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Data Structures and Abstractions
with Java™
Fifth Edition

Frank M. Carrano

University of Rhode Island

Timothy M. Henry

New England Institute of Technology

330 Hudson Street, NY NY 10013

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Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced,

with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within text.
Oracle and Java are registered trademarks of Oracle and/or its affiliates.
Other names may be trademarks of their respective owners.

Copyright © 2019, 2015, 2012 and 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., All
rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is
protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the
publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system,
or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material
from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc.,
Permissions Department, 221 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, or you may
fax your request to 201-236-3290.

Many of the designations by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their

products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this
book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations
have been printed in initial caps or all caps.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Carrano, Frank M., author. | Henry, Timothy M., author.

Title: Data structures and abstractions with Java / Frank M. Carrano,

University of Rhode Island, Timothy M. Henry, New England Institute of
Technology.

Description: Fifth edition. | Boston : Pearson Education, Inc., 2018. | Includes

index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2018000065 | ISBN 9780134831695 (alk. paper) | ISBN

0134831691 (alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Data structures (Computer science) | Java (Computer

program language)

Classification: LCC QA76.9.D33 C37 2018 | DDC 005.7/3--dc23 LC record

available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018000065
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 10: 0-13-483169-1

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-483169-5

Welcome
Welcome to the fifth edition of Data Structures and Abstractions with Java, a
book for an introductory course in data structures, typically known as CS-2.

I wrote this book with you in mind—whether you are an instructor or a

student—based upon my experiences during more than three decades of
teaching undergraduate computer science. I wanted my book to be reader
friendly so that students could learn more easily and instructors could teach
more effectively. To this end, you will find the material covered in small
pieces—I call them “segments”— that are easy to digest and facilitate
learning. Numerous examples that mimic real-world situations provide a
context for the new material and help to make it easier for students to learn
and retain abstract concepts. Many illustrations clarify complicated ideas.
Included are over 60 video tutorials to supplement the instruction and help
students when their instructor is unavailable.

I am happy to work again with my colleague and co-author of the fourth

edition, Dr. Timothy Henry. Together we have continued to enhance the
presentation with our focus on design decisions for both specifications and
implementations of various data structures, as well as our emphasis on safe
and secure programming practices.

We hope that you enjoy reading this book. Like many others before you, you
can learn—or teach —data structures in an effective and sustainable way.

Warm regards,

Frank M. Carrano

Using This Flexible and Unique

Textbook
This book’s organization, sequencing, and pace of topic coverage make
teaching and learning easier by

Focusing the reader’s attention on one concept at a time

Providing flexibility in the order in which you can cover topics

Clearly distinguishing between the specification and implementation of

abstract data types (ADTs)

Separating the relevant coverage of Java into Java Interludes, which you
can use as needed

To accomplish this approach, we have organized the material into 30

chapters, composed of small, numbered segments that deal with one concept
at a time. Each chapter focuses on either the specification and use of an ADT
or its various implementations. You can choose to cover the specification of
an ADT followed by its implementations, or you can treat the specification
and use of several ADTs before you consider any implementation issues. The
book’s organization makes it easy for you to choose the topic order that you
prefer.

Our use of Java Interludes to treat the pertinent aspects of Java clearly
separate our coverage of data structures from Java-specific issues. These
interludes occur between chapters throughout the book as needed. Our focus,
however, is on data structures not Java. You can see the titles of these
interludes, as well as their placement between chapters, in the table of
contents that follows.
Brief Table of Contents
Table of Contents at a Glance
The following brief table of contents shows the overall composition of the
book. Notice the Introduction, Prelude, and nine Java Interludes. Further
details—including a chapter-by-chapter description—are given later in this
preface.

Introduction Organizing Data

Prelude Designing Classes

Chapter 1 Bags

Java Interlude 1 Generics

Chapter 2 Bag Implementations That Use Arrays

Java Interlude 2 Exceptions

Chapter 3 A Bag Implementation That Links Data

Chapter 4 The Efficiency of Algorithms

Chapter 5 Stacks

Chapter 6 Stack Implementations

Java Interlude 3 More About Exceptions

Chapter 7 Queues, Deques, and Priority Queues

Chapter 8 Queue, Deque, and Priority Queue Implementations

Chapter 9 Recursion

Chapter 10 Lists

Chapter 11 A List Implementation That Uses an Array

Chapter 12 A List Implementation That Links Data

Java Interlude 4 Iterators

Chapter 13 Iterators for the ADT List

Chapter 14 Problem Solving With Recursion

Java Interlude 5 More About Generics

Chapter 15 An Introduction to Sorting

Chapter 16 Faster Sorting Methods

Java Interlude 6 Mutable and Immutable Objects

Chapter 17 Sorted Lists

Java Interlude 7 Inheritance and Polymorphism

Chapter 18 Inheritance and Lists

Chapter 19 Searching

Java Interlude 8 Generics Once Again

Chapter 20 Dictionaries

Chapter 21 Dictionary Implementations

Chapter 22 Introducing Hashing

Chapter 23 Hashing as a Dictionary Implementation

Chapter 24 Trees
Chapter 25 Tree Implementations

Java Interlude 9 Cloning

Chapter 26 A Binary Search Tree Implementation

Chapter 27 A Heap Implementation

Chapter 28 Balanced Search Trees

Chapter 29 Graphs

Chapter 30 Graph Implementations

Appendix A Documentation and Programming Style

Appendix B Java Classes

Appendix C Creating Classes from Other Classes

Supplement 1 Java Basics (online)

Supplement 2 File Input and Output (online)

Supplement 3 Glossary (online)

Supplement 4 Answers to Study Questions (online)
New to This Edition
What’s New?
This new edition of Data Structures and Abstractions with Java enhances the
previous edition and continues its pedagogical approach to make the material
accessible to students at the introductory level. The coverage that you
enjoyed in previous editions is still here. As is usual for us, we have read
every word of the previous edition and made changes to improve clarity and
correctness. No chapter or interlude appears exactly as it did before. Our
changes are motivated by reader suggestions and our own desire to improve
the presentation.

