Module – 2: Solar Power Plants

Solar Radiation Measurements

• It is important to measure solar radiation, owing to the
increasing number of solar heating and cooling
applications, and the necessity for accurate solar
radiation data to predict performance.
• Types of Solar Radiation measuring devices
1.Pyranometer
2.Pyrheliometer
3.Sunshine recorders
 Pyranometer
• It is type of actinometer (an instrument for
measuring the intensity of radiation) used
to measure global solar irradiance on a
planar surface.
• It is a sensor that is designed to measure
the solar radiation flux density from field
of view of 180 degree.
• The range of solar radiation extends
between 300 & 2800 nm
• Applications:
1. Climatological & Meteorological studies.
2. Solar intensity data can be measured.
3. Used to monitor the performance of
photovoltaic (PV) power plants
Construction and Working of Pyranometer
• Glass dome: Glass dome in the Pyranometer limits the
response of spectral from 300 nm to 2800 nm from 180
degrees of view. It also protects the thermopile sensor
from rain, wind, etc.
• Black absorber plate: To absorb entire global solar
radiations striking the glass dome.
• Thermopile: It uses a thermocouple to notice
dissimilarity in temperature between two surfaces.
 Working
• The glass dome act as filter that transmitts solar radiation with
wavelengths from roughly 0.3 to about 3 x 10⁻⁶ m (this contains the near-
infrared, visible, UV-A and part of the UV-B radiation).
• The filtered radiation is absorbed by the black surface on the Pyranometer and
converted into heat.
• This creates a temperature gradient from the black surface through the
thermopile to the Pyranometer body which acts as a heatsink.
• A thermopile consists of a number of thermocouples connected in series. Each
thermocouple will generate a voltage proportional to the temperature
difference between the black surface and the Pyranometer body.
• The voltage which is generated from the thermopile is calculated with the help
of a potentiometer. These are used to measure the amount of solar radiation.
 Types of Pyranometer
• Pyranometers are classified into two types like thermopile Pyranometer,
photodiode-based Pyranometer.
• Thermopile Pyranometer: used to measure the flux density of the solar
radiation from a 180° angle. These Pyranometers are normally used in
climatology, meteorology, building engineering physics, photovoltaic systems
& climate change research.
• Photodiode base Pyranometer: Also known as a silicon Pyranometer. It is
used to detect the segment of the solar spectrum between 400 nm & 900 nm.
This photodiode changes the frequencies of the solar spectrum to current at
high speed. This change will be influenced through the temperature with the
raise in current, generated by the temperature rise. These are used in cinema,
lighting technique & photography
 Pyrheliometer
• An instrument for measurement of direct beam solar irradiance.
• This instrument is used with a tracking mechanism to follow the
sun continuously.
• It is responsive to wavelengths bands that range from 280 nm to
3000 nm. The units of irradiance are W/m².
• Applications:
1. Scientific meteorological and climate observations.
2. Material testing research
3. Assessment of the efficiency of solar collectors and
photovoltaic devices.
 Construction and Working of Pyrheliometer
• Long collimator tube: Used to house the components such as absorber
plate, thermocouples and to limit direct beam of radiations to specific
dimensions.
• Alignment indicator: The angle of the device is set using the alignment
indicator.
• Thermopile: An electronic device that converts thermal
energy into electrical energy. Device works on the principle of
the thermoelectric effect, i.e., generating a voltage when its dissimilar
metals (thermocouples) are exposed to a temperature difference. It is
positioned beneath the black absorber plate
• Black absorber plate: Black absorber plate is present inside the tube to
absorb the radiation.
• Two – axis tracking mechanism: The entire system is mounted on it. It
helps to track the sun during the day. The instrument’s direction can be
adjusted based on the direction of radiation.
• Protective lens: Convex lens used to direct radiations on absorber plate.
To measure solar radiation, we have to position the device at a certain
angle and capture the sun’s light. The instrument’s acceptance angle
should be the closest to 0 degrees, allowing the lens to bend and focus
light on the black body. This angle is commonly 5 degrees.
 Working
• Using collimator tube, direct solar irradiance are captured through
protective lens by aligning the lens with sun.
• The radiation from the sun passes through the lens, then the tube, and
finally through the last portion, which has a black object at the bottom
(absorber plate).
• The black body absorbs the radiation falling from the lens completely.
• Thermopile in contact with black absorber plate generates a thermo emf
proportional to radiations absorbed.
• Generation of emf: Once the radiation gets absorbed, the atoms in the body
get excited because of the increasing temperature of the entire body. This
temperature increase will also be experienced by the thermocouple junction
‘A’. Now with junction ‘A’ of the thermocouple at high temperature and
junction ‘B’ at low temperature, a current flow takes place in its loop.
• The potential difference created in the thermopile owing to the
temperature gradient between the two surfaces reveals information about
the amount of solar radiation. The voltage produced by the thermopile
can also be measured using a potentiometer.
• The emf produced is used to measure the value of direct beam radiation.
• A calibration factor can be applied once changing the mV signal to a
corresponding radiant energy flux, and it is calculated in W/m² (watts per
square meter).

Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Very low power • Initial cost of investment
consumption and maintenance cost are
• Operates from a wide range high.
of voltage supplies. • Response time is very
• Ruggedness. low.
• Stability. • Lower accuracy
 Advantages: • The disadvantage of the
• The temperature coefficient is pyranometer is, its spectral
extremely small sensitivity is imperfect, so
• Standardized to ISO standards it does not observe the
• Measurements of performance ration complete spectrum of the
& performance index are accurate. sun. So errors in
• Response time is longer compare to measurements can occur.
PV cell.

Difference between Pyrheliometer & Pyranometer

• Pyranometers measure the total amount of solar radiation (global
radiation), both direct and diffuse, incident on a surface. Pyrheliometers
only measure the amount of direct solar radiation incident on a surface.
• Pyranometers measure the radiation coming from all directions.
Pyrheliometers only measure the radiation coming from one direction.
• Pyranometers don’t require much maintenance because they don’t have
any moving parts. Pyrheliometers require more maintenance because they
have a collimator tube, two axis tracker etc that needs to be regularly
calibrated.
• Pyranometers are less expensive than pyrheliometers. Pyrheliometers
are more expensive than pyranometers because they are more
complex and require more maintenance.
• A typical pyranometer is a glass dome that has a hemispherical view
of the whole sky. While a pyrheliometer has a telescopical view of the
sun that is focused on the instrument’s detector.
• Both pyranometers and pyrheliometers have thermopile or photodiode
as a light-sensitive detector that is mounted in a housing. The
electrical signal is then amplified and recorded.
 Sunshine recorder
• A sunshine recorder is a device
that records the amount
of sunshine at a given location or
region at any time.
• The results provide information
about the weather and climate as
well as the temperature of a
geographical area. This
information is useful in
meteorology, science, agriculture,
and other fields. Also called as
heliograph.
 Construction and Working of Sunshine recorder

• Consists of a glass sphere acting as burning lens as well as of a

metal bowl arranged in focal length concentrically to the sphere.
The glass sphere has a diameter of approx. 96 mm, a determined
refractive index, is made of non-streaky glass.
• New cardboard/recorder strip provided with hourly division is put
into the grooves arranged at the inner side of the bowl.
 Working
• Glass sphere which acts as a convex lens, focuses the sun rays to a
point on the card strip.
• Whenever there is bright sunshine the image formed is intense
enough to burn a spot on card strip.
• As the sun moves across the sky, image moves along the strip.
• Thus a burnt space whose length is proportional to the duration of
sunshine is obtained on the strip.
Advantages:
• simple and ease of use.
• No moving parts and it thus requires very little maintenance
• The unit can be used anywhere in the world with little or no
modification to the design (Portable).

