MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

Youngwoo Nam, Ph.D.

​ Department of Smart Drone Engineering
Graduate School of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering
Korea Aerospace University

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 Chapter #03 - Torsion

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 3. Torsion
3-1 Introduction

Torsion
− Torsion: Twisting of a straight bar when it is loaded by moments, thereby
producing rotations about the longitudinal axis of the bar
− Couple: A pair of forces that tend to twist the bar about its longitudinal axis
− Moment of a Couple: The product of one of the forces and the perpendicular
distance between the lines of action of the forces
− Torques: Moments that produce the twisting of a bar or shaft

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 3. Torsion
3-2 Torsion Deformation of a Circular Bar

Pure Torsion
− Since every cross-section of the bar is identical and since every cross-section
is subjected to the same internal torque T, the bar is in pure torsion
− The cross-section of the bar does not change in shape
(All cross-section remain plane and circular, and raii remain straight)
− Angle of Twist– Torque on a shaft causes one end to rotate through a small
angle ϕ with respect to the opposite end. Also called “angle of rotation”
− Pure Shear: Subjected to Shear strain but no Normal strain

Figure 3-1 Deformation of a circular bar in pure torsion -4-

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 3. Torsion
3-2 Torsion Deformation of a Circular Bar

Shear Strain 𝛾
− The decrease in the angle at point a (decrease in ∠ bad)
𝑏𝑏
𝛾 ≅ tan𝛾 =
𝑎𝑏
– Relationship between shear strain and angle of twist

= 𝑟𝜃

Figure 3-4 Deformation of an element of length dx cut from a bar in torsion -5-
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 3. Torsion
3-2 Torsion Deformation of a Circular Bar

Rate of Twist (angle of twist per unit length)

− The rate of change: 𝜃 ≡ =

− Shear strain at the outer surface: 𝛾 ≅ tan𝛾 = = = 𝑟𝜃

− Therefore, for pure torsion only, the result is 𝛾 = 𝑟𝜃 =

Shear Strains within the Bar:

𝜌 ρ = internal radius
𝛾 = 𝜌𝜃 = 𝛾 r = outside radius
𝑟
Shear Strains in Circular Tubes:

𝑟𝜙 𝑟 𝑟𝜙 𝑟 = inner radius
𝛾 = ,𝛾 = 𝛾 = 𝑟 = outer radius
𝐿 𝑟 𝐿

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 3. Torsion
3-3 Circular Bars of Linearly Elastic Materials

Recall Hooke’s Law in Shear:

𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾
𝐺: the shear modulus of elasticity
𝛾: the shear strain
Substituting shear strain equations yields:
𝜌
𝜏 = 𝐺𝑟𝜃 𝜏 = 𝐺𝜌𝜃 = 𝜏
𝑟
vary linearly with distance from the center
𝜏 = shear stress at the outer surface

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 3. Torsion
3-3 Circular Bars of Linearly Elastic Materials

The Torsion Form

− The element moment as: 𝑑𝑀 = 𝜏𝜌𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌 𝑑𝐴
− The resultant moment is the summation over the entire cross-section area of all
such elemental moment:
𝜏 𝜏
𝑇 = 𝑑𝑀 = 𝜌 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼
𝑟 𝑟

− The polar moment of inertia of the circular cross section

𝐼 ≡ ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝐴
− The maximum shear stress (Torsion Formula)
Tr
 max 
Ip
where 𝐼 is the polar moment of inertia for a circle
For a solid circular cross section Shear stress at distance 𝜌 from the
center of the bar
 r4 d4 16𝑇 𝜌 𝑇𝜌
Ip   𝜏 = 𝜏= 𝜏 =
2 32 𝜋𝑑 𝑟 𝐼
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 3. Torsion
3-3 Circular Bars of Linearly Elastic Materials

Angle of Twist
− From the torsion formula : 𝜃 =

− Angle of twist for pure torsion , 𝜙 = 𝜃𝐿 =

− Torsional Stiffness: 𝑘 =

− Torsional Flexibility: 𝑓 =

Circular Tubes
− The polar moment of inertia is modified to account for the
hollow center of the circular tube:
𝐼 = (𝑟 − 𝑟 ) = (𝑑 − 𝑑 ) = (4𝑟 + 𝑡 ) = (𝑑 + 𝑡 )
Here, 𝑟 = (𝑟 + 𝑟 )⁄2 , 𝑑 = (𝑑 + 𝑑 )⁄2 , 𝑡 = 𝑟 − 𝑟
− If the tube is relatively thin so that the wall thickness t is
small compared to the average radius, an approximate
formula can be used:
If 𝑡 ≪ 𝑟, neglect t2  𝐼 ≈ 2𝜋𝑟 𝑡 =
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 3. Torsion
3-3 Circular Bars of Linearly Elastic Materials