In this new edition, we

Added coverage of recursion in a new chapter that introduces grammars,

languages, and backtracking.

Continued our introduction to safe and secure programing practices.

Added additional Design Decisions, Notes, Security Notes, and

Programming Tips throughout the book.

Added new exercises and programming projects, with an emphasis in

areas of gaming, e-commerce, and finance to most chapters.

Adjusted the order of some topics.

Refined our terminology, presentation, and word choices to ease

understanding.

Revised the illustrations to make them easier to read and to understand.

Renamed Self-Test Questions as Study Questions and moved their

answers to online. We encourage our students to discuss their own
 answers with a study partner or group.

Included the appendix about Java classes within the book instead of
leaving it online.

Reduced the amount of Java code given in the book.

Ensured that all Java code is Java 9 compliant.

Connect with Us
We are always available to instructors and students who use our books. Your
comments, suggestions, and corrections will be greatly appreciated. Please e-
mail us at [email protected] or [email protected]

You can also find us on Twitter, our websites, or Facebook:

Twitter: twitter.com/makingCSreal

Websites: www.makingCSreal.com and timothyhenry.net

Facebook: www.facebook.com/makingCSreal
A Note to Students
The topics that we cover in this book deal with the various ways of
organizing data so that a given application can access and manipulate data in
an efficient way. These topics are fundamental to your future study of
computer science, as they provide you with the foundation of knowledge
required to create complex and reliable software. Whether you are interested
in designing video games or software for robotic controlled surgery, the study
of data structures is vital to your success. Even if you do not study all of the
topics in this book now, you are likely to encounter them later. We hope that
you will enjoy reading the book, and that it will serve as a useful reference
tool for your future courses.

After looking over this preface, you should read the Introduction. There you
will quickly see what this book is about and what you need to know about
Java before you begin. The Prelude discusses class design and the use of Java
interfaces. We use interfaces throughout the book. Appendixes A, B, and C
review javadoc comments, Java classes, and inheritance. Java Interludes
occur throughout the book and cover advanced aspects of Java as they are
needed. Supplemental material is available online to review the basics of Java
and its file input and output, to define important terms, and to answer the
study questions. Note that inside the front and back covers you will find
Java’s reserved words, its primitive data types, the precedence of its
operators, and a list of Unicode characters.

Please be sure to browse the rest of this preface to see the features that will
help you in your studies.
Pedagogical Elements
Features to Enhance Learning
Each chapter begins with a table of contents, a list of prerequisite portions of
the book that you should have read, and the learning objectives for the
material to be covered. Other pedagogical elements appear throughout the
book, as follows:

Notes Important ideas are presented or summarized in

highlighted paragraphs and are meant to be read in line with the
surrounding text.

Security Notes Aspects of safe and secure programming are

introduced and highlighted in this new feature.

A Problem Solved Large examples are presented in the

form of “A Problem Solved,” in which a problem is posed and its
solution is discussed, designed, and implemented.

Design Decisions To give readers insight into the design choices

that one could make when formulating a solution, “Design Decision”
elements lay out such options, along with the rationale behind the choice
made for a particular example. These discussions are often in the context
of one of the “A Problem Solved” examples.
 Examples Numerous examples illuminate new concepts.

Programming Tips Suggestions to improve or facilitate

programming are presented as soon as they become relevant.

Study Questions Questions are posed throughout each chapter,

integrated within the text, that reinforce the concept just presented.
These “study” questions help readers to understand the material, since
answering them requires pause and reflection. We suggest that you
discuss these questions and their answers with others before consulting
our solutions, which are available to you online.

VideoNotes Online tutorials are a Pearson feature that provides

video support to the presentation given throughout the book. They offer
students another way to recap and reinforce key concepts. VideoNotes
allow for self-paced instruction with easy navigation, including the
ability to select, play, rewind, fast-forward, and stop within each video.
Unique VideoNote icons appear throughout this book whenever a video
is available for a particular concept or problem. A detailed list of the
VideoNotes for this text and their associated locations in the book can
be found on page xxiv of this preface. VideoNotes are free with the
purchase of a new textbook. To purchase access to VideoNotes, please
go to pearsonhighered.com/carrano

Exercises and Programming Projects Further practice is available by

solving the exercises and programming projects at the end of each
chapter. Unfortunately, we cannot give readers the answers to these
exercises and programming projects, even if they are not enrolled in a
class. Only instructors who adopt the book can receive selected answers
from the publisher. For help with these exercises and projects, you will
have to contact your instructor.
Resources
Accessing Instructor and Student
Resource Materials
The following items are available on the publisher’s website at
pearsonhighered.com/carrano:

Java code as it appears in the book

A link to any misprints that have been discovered since the book was
published

Links to additional online content, which is described next

Instructor Resources
The following protected material is available to instructors who adopt this
book by logging onto Pearson’s Instructor Resource Center (IRC), accessible
from pearsonhighered.com/carrano:

Instructor’s Guide

PowerPoint lecture slides that have ADA compatible descriptive text for
all images

Instructor solutions manual

Lab manual and solutions

Java source code for instructors

 Figures from the book

Test bank

Additionally, the resources available to students and described next, are

available in the IRC to instructors.

Please contact your Pearson sales representative for an instructor access code.
Contact information is available at pearsonhighered.com/replocator.