Disadvantages:
• Can only measure the amount of bright sunshine.
• Rain may cause the card to be torn when removing it and thus
making it difficult to read.
• In areas of high frost and during periods of freezing rain the
sphere may be difficult to clean.
• On days when the sun is alternately covered and exposed by
clouds, the amount of burn on the card may be the same for 30
seconds as for 5 minutes (the reading of the card may differ
from one observer to another).
 Bolometer – Thermal Detectors
• A bolometer is a device that detects and measures the
heat of incident electromagnetic radiation using a
temperature-sensitive element.
• Temperature-sensitive elements commonly employed
include thermistors and barretters, whose resistance
varies with temperature.
• Thermistor: semiconductor material has a negative
temperature coefficient and inversely proportional
resistance to temperature.
• Barretter: An extremely thin metal wire with a
positive temperature coefficient and resistance that is
proportional to temperature.
• All thermal radiation detectors include an absorbing
element with heat capacity C which converts the
incident electromagnetic radiation to heat, and which
is attached to a heat sink at temperature Ts via
thermal conductance G.
Components of Bolometer

Sensing Element: A thin layer of metal or semiconductor

that changes its resistance with temperature. Common
materials used for the sensing element include vanadium
oxide (VOx), amorphous silicon (a-Si), and titanium (Ti).
Substrate: A material that supports the sensing element
and provides mechanical stability. The substrate can be
made of materials such as silicon or glass, depending on
the sensor’s specific application and requirements.
Absorber: A layer of material that is designed to
efficiently absorb the incident infrared radiation and
transfer the absorbed energy to the sensing element.
Common absorber materials include gold, platinum, or
other metals with high infrared absorption capabilities.
Readout Circuit: An electronic circuit that measures the
changes in resistance of the sensing element, converts
them into an electrical signal, and amplifies the signal for
further processing and analysis
 Working principle
• It works on the principle of measuring the change in resistance of a
temperature-sensitive material when it absorbs incident radiation.
• The sensing element is connected to an electrical circuit, which can
detect changes in resistance due to temperature fluctuations.
• When incident radiation is absorbed by the sensing element, it
heats up, causing a change in its resistance. This change is then
measured and converted into an electrical signal proportional to the
incident radiation’s intensity.
Bolometer circuit diagram Wheatstone Bridge
 Advantages
• Uncooled Operation: Unlike other infrared sensors that require cooling to reduce
thermal noise and improve sensitivity, bolometers can operate at room temperature,
reducing complexity and power consumption.
• Wide Wavelength Range: Bolometers can detect a broad range of infrared
wavelengths, making them suitable for various applications.
• High Sensitivity: Bolometers are highly sensitive to changes in temperature,
allowing for accurate detection of small temperature variations caused by the
absorption of infrared radiation.
• The power consumption is minimal.
• These are economical thus making the construction of devices so inexpensive
Disadvantages
• Slow Response Time: Due to the thermal mass of the sensing element and the need
for the temperature to stabilize before a measurement can be taken, bolometers
generally have slower response times compared to other infrared sensors.
• Lower Spatial Resolution: Bolometers typically have a lower spatial resolution
compared to other infrared sensors, such as photo-detectors, due to the larger size
of the sensing elements and the need for thermal isolation between adjacent pixels.
• Temperature Drift: The performance of a bolometer sensor can be affected by
ambient temperature fluctuations, requiring additional temperature stabilization or
calibration techniques to maintain accuracy.
 Applications of bolometer
• Thermal Imaging: Bolometers are commonly used in thermal imaging cameras
to detect temperature differences in objects or scenes, enabling applications such as
search and rescue, surveillance, and building inspections.
• Spectroscopy: Infrared spectroscopy uses bolometers to measure the absorption
and emission of infrared radiation by different materials, providing valuable
information about their molecular composition and structure.
• Astronomy: Bolometer sensors are utilized in ground-based and space-borne
telescopes to detect and study the radiation emitted by celestial bodies and
distant galaxies, revealing valuable insights into the universe’s formation and
evolution.
• Environmental Monitoring: Bolometers can be used in remote sensing
applications to monitor various environmental parameters, such as surface
temperature, vegetation health, and air quality, by analyzing the radiation emitted
by the Earth’s surface and atmosphere.
• Medical Diagnostics: Imaging using bolometers has shown potential in non-
invasive medical diagnostics, such as identifying inflammation, assessing blood
flow, and detecting tumors.
• Fingerprint scanners utilize bolometers for the detection of changes in the light
reflection which are used for the detection of fingerprints
• Used in air surveillance industry to know hidden locations
 Actinometer
• An instrument for measuring the intensity of radiation.
• Types of actinometer:
1. Physical detectors : bolometer, pyranometer, pyrheliometer,
thermopile, thermocouples
2. Chemical actinometers : Uranyl oxalate actinometer, Ferrioxalate
actinometer, Reinecke’s salt actinometer.
• Chemical actinometer is a device which employs chemical reagent
to measure the intensity of UV light in a system, by quantifying the
amount of a substance that reacts via a photochemical process.
(Chemical actinometer is also known as dosimeter)