Reminders
− The Torsion Formula Eq. 3-13 may be used for a CIRCULAR cross-sectional bar
of a linearly elastic materials
− A hollow bar is more efficient in the use of material than is a solid bar
− The thickness of a circular tube must be large enough to prevent wrinkling of
buckling of the wall of the tubes

Limitations
– The equations derived in this section are limited to bars of circular cross section
(either solid or hollow) behaving in a linearly elastic manner
– No stress concentrations
– The equations for the circular bars and tubes cannot be used for bar of other
shapes such as rectangular bars and bars having I-shaped cross section
 Their cross sections do not remain plane and their maximum stress are not located at the farthest
distances from the midpoint of the cross sections

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 3. Torsion
3-3 Circular Bars of Linearly Elastic Materials

Example 3-1

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 3. Torsion
3-4 Non-Uniform Torsion

Bar consisting of prismatic segments

− Prismatic segments with constant torque in each
segment
− Determine the magnitude and direction of the internal
torque for each segment through the “cut” method

− Sign Convention
− Vector Points Away: Positive (+)
− Vector Points Inwards: Negative (-)

− Angle of Twist for a Segmented Shaft:

n n
Ti Li
  1  2  ...  n or    i 
i 1 i 1 Gi ( I p )i

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 3. Torsion
3-4 Non-Uniform Torsion

Bar with continuously varying cross sections

and constant torque
− The differential angle of ration d for this
element is

𝑑𝜙 =
( )

− The angle of twist for the entire bar is the

summation of the differential angle of ration:

𝑇(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝜙= 𝑑𝜙 =
𝐺𝐼 (𝑥 )

− For the constant torque

𝑇(𝑥)
𝜙= 𝑑𝑥
𝐺𝐼 (𝑥 )
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 3. Torsion
3-4 Non-Uniform Torsion

Example 3-4

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 3. Torsion
3-4 Non-Uniform Torsion

Example 3-4

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 3. Torsion
3-5 Stresses and Strains in Pure Shear

Stresses on Inclined Planes

− Pure Shear: the only stresses acting on an element
are shear stresses
− Sign Convention
Positive Face:
− Positive if shear stress acts in the positive direction of a
coordinate axis
− Negative if shear stress acts in the negative direction of a
coordinate axis
Negative Face:
− Positive if shear stress acts in a negative direction of a
coordinate axis
− Negative if shear stress acts in a positive direction of a
coordinate axis

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 3. Torsion
3-5 Stresses and Strains in Pure Shear

Stresses on Inclined Planes

− Two equations of equilibrium for the triangular element:
𝜎 − direction: 𝜎 𝐴 sec𝜃 = 𝜏𝐴 sin𝜃 + 𝜏𝐴 tan𝜃cos𝜃
 −direction: : 𝜏 𝐴 sec𝜃 = 𝜏𝐴 cos𝜃 − 𝜏𝐴 tan𝜃sin𝜃

− The normal and shear stresses actin on inclined plane

– Inclined Normal Stress: 𝜎 = 𝜏sin2𝜃 θ = angle of face to the horizontal
– Inclined Shear Stress: 𝜏 = 𝜏cos2𝜃 τ = ordinary shear stresses

− Plot of normal stresses 𝜎 and shear stresses  versus angel 𝜃 of the inclined
plane

𝜃 = 0° 𝜃 = 45° 𝜃 = −45° 𝜃 = 90°

𝜎 0 𝜏(max) -𝜏 0
𝜏 𝜏(max) 0 0 𝜏(max)

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 3. Torsion
3-5 Stresses and Strains in Pure Shear

Stresses on Inclined Planes

− Stress elements oriented at 𝜃 = 0 and 𝜃 = 45° for pure shear

Inclined Shear Stress:

Maximum value at θ=0° and 90°
Zero at θ=±45°

− Torsion failure of a brittle material by tension cracking along a 45° helical surface

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 3. Torsion
3-5 Stresses and Strains in Pure Shear

Stresses in Pure Shear

− By Hook’s law in shear: 𝛾 =
− Shear Distortion: the change in shape of the element under pure shear

− Strain
By tensile stress
=

By compression stress

( )
−𝜈 =

Total strain

𝜏 𝜈𝜏 𝜏 𝛾
𝜀 = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 = + = (1 + 𝜈) = -19-
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 3. Torsion
3-6 Relationship Between Moduli of Elasticity E and G
− After the distortion by shear stress
𝐿 = 2ℎ(1 + 𝜀 )
− Now use the law of cosine for triangle abd to get
(∡𝑏𝑎𝑑 = + 𝛾): 𝐿 = ℎ + ℎ − 2ℎ cos +𝛾