Student Resources
The following material is available to students by logging onto the
Companion Website accessible from pearsonhighered.com/carrano:

Instructional VideoNotes

A survey of basic Java (Supplement 1)

An overview of file I/O (Supplement 2)

A glossary of terms (Supplement 3)

Answers to Study Questions (Supplement 4)

Students must use the access card located in the front of the book to register
for and then enter the Companion Website. Students without an access code
can purchase access from the Companion Website by following the
instructions listed there.

Note that documentation for the Java Class Library is available at

docs.oracle.com/javase/9/docs/api/.
Detailed Content Description
Content Overview
Readers of this book should have completed a programming course,
preferably in Java. The appendixes and online supplements cover the
essentials of Java that we assume readers will know. You can use this
material as a review or as the basis for making the transition to Java from
another programming language.

Introduction: We begin by setting the stage for the data organizations

that we will study by looking at some everyday examples.

Prelude: The Prelude discusses the design of classes. Among the topics
we cover are preconditions, postconditions, assertions, interfaces, and
the Unified Modeling language (UML). Design is an important aspect of
our presentation.

Chapters 1 through 3: We introduce the bag as an abstract data type

(ADT). By dividing the material across several chapters, we clearly
separate the specification, use, and implementation of the bag. For
example, Chapter 1 specifies the bag and provides several examples of
its use. This chapter also introduces the ADT set. Chapter 2 covers
implementations that use arrays, while Chapter 3 introduces chains of
linked nodes and uses one in the definition of a class of bags.

In a similar fashion, we separate specification from implementation

throughout the book when we discuss various other ADTs. You can
choose to cover the chapters that specify and use the ADTs and then
later cover the chapters that implement them. Or you can cover the
chapters as they appear, implementing each ADT right after studying its
specification and use. A list of chapter prerequisites appears later in this
preface to help you plan your path through the book.
Chapter 2 does more than simply implement the ADT bag. It shows how
to approach the implementation of a class by initially focusing on core
methods. When defining a class, it is often useful to implement and test
these core methods first and to leave definitions of the other methods for
later. Chapter 2 also introduces the concept of safe and secure
programming, and shows how to add this protection to your code.

Java Interludes 1 and 2: The first Java interlude introduces generics, so

that we can use it with our first ADT, the bag. This interlude
immediately follows Chapter 1. Java Interlude 2 introduces exceptions
and follows Chapter 2. We apply this material to the implementations of
the ADT bag.

Chapter 4 : Here we introduce the efficiency and complexity of

algorithms, a topic that we integrate into future chapters.

Chapters 5 and 6: Chapter 5 discusses stacks, giving examples of their

use, and Chapter 6 implements the stack using an array, a chain of
linked nodes, and a vector.

Java Interlude 3 : This Java interlude shows how the programmer can
write new exception classes. In doing so, it shows how to extend an
existing class of exceptions. It also introduces the finally block.

Chapters 7 and 8: Chapter 7 discusses queues, deques, and priority

queues, and Chapter 8 considers their implementations. It is in this latter
chapter that we introduce circularly linked and doubly linked chains.
Chapter 8 also uses the programmer-defined class
EmptyQueueException.

Chapter 9 : Next, we present recursion as a problem-solving tool and its

relationship to stacks. Recursion, along with algorithm efficiency, is a
topic that is revisited throughout the book.

Chapters 10 , 11, and 12: The next three chapters introduce the ADT list.
We discuss this collection abstractly and then implement it by using an
array and a chain of linked nodes.
Java Interlude 4 and Chapter 13: Included in our coverage of Java
iterators are the standard interfaces Iterator, Iterable, and
ListIterator. Chapter 13 then shows ways to implement an iterator for
the ADT list. It considers and implements Java’s iterator interfaces
Iterator and ListIterator.

Chapter 14 : This new chapter offers more coverage of recursion,

including languages, grammars, and backtracking.

Java Interlude 5 : This interlude provides the Java concepts needed for
the sorting methods that we are about to present. It introduces the
standard interface Comparable, generic methods, bounded type
parameters, and wildcards.

Chapters 15 and 16: The next two chapters discuss various sorting
techniques and their relative complexities. We consider both iterative
and recursive versions of these algorithms.

Java Interlude 6 : This interlude discusses mutable and immutable

objects, a topic relevant to the preceding chapters about sorting and the
following one about sorted lists.

Chapters 17 and 18 and Java Interlude 7: Continuing the discussion of a

list, Chapter 17 introduces the sorted list, looking at two possible
implementations and their efficiencies. Chapter 18 shows how to use the
list as a superclass for the sorted list and discusses the general design of
a superclass. Although inheritance is reviewed in Appendix C, the
relevant particulars of inheritance—including protected access, abstract
classes, and abstract methods—are presented in Java Interlude 7 just
before Chapter 18.

Chapter 19 : We then examine some strategies for searching an array or

a chain in the context of a list or a sorted list. This discussion is a good
basis for the sequence of chapters that follows.

Java Interlude 8 : Before we get to the next chapter, we quickly cover in

this interlude situations where more than one generic data type is
necessary.
Chapters 20 through 23: Chapter 20 covers the specification and use of
the ADT dictionary. Next, Chapter 21 presents implementations of the
dictionary that are linked or that use arrays. Chapter 22 introduces
hashing, and Chapter 23 uses hashing as a dictionary implementation.

Chapters 24 and 25: Chapter 24 discusses trees and their possible uses.
Included among the several examples of trees is an introduction to the
binary search tree and the heap. Chapter 25 considers implementations
of the binary tree and the general tree.

Java Interlude 9: Java Interlude 9 discusses cloning. We clone an array,

a chain of linked nodes, and a binary node. We also investigate a sorted
list of clones. Although this material is important, you can treat it as
optional, as it is not required in the following chapters.