• Chemical actinometer involves measuring the radiation intensity

through the yield of chemical reaction.

• Commonly used chemical actinometer - Uranyl oxalate

actinometer
• The principal advantage of chemical actinometers is the ability to
adjust the medium (such as liquid, gas, solid or a micro-
heterogeneous environment) and its geometry, and the actinometry
can be carried out in the same container.

• Less expensive compared to physical detectors.

• Disadvantage: less accurate and it is not user friendly, skilled

operators required.

• Applications:
1. Meteorology to measure solar radiation
2. Evaluation of the light absorption efficiency in scattering photo-
polymerizable mini-emulsions
3. Research laboratories – UV technology for water treatment
4. To determine efficiency of photo-reactors
 Solar Thermal Conversion Systems
• Solar thermal power/electric generation systems collect and concentrate
sunlight to produce the high temperature heat needed to generate electricity.
• All solar thermal power systems have solar energy collectors with two main
components: reflectors (mirrors) that capture and focus sunlight onto a
receiver.
• In most types of systems, a heat-transfer fluid is heated and circulated in the
receiver and used to produce steam. The steam is converted into mechanical
energy in a turbine, which powers a generator to produce electricity.
• Solar thermal power plants usually have a large field or array of collectors that
supply heat to a turbine and generator.
Types of solar collectors

Parabolic trough collectors

Solar Tower Solar dish collector

 SOLAR COLLECTORS
• A solar collector is a device that collects and/or concentrates solar
radiation from the sun. These devices are primarily used for active solar
heating and allow for the heating of water for personal use. These
collectors are generally mounted on the roof and must be very sturdy as
they are exposed to a variety of different weather conditions.
• It is the main part of the solar thermal system that transforms the solr
Rdiant energy in to heat that can be used to heat up swimming pools, hot
water preparation, space heating etc.

Types of Solar Collectors

There are many different types of solar collectors, The most common of all is
1. Flat Plate Collectors
2. Evacuated Tube Collectors
 Flat plate collectors
• Flat-plate collectors are the most common type of non-concentrating collectors
for water and space heating in buildings and are used when temperatures lower
than 200°F are sufficient.
Construction:
Flat plate collector consists of the following components;
• Absorber plate: Usually made of copper and is coated with
black to absorb the solar rays falling on it.
• Water/fluid tubes: Metallic tubes through which water/fluid
circulates. The tubes are attached to the absorber plate.
• Transparent/glazing cover: Made of toughened glass (4mm
thick) which helps in reflecting the incident solar energy
back to the absorber plate.
• The glass cover permits the entry of solar radiation as it is
transparent for incoming short wavelength, but is largely
opaque to the longer infrared radiation reflected from the
absorber. As a result heat remains trapped in the airspace
between the absorber plate and the glass cover.
• Insulation: Resin bonded rock wool is provided below the
absorber plate so as to prevent heat losses by conduction.
Working:
 In operation, cold/Rt water/fluid/air from the overhead tank is made to flow
through the water/fluid tubes of the solar heater.
 When the sun rises to a certain level, it’s energy passes through the transparent
cover and falls on the absorber plate.
 The heat energy absorbed by the absorber plate is transferred to the cold/Rt
water/fluid/air flowing through the tubes.
 The heated water/fluid being lighter than the cold/Rt water, rises and flows into
the top of the water tank (Reservoir).The heated water can be used for various
purposes.
 The cold/Rt water/fluid from the overhead tank enters the water tubes and the
process repeats.
Advantages:
• Can be use both direct and diffused radiations
• Do not require orientation towards sun.
• Less maintenance compared to focusing collectors
• Mechanically simpler (Simple design).