− Substitute for 𝐿 from simplify to get

1+𝜀 = 1 − cos +𝛾

1 + 2𝜀 +𝜀 = 1 + sin𝛾 ≈ 1 + 𝛾

− 𝛾 << 1, then

𝜀 = (⸪ 𝜀 ≈ 0)= , Eq (3.32) 𝜀 = 1+𝛾

− Apply geometric relationships, Hooke’s law, and strain identities
Therefore, Shear Modulus: 𝐺 = ( )
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 3. Torsion
3-6 Relationship Between Moduli of Elasticity E and G

Example 3-6

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 3. Torsion
3-6 Relationship Between Moduli of Elasticity E and G

Example 3-6

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 3. Torsion
3-6 Relationship Between Moduli of Elasticity E and G

Example 3-6

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 3. Torsion
3-7 Transmission of Power by Circular Shafts

Circular shaft
− Transmitting mechanical power from one device to another
− Mechanical power
 Torque T at an angular speed 𝜔

– The work done by a constant torque

 W= T𝜓 (where, 𝜓 is the angle of rotation)

− Power
 The rate at which work is done

𝑃= =𝑇 = 𝑇𝜔
 Unit : W (watt) in SI and ft-lb/sec in USCS

 Otherwise, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
 Then, P = 2𝜋𝑓𝑇

 Or (n=rpm) P= n = 60 f -24-
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 3. Torsion
3-7 Transmission of Power by Circular Shafts

Example 3-7

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 3. Torsion
3-7 Transmission of Power by Circular Shafts

Example 3-7

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 3. Torsion
3-7 Transmission of Power by Circular Shafts

Example 3-8

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 3. Torsion
3-7 Transmission of Power by Circular Shafts

Example 3-8

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 3. Torsion
3-8 Statically Indeterminate Torsional Members

Circular shaft
− Statically indeterminate torsional members (such as the one pictured) need
additional equations to solve for the unknown torques
− General Process
– Step 1: Apply equations of equilibrium

𝑇 +𝑇 =𝑇
– Step 2: Formulate equations of compatibility

𝜙 =𝜙
– Step 3: Apply torque-displacement relations

𝜙 = 𝜙 =

– Step 4: Solve the resulting system of equations

𝑇 =𝑇 ,𝑇 =𝑇
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 3. Torsion
3-7 Transmission of Power by Circular Shafts

Example 3-9

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 3. Torsion
3-7 Transmission of Power by Circular Shafts

Example 3-9

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 3. Torsion
3-7 Transmission of Power by Circular Shafts

Example 3-9

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 3. Torsion
3-9 Strain Energy in Torsion and Pure Shear

Prismatic bar in pure torsion

− Torsional strain energy is equivalent to the
work done by the torque as it rotates
through some angle
− This is equivalent to the area below the
torque-rotation line (see right image)
− Substituting for ϕ or for T one achieves:

𝑇𝜙 𝑇 𝐿 𝐺𝐼 𝜙
𝑈=𝑊= = 𝑈=
2 2𝐺𝐼 2𝐿

Units : J (Newton meter) in SI, in-lb (inch-pound) in USCS

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 3. Torsion
3-9 Strain Energy in Torsion and Pure Shear

Non-uniform torsion
− Case 1: the strain energy of the bar consisting of
segment:

𝑈=∑ 𝑈 =

Case 2: the strain energy of the non-uniform bar:

( ) ( )
𝑑𝑈 = ( )
𝑈= ( )

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 3. Torsion
3-9 Strain Energy in Torsion and Pure Shear

Strain-Energy Density in Pure Shear

− The shear forces: 𝑉 = 𝜏ℎ𝑡

− The displacement 𝛿 is equal to the product of
the shear strain 𝛾 and the vertical dimension of
the element: 𝛿 = ℎtan𝛾 ≈ ℎ𝛾

− The strain energy: 𝑈 = 𝑊 = =

− The strain energy density in pure shear:

𝑈 𝜏𝛾 𝜏 𝐺𝛾
𝑢= = = =
ℎ 𝑡 2 2𝐺 2

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 3. Torsion
3-9 Strain Energy in Torsion and Pure Shear
Example 3-10

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 3. Torsion
3-9 Strain Energy in Torsion and Pure Shear
Example 3-10

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 3. Torsion
3-9 Strain Energy in Torsion and Pure Shear
Example 3-11

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 3. Torsion
3-9 Strain Energy in Torsion and Pure Shear
Example 3-11