Chapters 26 through 28: Chapter 26 focuses on the implementation of

the binary search tree. Chapter 27 shows how to use an array to
implement the heap. Chapter 28 introduces balanced search trees.
Included in this chapter are the AVL, 2-3, 2-4, and red-black trees, as
well as B-trees.

Chapters 29 and 30: Finally, we discuss graphs and look at several

applications and two implementations.

Appendixes A through C: The appendixes provide supplemental

coverage of Java. As we mentioned earlier, Appendix A considers
programming style and comments. It introduces javadoc comments and
defines the tags that we use in this book. Appendix B discusses Java
classes, and Appendix C expands this topic by looking at composition
and inheritance.
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
The texture of curd produced at temperatures between 70° F. and
84° F. is soft, jelly-like, friable rather than rubbery. At 86° F. it begins
to show toughening or rubbery characters which become very
marked at 90° F. to 94° F. as used in Limburger. With the increased
vigor of action as it passes its maximum rate of action at 105° F., the
texture tends to become loose, floccose to granular. Aside from the
Neufchâtel group, the working range of temperatures for the
renneting period runs from about 84° F. to about 94° F., a range of
barely 10° F., or the use of 65 per cent to 80 or possibly 85 per cent
of the maximum efficiency of the rennet. Within this range of
temperature, the curd has the physical characters demanded for
making most varieties of cheese.
95. Strength of coagulating materials.—Rennet and pepsin
preparations vary in strength and in keeping quality. With a
particular stock, changes go on to such a degree that the last
samples from a barrel of rennet are much weaker than the earlier
ones. Each sample, barrel, keg or bottle should be tested before
used. In continuous work the results of each day's work furnish the
guide for the next day's use of a particular lot of rennet.
96. Amount of coagulating materials to use.—For most
varieties of cheese, sufficient rennet extract or pepsin is added to
the milk to give a firm curd in twenty-five to forty minutes. Of the
ordinary commercial rennet extract, this requires from two and one-
half to four ounces to one thousand pounds of milk. This gives a
maximum of one part rennet for each four to six thousand parts of
milk. The great strength of the rennet extract is thus clearly shown.
97. Method of adding rennet.—Before rennet is added to the
milk, it is diluted in about forty times its volume of cold water, which
chills the enzyme and retards its action until it can be thoroughly
mixed with the milk. If the material is added without such dilution,
the concentrated extract produces instant coagulation in the drops
with which it comes in contact, forming solid masses from which the
enzyme escapes only slowly to diffuse throughout the mass. Uniform
coagulation thus becomes impossible. After the rennet extract has
been diluted with cold water, it should be distributed the entire
length of the vat in an even stream from a pail. It should then be
mixed with the milk by stirring from top to bottom for about three to
four minutes. For this purpose, either a long-handled dipper or a
wooden rake may be used. A dipperful should be drawn from the
gate and stirred into the vat, otherwise the milk in the gate will fail
to coagulate properly because the rennet diffuses too slowly to
reach and affect all the milk at that point. The milk should be stirred
on the top, preferably with the bottom of a dipper, until signs of
coagulation begin to appear. This stirring keeps the cream from
rising. There are various ways or signs to indicate when the
coagulation has gone to the stage at which the mix is about to
become thick: (1) The milk becomes lazy or thicker as the finger is
passed through it; (2) bubbles caused by moving the finger remain
on the milk longer, usually until one can count ten when ready to
thicken.
If the milk is stirred too long or after it begins to thicken, the result
is a granular sort of curd, and there will be an abnormally large loss
of fat in the manufacturing process. The addition of the rennet and
subsequent stirring require the exercise of great care and constant
attention to details. The cheese-maker can do nothing else for those
few minutes. When through stirring, it is a good plan in cold weather
to cover the vat with a cloth as this will keep the surface of the curd
warm. In summer the same cover will keep out the flies.
Causes of a delayed coagulation:
(1) Weak rennet extract or too small an amount.
(2) Low temperatures due to inaccurate thermometers.
(3) Pasteurized milk.
(4) Presence of abnormal bacterial ferments.
(5) Presence of preservatives.
(6) Heavily watered milk.
(7) Use of badly rusted29 cans.
(8) Milk containing small amounts of casein or calcium salts.
Causes of uneven coagulation:
 (1) Uneven temperature of the mix in the vat, due to lack of
agitation.
(2) Uneven distribution of the rennet extract.
(3) Adding rennet to vat too soon after heating, while the sides
and bottom are still hot, causes curd to stick to sides and
bottom of the vat making cutting difficult.
98. The curdling period.—The time allowed for rennet action also
affects the texture of the curd. The enzymes of rennet (rennin and
pepsin) do not cease acting with the thickening of the milk. In many
cheeses, the handling process begins as soon as the curd has
become solid enough to split cleanly before a finger thrust into it. If
let stand further, the same curd mass will continue to harden with
the progressive separation of whey; this shows first as drops
("sweating") on its surface, which then increase in number and size
until they run together and form a sheet of whey. The limit of such
action is difficult to measure. The solidifying process ceases in a
period of hours. The further action of the enzymes is digestive in
character and goes on slowly. It requires a period of weeks or even
months to accomplish measurable results at the working
temperatures in use in the trade. Other ripening agents with more
rapid action intervene to shape the final result. It follows that the
rennet factor in the ripening changes found at the end of the period
is almost negligible for most varieties of cheese, although it appears
to be measurable in some varieties.
99. Cutting or breaking30 the curd.—As soon as curd is formed,
separation of whey begins upon the surface and perhaps around the
sides of the vessel. This is accompanied by shrinkage and hardening
of the mass. If the curd remains unbroken, the separation is
extremely slow. In cheese-making practice, such curd masses may
be dipped at once into hoops as in Camembert, dumped in mass into
cloths for drainage as in Neufchâtel or, as in the larger number of
cheeses, cut or broken in some characteristic manner. After the curd
mass is firm, the rate at which subsequent changes take place
depends largely on the size of the particles into which the curd is
cut. The smaller the particles, the quicker the water is expelled.
Consequently the development of the acidity and other changes take
place more slowly. For this reason the curd should be cut into pieces
of uniform size. If the work is not properly performed, the pieces of
curd of various sizes will be at different stages of development. The
fine particles will be firm and elastic while the larger particles are still
soft and full of whey and may be developing too much acid. The
knives should be inserted into the curd obliquely so that they will cut
their way into the curd and not break it. The horizontal knife is used
lengthwise of the vat and cuts the curd into layers of uniform
thickness. The perpendicular knife then is used lengthwise and
crosswise of the vat. It first cuts the curd into strips and then into
cubes. The knives may have wire blades or steel blades, some
operators preferring one and some the other. Whichever is used, the
blades should be close enough together to give the fineness of curd
desired.
After the knife passes through, the cut faces quickly become covered
with a smooth coating, continuous over all exposed areas. This
surface has the appearance of a smooth elastic coating or film. This
can be seen by carefully breaking a piece in the hand. It is this film
which holds the fat within the pieces of curd. If the film is broken,
some of the fat globules are lost because the rennet extract acts
only on the casein and that in turn holds the fat. All the fat globules
which come in contact with the knives as they pass through the curd
will be left between the pieces of curd and will pass off in the whey.
If care is exercised in cutting, the loss of fat will be confined to what
may be called a mechanical loss. This is similar to the loss of the
sawdust when sawing a board. This loss in American Cheddar is
about 0.3 per cent and cannot be avoided. If it is greater than this, it
is due to negligence on the part of the cheese-maker or the poor
condition of the milk. The cutting of the curd into small pieces may
be considered a necessary evil. If the moisture could be expelled
from the whole mass without disturbing it, this fat loss could be
prevented. The cutting, breaking or turning should be done with the
greatest care, that the loss may be as small as possible.
100. Curd knives.—For cutting curd, special knives have been
devised (Fig. 11). They consist of series of parallel blades fixed in a
frame to make cuts equidistant. The blades run vertically in one,
horizontally in another. They are spaced according to the demands
of the variety of cheese to be made. Wires stretched in a frame take
the place of blades in some makes of curd knife.