Disadvantages:
• Limited to domestic water heating, space heating.
• Loss of energy is very high due to larger surface area.
• Shorter life span (less than 7-8years).
• Can not prevent overheating of the components.

Applications:
• Space heating and water heating.
• Low temperature applications such as drying food grains, cooking
etc.
• Commercial application includes Laundromats, car washes etc.
 Evacuated Tube/Tubular Collectors
• The evacuated tube collector (ETC) consists of a number of sealed glass tubes
which have a thermally conductive copper rod or pipe inside allowing for much
high thermal efficiency and working temperature compared to the flat plate solar
collectors even during a freezing cold day.
 Solar air collectors
• A solar air heater (SAH) is a device that captures solar energy using an absorbent
surface and shares the heat energy with air moving over it.
Construction and working of solar air heater
• Glazed type solar air heater consists of transparent glass cover, absorber
plate, fins and thermal insulators.

• Transparent glass cover: Toughened glass which

helps in reflecting the incident solar energy back to the
absorber plate.
• Absorber plate: Usually made of copper and is coated
with black to absorb the solar rays falling on it.
• Longitudinal fins: Fins are typically attached to the
absorber plate, increasing the surface area exposed to
heat transfer.
• Thermal insulators: Resin bonded rock wool is
provided below the absorber plate so as to prevent heat
losses by conduction.
 Working of solar air heaters

• In operation, the transparent glass cover permits the incident solar radiation to fall
on absorber plate. The glass cover permits the entry of solar radiation as it is
transparent for incoming short wavelength, but is largely opaque to the longer
infrared radiation reflected from the absorber. As a result heat remains trapped in
the airspace between the absorber plate and the glass cover.
• The entrapped heat energy is absorbed by black absorber plate and transfers it to
air through convection mode of heat transfer. Longitudinal fins are used to
increase the rate of heat transfer and to channelize the air flow towards air outlet.
• Hot air rises up due to low density and it is replaced by cold/Rt air without the aid
of external devices. In some applications, fan is used for forced circulation of air
within the collectors.
• The hot air from the collector is used for various applications like space heating
etc.
 Solar water distillation
• Solar water distillation is the process of using energy from the
sunlight to separate seawater/saline water from salts or other
contaminants.
• The untreated water absorbs heat, slowly reaching high
temperatures. The heat causes the water to evaporate, cool, and
condense into vapour, leaving the contaminants behind.
• The basic principles of solar water distillation are evaporation
and condensation.
• Solar still or solar distillers: An apparatus that uses solar
radiation to distill salt or brackish water to produce drinkable
water.
Components of solar still
• It consist of glass cover, water basin, absorber plate, insulation, and
distillate trough channel.
• Glass cover: Transparent glass; used to direct the solar radiation and acts
as vapor collector during water condensation.
• Water basin: Saline water is reserved in basin to absorb the solar
radiation.
• Base with Insulation: To reduce heat loss to the surroundings.
• Absorbent: It absorbs the incident solar radiations and transfers it to saline
water.
• Distillate output: Distilled water upon condensation stores in freshwater
basin through distillate trough channel.
Working of solar still
• A solar still works on two scientific principles: evaporation and condensation.
• The transparent glass cover is tilted at certain angle so as to catch maximum
sunlight.
• Solar radiations reaches the underlying still basin and absorbent by penetrating
through the glass cover. The untreated/saline water is collected in the still
basin.
• Absorbent transfer heat to saline water through convection mode and heats up
the water to evaporation temperature and separates it from the contaminants.
• The water vapors are condensed at inner surface of glass cover and collected
through distillate trough funnels. The distilled water (Pure water without
contaminants) is collected in distill basin.
Advantages:
• Operational energy costs and installation is very low
• There are no moving parts.
• High freshwater productivity compared to RO process.
• Environment friendly
Disadvantages:
• Accumulation of salt and contaminant at the bottom of the basin,
which needs to be monitored regularly.
• Higher scaling and corrosion problems – decreases the efficiency
• Large surface area consumption.
• Can be used only for small scale fresh water production.