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 3. Torsion
3-9 Strain Energy in Torsion and Pure Shear
Example 3-12

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 3. Torsion
3-9 Strain Energy in Torsion and Pure Shear
Example 3-12

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 3. Torsion
3-10 Torsion of Noncircular Prismatic Shafts

Shaft with Circular cross section

− No Warping when torsional moments are applied

− Plane cross sections remain plane

Shaft with Noncircular cross section

− Warping under the action of torsional moments

− This warping alters the shear stress and strain distributions

− Torsion formular and Torque-displacement

Relation are not available

− Theory of elasticity, FEM

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 3. Torsion
3-10 Torsion of Noncircular Prismatic Shafts

Shear Stress Distribution and Angle of Twist

− Location and value of the maximum shear stress
− Torsional rigidity GJ
− Angle of twist of a prismatic bar of length L
Elliptical Cross Section
− Maximum shear stress at the ends of the minor axis

2𝑇
𝜏 =
𝜋𝑎𝑏

− Angle of twist

𝑇𝐿
𝜙= 𝐽 = , If a=b=r  𝐽 = =𝐼
𝐺𝐽

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 3. Torsion
3-11 Thin-Wall Tubes

Shear Stresses and Shear Flow

− Previous formulae are not applicable to noncircular, thin-walled members
− In general, stresses act parallel to the boundaries of a given cross section
− Assuming a thin wall, the shear stress is assumed to be constant across the
thickness of the tube provided the thickness itself is constant as well
− Shear Flow: 𝑓 = 𝜏𝑡 = constant
− the product of the shear stress and tube thickness

Considering a rectangular element abcd

𝐹 = 𝜏 𝑡 𝑑𝑥, 𝐹 = 𝜏 𝑡 𝑑𝑥

𝜏 𝑡 =𝜏 𝑡

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 3. Torsion
3-11 Thin-Wall Tubes

Torsion Formula for Thin Walled Tubes

− Considering an element of area of length ds and thickness t
− The moment of total shear force acting on the element about any point O

𝑑𝑇 = 𝑟𝑓 𝑑𝑠
− The total Shear Force

𝑇=𝑓 𝑟 𝑑𝑠

− From geometric interpretation

∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝑠 = 2𝑓𝐴

− Shear Flow
𝑓= = 𝜏𝑡

𝑇
− There, the torsion formular for thin-walled tubes 𝜏 =
2𝑡𝐴 -45-
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 3. Torsion
3-11 Thin-Wall Tubes

Torsion Formula for Thin Walled Tubes

− Thin-walled circular tube
Area enclosed by the median line is
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟
and therefore the shear stress is

𝜏=

− Thin-walled circular tube

The area within the median line is
𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ
The shear stresses in the vertical and horizontal sides

𝜏vert = 𝜏horiz =

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 3. Torsion
3-11 Thin-Wall Tubes

Strain Energy and Torsion Constant

− Strain energy density: 𝑈 = 𝜏 ⁄2 𝐺
− Strain energy of element abcd

𝑑𝑈 = 𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
− Total strain energy of the tube

𝑈 = ∫ 𝑑𝑈 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =

− Substitute for the shear flow from 𝑓 =

𝑈=

− Torsion constant (denoted by the letter J) is defined as

𝐽≡
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 3. Torsion
3-11 Thin-Wall Tubes

Strain Energy and Torsion Constant

− Strain energy
Where: 𝐽 ≡ 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 , 𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝐽 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑡
𝑈=
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 ℎ 𝑏
− In the special case of a cross section having =2 +2 =2 +
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
constant thickness t, the expression for J simplifies
to 𝐽 = 4𝑡 𝐴 ⁄𝐿
− Thin-wall circular tube 𝐽 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑡

− Thin-wall rectangular tube 𝐽 ≡ =

Angle of twist
T 2L
− Strain Energy for Thin Walled Tubes: 𝑊 = U
2GJ

TL
− Angle of twist 𝜙 for a thin-walled tube:   GJ = torsional rigidity
GJ
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 3. Torsion
3-11 Thin-Wall Tubes

Example 3-15

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 3. Torsion
3-11 Thin-Wall Tubes

Example 3-15

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 3. Torsion
3-11 Thin-Wall Tubes

Example 3-15

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 3. Torsion
3-12 Stress Concentrations in Torsion

Stress Concentrations in Torsion

− Stress concentration factors previously
discussed have been developed for various
bar geometries under torsion as well

− Values for K have been graphed as a

function of the geometry of the bar

− For a stepped shaft, K is plotted as the

function of the ratio of diameters to the
radius of the fillet

 max  K nom

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