Fig. 11.—Blade and wire curd knives.

101. Heating or "cooking."—Curdling by rennet has already been

shown to be markedly hastened by moderate heating. After the
coagulum or curd is formed, the making process may be completed
without the application of further heat, as in Neufchâtel, Camembert
and related forms (Fig. 12) and in some practices with Limburger. In
other forms and especially in the hard cheeses in which cutting of
curd is a prominent part of the process, the curd after being cut is
reheated or "cooked." The cooking process hastens the removal of
the whey, thus shortening the time required to reduce the water-
content of the mass to the percentage most favorable for the type of
cheese desired. The process also produces marked changes in the
physical character of the curd mass. With the rise in temperature the
casein becomes elastic first, then approaches a melting condition
and assumes a tough, almost rubbery consistency. The final texture
is the result of the combination of the amount of rennet added, the
temperature, the acidity reached during the process, and the final
water-content of the mass.

Fig. 12.—The heat relation. See pages 77 and 87.

102. Draining (including grinding, putting into hoops or forms and

pressing).—The reduction of the water in the curd begins almost as
soon as the curd becomes firm. It is aided by cutting or breaking, by
the retention of the heat applied before renneting and by the
secondary heating or cooking used in making certain groups of
cheeses. In many varieties special apparatus is provided in the form
of draining boards, draining racks or bags to hasten the removal of
the whey as fast as it separates. The draining process continues until
the cheese has reached its final form and weight. The intervening
process of matting in the Cheddar group involves a combination of a
souring process with the removal of whey, during which the cubes of
curd become fused into semi-solid masses. If such masses are
formed, they must be ground up before the cheese can be given its
final form in the hoop. The draining process, therefore, may take any
one of many forms varying from the direct transfer of freshly formed
curd into hoops in which the entire draining process is completed, to
an elaborate series of operations which end in pressing curd drained
to approximately its final condition before it is placed in the hoop.
103. Application to cheese.—From the discussion of these
factors, it is evident that the cheeses produced will differ widely with
the differences in manipulation. If one considers essential
constituent substances separately, the water-content of the finished
product is found to vary from 30 per cent in Parmesan to 75 per cent
in cottage cheese. The fat-content runs from a trace in some
varieties to 60 per cent in some cream cheeses. The texture of the
casein, which gives character to the product, varies from the tough
or glue-like consistency of freshly made Swiss to the buttery
condition of a cream or Neufchâtel cheese. Inside such limits the
tastes of different peoples have led to the manufacture of many
kinds of cheese. Each of these varieties represents some particular
combination of curd-making factors and ripening conditions which
produces a cheese suited to the taste of the maker and consumer of
that country or community.
 CHAPTER VI