Applications
 SOLAR CONCENTRATOR
• Solar Concentrator is device that is used to absorb heat from
solar radiation . It is an essential device that is used to convert
solar energy In to heat energy.

• Concentrated solar power (CSP, also known as concentrating

solar power, concentrated solar thermal) systems
generate solar power by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate a
large area of sunlight into a receiver. Electricity is generated
when the concentrated light is converted to heat energy (Solar
Thermal energy), which drives a het engine (usually a (steam
turbine) connected to an electrical power generator or powers a
thermochemical reaction. There are three types of solar
concentrator
 Parabolic dish solar concentrator
 Parabolic Trough solar concentrator
 Solar Tower
 PARABOLIC DISH TYPE SOLAR CONCENTRATOR
• This device resembles a parabolic shape and hence the name is parabolic dish
collector/concentrator.

• The main principle of this is that it reflects the solar radiation.

• This device consists of

 Mirror or aluminum foil
 Parabolic dish reflector
 Sun tracking mechanism or reflector stand
 Receiver – a transparent glass hollow piper which absorbs all types of radiation
 WORKING PRINCIPLE
 Solar Parabolic Dishes work by focusing sunlight onto a central receiver, where it is
absorbed and transformed into heat using a parabolic reflector. The parabolic dish
has two (2) functions: either collecting or refracting solar energy.
 Solar Parabolic Dish is a type of Solar Collector that uses a parabolic reflector to
focus sunlight onto a central receiver, where the solar energy is absorbed and
converted into heat.
 It accomplishes this through the use of a computer and dual-axis tracking.
 The central receiver shaped like a glass tube and coated with black paint contains a
fluid which gets heated up and evaporated there by resulting in generation of
electrical energy.

ADVANTAGES
 Parabolic dish solar concentrators has high conversion efficiency .
 It can withstand a high temperature range.

Disadvantages:
 High maintenance.
 SOLAR PARABOLIC TROUGH COLLECTOR

• This device consist of

 Mirror or a Aluminum foil
 A reflector or concentrator
 A Solar Tracking mechanism used to track the solar radiation on to the reflector
 A receiver – a transparent hollow pipe coated with black material as it receives
the heat.

• It uses a single-axis tracking curved

mirror system to concentrate solar
radiation onto a single point.
• A receiver tube, containing a heat
transfer fluid, is located at the focal
point of the mirror and collects the
concentrated solar heat energy.
 WORKING PRINCIPLE
 Parabolic trough consists of a series of curved mirrors which are used for
concentrating the sunlight on thermal efficient receiver tubes located in the focal
line of the trough.

 During the working , the direct solar radiation strikes on the mirror and also on
the receiver.

 The radiation falling on the reflector are absorbed and reflected to receiver.

 The receiver receives the heat from over all solar radiation and the temperature
rises.

 This receiver contains a fluid or gas or Synthetic oil, which is heated up to 400°C
by the concentrated sunlight through the receiver tubes, is used as a heat transfer
medium.

