions, when low This research developed a novel IoT-enabled device for mon-
level of biogas is produced and emitted continuously. itoring GHG emissions in anaerobic reactors. The proposed
In general, for monitoring the biogas production, often GHG monitoring device is embedded with multiple sensors
water displacement and conventional gas flow monitoring including temperature and pressure sensors for instantaneous
system is used, which does not provide the real-time data, monitoring of various levels (small-volume to high-volume)
and are prone to cause error in monitoring. For example, of GHG emissions. In addition, it can record continuously
in anaerobic reactor experiment, the net biogas production time-stamped data of temperature, pressure, GHG emissions,
was monitored only at the end of the experiment mainly which are crucial to evaluate and optimize the performance
due to the lack of cost-effective real-time biogas monitoring of the anaerobic reactors and determine the potential of

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT Apr. 2015.
The authors would like to thank Dennis DaSilva and [17] K. Rypdal and W. Winiwarter, ‘‘Uncertainties in greenhouse gas emission
inventories—Evaluation, comparability and implications,’’ Environ. Sci.
Tracee DaSilva, and DaSilva Dairy Farms, LP, Escalon for Policy, vol. 4, nos. 2–3, pp. 107–116, Apr. 2001.
facilitating the dairy farm visit in Escalon, and livestock waste [18] J. L. Campos, D. Valenzuela-Heredia, A. Pedrouso, A. Val del Río,
collection to operate the experimental anaerobic reactor. M. Belmonte, and A. Mosquera-Corral, ‘‘Greenhouse gases emissions
from wastewater treatment plants: Minimization, treatment, and preven-
They also thanks to Prachi (UC Davis graduate student) for tion,’’ J. Chem., vol. 2016, no. 1, 2016, Art. no. 3796352.
assisting in performing the anaerobic experiments. Further, [19] D. Kyung, M. Kim, J. Chang, and W. Lee, ‘‘Estimation of greenhouse gas
they would like to acknowledge the Division of Agriculture emissions from a hybrid wastewater treatment plant,’’ J. Cleaner Prod.,
vol. 95, pp. 117–123, May 2015.
and Natural Resources (ANR) and the School of Veterinary
[20] V. Parravicini, K. Svardal, and J. Krampe, ‘‘Greenhouse gas emissions
Medicine Extension, University of California, Davis for from wastewater treatment plants,’’ Energy Procedia, vol. 97, pp. 246–253,
supporting this work. Nov. 2016.
[21] Ö. Demir and P. Yapıcıoǧlu, ‘‘Investigation of GHG emission sources
COMPETING INTERESTS and reducing GHG emissions in a municipal wastewater treatment plant,’’
Greenhouse Gases, Sci. Technol., vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 948–964, Oct. 2019.
The author declares no competing interests.
[22] H. Yoshida, J. Mønster, and C. Scheutz, ‘‘Plant-integrated measurement of
greenhouse gas emissions from a municipal wastewater treatment plant,’’
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[74] M. Kumar, T. Singh, M. K. Maurya, A. Shivhare, A. Raut, and OMEED MOMENI (Senior Member, IEEE)
P. K. Singh, ‘‘Quality assessment and monitoring of river water using IoT received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering
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groundwater resources with energy harvesting integration,’’ IEEE Access, California, Los Angeles, CA, USA, in 2006, and
vol. 9, pp. 128417–128433, 2021. the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from
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Computer Engineering Department, University of
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from landfills between the United States and China and their behind driving in 2015, the Professor of the Year 2014 by IEEE at UC Davis, the Best Ph.D.
forces,’’ Fundam. Res., Aug. 2022. Thesis Award from the Cornell ECE Department, in 2011, the Outstanding
[80] P. Garg, P. Khaparde, K. S. Patle, C. Bhaliya, A. Kumar, M. V. Joshi, and Graduate Award from the Association of Professors and Scholars of Iranian
V. S. Palaparthy, ‘‘Environmental and soil parameters for germination of Heritage (APSIH), in 2011, the Best Student Paper Award at the IEEE
leaf spot disease in the groundnut plant using IoT-enabled sensor system,’’ Workshop on Microwave Passive Circuits and Filters, in 2010, the Cornell
IEEE Sensors Lett., vol. 7, no. 12, pp. 1–4, Dec. 2023. University Jacob’s Fellowship, in 2007, and the NASA-JPL Fellowship,
[81] S. N. Daskalakis, G. Goussetis, S. D. Assimonis, M. M. Tentzeris, in 2003.
and A. Georgiadis, ‘‘A uW backscatter-morse-leaf sensor for low-power
agricultural wireless sensor networks,’’ IEEE Sensors J., vol. 18, no. 19,
pp. 7889–7898, Oct. 2018.
[82] C. Rico, J. L. Rico, I. Tejero, N. Muñoz, and B. Gómez, ‘‘Anaerobic
digestion of the liquid fraction of dairy manure in pilot plant for biogas
production: Residual methane yield of digestate,’’ Waste Manage., vol. 31,
nos. 9–10, pp. 2167–2173, Sep. 2011.
[83] C. F. Matos, J. L. Paes, É. F. M. Pinheiro, and D. V. B. D. Campos, ‘‘Biogas
production from dairy cattle manure, under organic and conventional
production systems,’’ Engenharia Agrícola, vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 1081–1090,
Dec. 2017.
[84] A. van Haandel, M. T. Kato, P. F. F. Cavalcanti, and L. Florencio, PRAMOD PANDEY (Member, IEEE) received
‘‘Anaerobic reactor design concepts for the treatment of domestic the B.S. degree in agricultural engineering from
wastewater,’’ Rev. Environ. Sci. Bio/Technol., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 21–38, Mahatma Gandhi Gramodya University, Chi-
Feb. 2006. trakoot, India, in 2000, the M.Tech. degree in
[85] Y. Shen, J. L. Linville, M. Urgun-Demirtas, M. M. Mintz, and agricultural and food engineering from Indian
S. W. Snyder, ‘‘An overview of biogas production and utilization at Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India, in 2003,
full-scale wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the United States: the M.S. degree in biological system engineering
Challenges and opportunities towards energy-neutral WWTPs,’’ Renew. from Washington State University, Pullman, WA,
Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 50, pp. 346–362, Oct. 2015. USA, in 2007, and the Ph.D. degree from the
Department of Biological System Engineering,
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA. From 2008 to 2009, he was a Project
Officer with the Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology, Kharagpur, India. From 2007 to 2009, he was a Hydrological
ADITYA PANDEY (Senior Member, IEEE) Modeler with Texas A&M Agrilife, Texas A&M University, College Station,
received the B.Tech. degree in electrical engineer- TX, USA. He joined the faculty of the Population Health and Reproduction
ing from the Motilal Nehru National Institute of Department, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis,
Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, in 2013. He is a recipient of the Outstanding Ph.D. Graduate Student Award
India, in 2021. He is currently pursuing the from Iowa State University, in 2012, and the Best M.S. Thesis Award from
M.S. degree with the Electrical and Computer Indian National Academy of Engineering, India, in 2004. He is a recipient of
Engineering Department, University of California the 2024 Academic Federation Excellence in Research Award, University
at Davis, USA. From 2021 to 2022, he was a of California Davis, and the 2018 California Governor’s Environmental
Testing and Commissioning Engineer on Metro and Economic Leadership Award (GEELA) Award, California’s highest
Rail Project with ALSTOM, India. Since 2022, environmental honor.
he has been a Graduate Student Researcher (GSR).

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