CLASSIFICATION
The literature of cheese-making contains reference to more than 500
names for varieties of cheese. Many of these can be thrown readily
into great groups or families in which there are variations in
unessential detail without modifying the characteristic texture and
flavor of the product. Many varietal names are attached to the
product of single factories or factory groups. Such varieties
frequently differ only slightly in size or shape, or in stage of drainage
or of ripening, from widely known varieties or other similar local
forms. The descriptions recorded for such varieties commonly
emphasize minor differences in manipulation without showing
differences in essential factors. Vessels of particular size are
prescribed to be made of wood, earthenware, or of a special metal.
These details specify the exact size and shape of hoops, the use of
particular styles of cutting or breaking instruments and of certain
stirring tools, the material and construction of mats and draining
racks.
The descriptions themselves are very commonly inadequate. The
variable factors in cheese-making are fat-content of the milk, acidity,
temperature of setting, amount of rennet, time allowed for curdling
and the method of draining the curd. The differences in practice lie,
with few exceptions, in the amount or intensity of particular factors,
not differences in kind or quality of treatment. Such contrasts are
quantitative, not qualitative. A great number of combinations is
possible by small variations of these factors.
Varieties selected as types of groups give marked contrasts in
character, but comparison of large numbers of forms shows that
almost every gradation from group to group can actually be found.
Within groups frequently the same physical results in texture and
flavor can be obtained by combinations or adjustments of factors for
the purpose of offsetting or counteracting the effects of one change
in practice by the manipulation of other factors. In ripening, an
equally large range of practices makes possible the development of
very different qualities in mature cheeses from the same lot.
Only a few of the large number of described varieties have obtained
even national importance; fewer still are known outside the country
of origin. In spite of the success of special products when properly
advertised, the largest place in the market is clearly accorded to the
standard forms which are widely known.
104. Basis of classification.—A series of these widely known
forms has been chosen as typical of groups in a system of
classification adapted from the French of Pouriau. No completely
satisfactory scheme of classifying all of these varieties has been
devised. The grouping proposed here is based on the principles of
curd-making already discussed together with consideration of the
ripening processes to be discussed with each group. The factors that
actually influence the quality of the final product are separated as
completely as possible from non-essential operative details.
The common use of the terms "soft" and "hard" cheese is based on
the single arbitrary fact of texture. The term "semi-hard" cheese
may be conveniently applied to a miscellaneous group of unrelated
families which are intermediate in texture between such soft forms
as Neufchâtel or Camembert and really hard cheeses like Cheddar or
Parmesan. Although these terms are not made the main basis of the
proposed grouping, their application to sections is indicated.
Classification based on the essential facts of manufacture is,
however, really helpful.

Analytical
Tabulation
of Groups
Section I. Cheeses with sour milk flavor only (Eaten fresh).
(Soft cheeses 45 to 75% water) Page
1. Curdled by souring, Cottage cheese and its allies in
America, many related varieties in Europe 90
2. Curdled by souring and rennet—the Neufchâtel group 95
a. Skim—Skim-milk Neufchâtel 105
b. Part skim to whole milk—American or Domestic
Neufchâtel 106
c. With fat added—the cream cheeses of the
Neufchâtel group (both American and European)
—such as Cream, Gervais, Malakoffs, etc. 108
Section II. Cheeses ripened.
Subsection A. Soft cheeses (40 to 50% water).
1. Curdled by souring, heated, then ripened.
Hand cheese, Pennsylvania pot cheese, Harz, etc. 112
2. Curdled by souring, and rennet, ripened.
Ripened (French) Neufchâtel 114
3. Curdled primarily by rennet.
a. Ripened by mold—Camambert, Brie and their
allies. 117
b. Ripened by bacteria.
* Made from soft or friable curd
—d'Isigny, Liederkranz, etc. 134
** Made from firm or tough curd
—Limburger and allies. 139
Subsection B. Semi-hard cheeses, firm, well-drained.
(38 to 45% water)
a. Curd not cooked, ripened by molds.
* Made from friable curd—Roquefort 150
** Made from firm or tough curd—Gorgonzola,
Stilton and such French forms as Gex,
Septmoncel 158
b. Curd cooked and ripened by bacteria,—brick,
Munster, Port du Salut (Oka) 164
Subsection C. Hard cheeses, cooked and pressed (30
to 40% water)
a. Ripened without gas holes. 164
 1. Dutch—Edam, Gouda. 173
2. Danish. 173
3. The Cheddar group.
* English—Cheddar and numerous related
forms known principally in Great Britain 184
** American—the factory Cheddar of related
forms United States and Canada 173
b. Ripened with the development of gas holes. 164
* Holes large—Swiss-Emmenthal Gruyère,
American Swiss. 173
** Holes small—Parmesan and related varieties. 173

Such a classification brings together series of products in which

there is essential similarity in the final output, however great the
differences in manipulation. It does not consider all varieties and
specialties. Some of these groups are important enough to demand
special mention.
105. Processed cheeses.—Cheese of any group may be run
through mixing and molding machines and repackaged in very
different form from that characteristic of the variety. In such
treatment, the texture and appearance may be so changed as to
give the effect of a new product. Substances (such as pimiento) are
added to change the flavor. Or the product may be canned and
sterilized with equally great change of flavor and texture. One thus
finds Club made from Cheddar; Pimiento from Cream, Neufchâtel or
Cheddar; similarly olive, nut and other combinations are made. The
possible variations are numerous.
106. Whey cheeses.—Several products bearing cheese names are
made from whey. These take the forms of the recovery of the
albumin and casein separately or in a single product, and the
recovery of the milk-sugar either alone or with the albumin. Whey
cheeses have been especially developed by the Scandinavian people,
although some of them have their origin in the south of Europe.
Certain of these varieties are produced on a limited scale in America.
There are a number of forms fairly widely known that are difficult to
place in this scheme of groups. Among these are Caciocavallo, Sap
Sago.
107. Soft and hard cheeses.—Another commonly used
classification makes two groups: (1) soft cheeses; (2) hard cheeses.
In such a classification the semi-hard group presented here is
included with the soft cheeses. Some cheeses of this group are soft
in texture. This is correlated with high water-content, high fat-
content or both together.
108. Relation of moisture to classes.—In this classification the
water-content reflected in the texture of the cheese assumes first
place. To carry the analysis somewhat further by showing the
correlation between water-content and certain factors, a tabulation
of well-known varieties of typical groups is presented (Table III). In
this table the series of typical dairy products are first arranged
according to water-content of the final product. Approximate limits
of percentages of milk-fat are also given, because milk-fat frequently
affects texture to a degree almost equal to water. Column 4 gives
the period within which the more quickly perishable cheeses are
usable, and the length of the ripening for the more solid forms. The
correlation between water-content, texture and the time of keeping
is clearly shown for most varieties.