ADVANTAGES:
 It is used in domestic heating, industrial heating, solar pumping for irrigation etc
 Parabolic trough solar collectors are also reliable and have a long lifespan
 SOLAR TOWER TROUGH COLLECTOR
• This device consists of
 A central receiver – a transparent box or hollow pipe coated with black
material to receive heat.
 A sun tracking mirrors- used to reflect the solar radiation on receiver.

• A solar tower also called as solar power tower,

also known as 'central tower' power plant or
‘Heliostat' power plant, is a type of Solar
furnace uses a central tower to receive focused
sunlight.
• It uses an array of flat, movable mirrors (called
heliostats) to focus the sun's rays upon a
collector tower (the target). Concentrating Solar
Power (CSP) systems are seen as one viable
solution for renewable, pollution-free energy
 WORKING PRINCIPLE
 When solar radiation is incident on these mirrors also known as heliostats, it
absorbs and reflects it to the receiver .
 Flat glass is used instead of the more expensive curved glass.
 This receiver contains a fluid or gas or Synthetic oil, which is heated up to
500°C and gets converted to steam.
 This steam is used to drive the turbines that are coupled to generators which
produce electricity
ADVANTAGES
 No risk of pollution
 Solar radiation is available in abundant

DISADVANTAGES
 High Maintenance cost because of tracking mechanism.
 High initial cost.
 SOLAR COOKER
• A Solar cooker is a cooking derive that utilizes the energy of direct sunlight to
cook or heat food and liquids.
• Solar cookers concentrate sunlight onto a receiver such as a cooking pan.
• The interaction between the light energy and the receiver material converts light to
heat and this is called absorption. The conversion is maximized by using materials
that absorb, conduct, and retain heat.
The device consists of
• Black Box – The box is an insulated metal or
wooden box which is painted black from the inside
to absorb more heat.
• Glass Cover – A cover made of two sheets of
toughened glass held together in an aluminium
frame is used.
• Plane Mirror reflector – The plane mirror reflector
is fixe with the help of hinges. The mirror reflector
can be positioned at any desired angle to the box.
The mirror is positioned so as to allow the reflected
sunlight to fall on the glass cover of the box.
• Cooking Containers – A set of aluminium
containers blackened from the outside are used.
 WORKING PRINCIPLE

 A mirror surface with high specular reflection is used to concentrate and

channelize light from the sun into a small cooking space.
 The interaction between the light energy and the receiver material helps to
convert light into heat by a process called conduction.
 The conversion is maximized by making use of materials that conduct and
retain heat. Pots and pans used in solar cookers are painted with black color to
maximize absorption.
 The sunlight can be concentrated by several orders of magnitude, producing
magnitudes high enough to melt salt and metal. For household solar cooking
applications, such high temperatures are not required.
 Solar cookers available in the market are designed to achieve temperatures of
65⁰C to 400⁰C.
 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR COOKER