TABLE III

Correlation Water- and Fat-Content with Ripening

 Per Per
Period Ripening
Variety of Cent Cent
Required Agent
Water Fat

Cheese: Soft,
Cottage 70 trace a few days Bacteria
Skim Neufchâtel 70 trace a few days Bacteria
Neufchâtel 50-60 12-28 a few days Bacteria
Camembert 50 22-30 3-5 weeks Molds
Cream cheese 40-50 35-45 a few days Primarily
bacteria
Semi-hard:
Limburger 40-45 24-30 3-6 months Bacteria
Roquefort 38-40 31-34 3-6 months Mold
Brick 37-42 31-35 3-6 months Bacteria

Hard:
Cheddar 30-39 32-36 6-12 Bacteria
months
Swiss 31-34 28-31 9-18 Bacteria
months and yeasts
Parmesan 30-33 2-3 years Bacteria

The soft cheeses are quickly perishable products. Bacteria and molds
find favorable conditions for growth in products with 45 to 75 per
cent of water. If such growth is permitted, enzymic activities follow
quickly with resultant changes in appearance, texture, odor and
taste. Refrigeration is necessary to transport such cheeses to the
consumer, if properly ripened. Trade in these forms may continue
throughout the year in cool climates and in places where adequate
refrigeration is available. Practically, however, outside the large cities
this trade in America is at present limited to the cold months; inside
the large cities much reduced quantities of these cheeses continue
to be handled through the year.
In the stricter sense, the soft group of cheeses falls naturally into
two series: (1) the varieties eaten fresh; and (2) the ripened soft
cheeses. Those eaten fresh have a making process which commonly
involves the development of a lactic acid flavor by souring, but no
ripening is contemplated after the product leaves the maker's hands.
In the ripened series, after the making process is completed, the
essential flavors and textures are developed by the activity of micro-
organisms during ripening periods varying in length but fairly well-
defined for each variety.
In contrast to the soft cheeses, the hard kinds are low in water-
content, ripen more slowly and may be kept through much longer
periods. They retain their form through a wider range of climatic
conditions. They develop flavor slowly and correspondingly
deteriorate much more slowly. Such cheeses are in marketable
condition over longer periods. In their manufacture the cooking of
the curd takes a prominent place.
109. Relation of heat to classes.—The close relation between the
heat applied and the product sought forms the basis of a striking
series of graphs (Fig. 12, page 78). These show the changes hour by
hour in the heat relation during the making process of a series of
widely known forms, each of which is chosen as typical. In some of
these forms, heat is applied but once to bring the milk to the
renneting temperature typical for the variety. Subsequent
manipulations are accompanied by a steady fall in temperature. In
other forms, the curd when solid is specially heated or "cooked" to
bring about the changes characteristic of the variety. These contrasts
are clearly brought out by the graphs which represent practices well
recognized for the varieties. The detailed process for these groups is
considered in succeeding chapters.
 CHAPTER VII