ADVANTAGES
 Solar cookers use no fuel. This saves cost as well as the environment by not
contributing to pollution.
 Reduces carbon footprint by cooking without carbon dioxide-based fuels.
DISADVANTAGES
 Solar cookers are less useful in cloudy weather.
 Some solar cookers take longer to cook food than a conventional stove or an
oven.
 Some solar cookers are affected by strong winds which can slow the cooking
process.
 It might get difficult to cook some thick foods such as large roasts and loaves
of bread.
 Solar Pond Electric Power Plant
• A solar pond is a pool of salt water which collects and stores heat
radiated from sun.
• This heat energy in turn can be utilized for applications like process
heating, desalination, refrigeration, drying and solar power
generation
 In a natural pond, nearly about 30% solar radiation reaches to a depth of about 2
meters. The solar radiation is absorbed by the water at the bottom of the pond.
 The warm water due to its low density rises to the surface and loses its heat to the
atmosphere without serving any purpose or beneficial effects.
 However, if this warm water is allowed to remain at the bottom of the pond by some
mechanism, it can be piped to a boiler where it is heated further to produce steam
that can drive a turbo-generator to produce electricity.
 In order to achieve this concept, artificially a pond is created over large area and salt
is added at the bottom of the pond. Salt used is either sodium chloride or magnesium
chloride.
 The salt dissolves in water making the water too heavy to rise to the surface of the
pond. Higher salt contents (Salinity) in water will increase the density of the water
allowing it to stay at the bottom of the pond. The hot water can thus be used for
various applications.
Construction of solar pond electric power plant
 Solar pond is constructed below the ground level.
• There are three distinct zones in a solar pond, with salt content increasing from
top surface of the pond to its bottom.
• Storage zone (Convective zone): lower zone of water, rich in salt content and it
is the area where solar radiation is absorbed and stored.
• Surface zone (Convective zone): : Upper zone of water which is cold and has
very low salt content.
• Intermediate zone or gradient zone (Non convective) : Separates the upper zone
of cold water and the lower zone of the hot water and forms an important area in
the solar pond. Water in the gradient zone can’t rise, because water above it has
less salt content and therefore it is lighter.
• Similarly water can not fall to storage zone, because it has high salt content and
it is heavier. Thus the stable gradient zone act as a transparent insulator,
permitting sunlight to be trapped in the storage zone.
 Evaporator: Heat exchangers that consists of metallic tubes used to absorb heat
energy present in the hot brine.
 Turbine and Generators: Hot gas/steam from the evaporator rotates the blades of
steam/gas turbine which is connected to generator for production of electricity.
 Condenser: Heat exchanger designed to cool exhaust steam from a turbine below
the boiling point so that it can be returned to the heat source as cold water.
Working
• When solar radiations strikes the pond, most of it is absorbed by the layer at the
bottom of the pond (Storage zone, rich in salt content, convective zone). The
temperature of the dense salt water therefore increases.
• As solar radiation is absorbed, the hot water in the storage zone cannot rise due to
high salt content in it while the cold water at the surface of the pond having less
salt content cannot sink, because the water below (intermediate zone) has a rich
salt content and is comparatively denser.
• The denser salt water at the bottom prevents the heat being transferred to the top
layer of fresh water by natural convection. The hot salt water is passed to
evaporator/heat exchanger where working fluid (ammonia/propane – low boiling
point) absorbs heat and forms hot steam/gas.
• The hot steam/gas is made to strike the blades of the turbine which is connected to
generator for electricity production.
• The exhaust steam/gas from the turbine is cooled below the boiling point in
condenser so that it can be returned to surface zone for next power generation
cycle.
 SOLAR CHIMNEY
• solar chimney is a technology that can be used to enhance the ventilation of a
residential or commercial structure and uses the same principle at play in a
fireplace.
• The sun’s natural heat warms the air in the chimney, causing it to rise and create
a draft that moves the hot air out of the structure. This heating process causes the
cooler air from below to be pulled into the chimney for heating while the hot air
is released from the top. The act of pulling in cooler air creates air movement,
which provides ventilation in the structure.

Construction of solar chimney:

• Glass glaze cover
• Absorber plate
• Thermal insulation
Working of solar chimney:
• Glaze cover allows solar radiations to incident on the absorber plate. The heat
energy present in sun rays is absorbed by the absorber plate and transfer it to air
particles within the chimney.
• This heating process causes the cooler air from below to be pulled into the chimney
for heating while the hot air is released from the top.
ADVANTAGES
 Solar chimneys simply emit air, thus no
pollution and no carbon dioxide
emissions.
 Solar chimneys are a cost-effective
choice for a cooling and heating system
compared to air conditioning or heating
units.
 No electricity or gas is needed to power
the chimney.
DISADVANTAGES
 It requires a very large space and suitable
Applications: and specific sunny areas such as desert
Space heating, process heating, power areas.
generation, natural ventilation.  The initial investment cost is high