CHEESES WITH SOUR-MILK FLAVOR

The cheeses with flavor of sour milk are probably more widely used
than any other group. Historically and to a very large degree at
present, they are farm cheeses.31 No estimate of volume of such
production in the household has ever been made. The utilization of
surplus milk in this way is of ancient origin.
With the introduction of the factory system of handling milk, the
manufacture of such cheese in the household was largely dropped.
The rise in price of all food substances and increasing appreciation
of the food value of milk products have made the recovery of all
surplus milk in some form very necessary. The manufacture of
cottage, Neufchâtel and cream cheese is one of the best forms of
such recovery which may be adapted to utilize any grade from
skimmed-milk to cream. Large quantities of skimmed-milk have
frequently been lost from the total of human food by the
manufacture of casein for industrial uses, and by use as stock feed.
110. Skim series.—The kinds of cheeses eaten fresh have in
common a very soft texture and the flavor of sour milk, principally
lactic acid. The group falls naturally into two sections: (1) the
cheeses made from milk curdled by souring; (2) those for which the
milk is curdled by souring and rennet. In the latter group both
agencies are necessary to the resulting product. The time required
to curdle by souring alone is longer than when rennet is used; this
period is usually longer than necessary for the cream to rise by
gravity; hence the cream is either skimmed off or removed with the
separator beforehand. The curd, therefore, is essentially a skimmed-
milk curd. Casein curdled in this way tends to become granular or
"rough," to feel "sandy" when rubbed between the fingers. Heating
is commonly necessary to lower the water-content of the mass even
to 75 per cent. Such curd tends to become hard or rubbery when
heat is applied. In this group, the best known form is variously called
"cottage" cheese, "clabber" cheese, schmierkäse.
111. Cottage cheese is made from skimmed-milk, soured by lactic
bacteria until a curd is formed. This is done preferably at about 20°
C. (70° F.), because at this temperature the purely lactic type of
organism has been found to outgrow competing forms which may be
present. Starter containing the desired culture, if properly used,
saves much time in the curdling period. Such curdling requires at
least twelve to twenty-four hours, frequently much longer unless
abundant starter is introduced.
112. Household practice.—The details of cottage cheese making
in the home differ widely in separate sections and even in different
families in the same part of the country. The essentials of the
practice, common to all, include: (1) curdling the whole milk by
natural souring; (2) removing the sour cream which is usually used
for butter-making; (3) scalding the curdled skimmed-milk either by
slowly heating it in the original vessel surrounded by hot water or by
actually pouring an approximately equal volume of boiling water into
the curdled mass; (4) bagging and draining the mass until it reaches
the desired texture; (5) the kneading of the mass with the addition
of salt and cream. The resulting product varies greatly in quality.
Unfavorable fermentations frequently affect the flavor.32 The
"scalding" varies from a temperature of 90° F. almost to boiling with
a resultant texture varying from almost the smooth buttery
consistency of Neufchâtel to hard coarse granular lumps. The best
practice, using clean well-cared-for milk and draining at low
temperature, produces a very attractive cheese. Such cheese is
heated to 90° to 100° F. on the maker's judgment, drained carefully,
kneaded well by hand or by machine with the addition of cream to
give it an attractive texture and flavor.
113. Factory practice.—When cottage cheese is made in the
factory,33 separated milk is taken; it should be pasteurized and then
soured by a lactic starter. The souring can be accelerated by the use
of a starter, which may be added at the rate of 0.5 to 5 per cent of
the skimmed-milk used, depending on the amount of starter that
can be made. Generally, the more starter added, the more rapid will
be the coagulation and the better will be the flavor of the cheese. As
soon as the milk has thickened, the curd is ready to be broken up
and separated from the whey. This separation is hastened by the
application of heat. Usually the temperature of the curd is raised
slightly before it is broken up; since this makes the curd firmer, there
will be a smaller loss of curd particles in the whey. The curd may be
cut with coarse Cheddar cheese knives or broken with a rake. The
temperature of the curd should be raised very slowly, at least thirty
minutes being taken to reach the desired final temperature. No set
rule can be given as to the exact temperature to which the curd
should be heated. The temperature should be raised until a point is
reached at which the curd, when pressed between the thumb and
the fingers, will stick together and not go back to the milky state.
This temperature is usually from 94° to 100° F., but the cheese-
maker must use his own judgment in this respect. If the curd is
heated too much, it will be hard and dry; on the other hand, if it is
not heated sufficiently, the whey will not separate from the curd and
the latter will be very soft and mushy.
When the curd has been heated sufficiently and has become firmed
in the whey, it should be removed from the whey. This may be done
either by letting down one end of the vat and piling the curd in the
upper end, or by dipping out the curd into a cloth bag and allowing
the whey to drain, which it does very rapidly. No treatment can
prevent the "roughness" of an acid curd (this is a fine gritty feeling
when rubbed between the fingers), but the coarse hard grainy
texture and lumps characteristic of the highly heated curd do not
develop. Experimental workers have agreed that to have the proper
texture, such curd should contain when finished about 70 to 75 per
cent of water. It should have a mild but clean acid flavor. Such a
cheese will carry about 1 to 2 per cent of salt, without an
objectionably salty taste. This cheese is commonly sold by measure,
sometimes in molds or cartons. The manufacture of all forms of
cottage cheese has been largely superseded by the making of
skimmed-milk Neufchâtel or Baker's cheese.
The yield from one hundred pounds of skimmed-milk runs up to
fourteen to nineteen pounds of cheese, when made very wet or from
pasteurized milk. The yield varies with the moisture-content of the
cheese, being greater for cheese with a high content. Too much
moisture or whey should not be left in the curd, however, as this will
render it too soft to be handled.
Cottage cheese made by either the home or factory practice is a
quickly perishable article. Although the acid restrains bacteria at
first, the high percentage of water favors the growth of molds which
tolerate acidity, especially Oidium (Oospora) lactis and the Mucors or
black molds. These molds destroy acidity rapidly and thus permit the
bacteria of decay to develop and to produce objectionable taste and
odors. Spoilage in these products is accelerated by the kneading
process which distributes air throughout the mass and with it all
forms of microbial contamination.
114. Buttermilk cheese.—A cheese closely resembling cottage
may be made from buttermilk. If the buttermilk came from cream
which was churned before it became sour, the process is the same
as that already described for the making of cottage cheese from
skimmed-milk. If the buttermilk came from sour cream the process
of manufacture is much more difficult. The casein of sour cream has
already been coagulated with acid and broken during churning into
very minute rather hard particles. These fine particles are difficult to
recover. They are so fine that they pass through the draining cloth or
at other times clog it and prevent drainage. They do not stick
together at ordinary temperatures. They cannot be collected by the
use of acid because they have already been coagulated with acid.
After casein has been coagulated with acid, rennet extract will not
recoagulate the particles. The buttermilk may be mixed with sweet
skimmed-milk; then as the latter coagulates, it locks in the casein of
the buttermilk so that it can be collected. If buttermilk from soured
cream is used alone, the casein may be collected34 by neutralizing
and heating to 130 to 150° F., and holding until the casein gathers
together. The whey can then be drawn off. Often there is further
difficulty in getting the casein to collect, since the pieces remain so
small that they go through the strainer.
Cheese made entirely from buttermilk is sandy in texture and often
not palatable. If the buttermilk with good flavor is mixed with
skimmed-milk, it makes a good cheese closely resembling cottage.
115. Neufchâtel group.35—The Neufchâtel process originated in
northern France where a number of varieties are included under this
as a group name. Among these are Bondon, Malakoff, Petit Suisse,
Petit Carré. The name designates a general process of curd-making
which is applied to skimmed-milk, whole milk or cream. Some of the
resultant cheeses are ripened; some are eaten fresh. The Neufchâtel
cheeses of France gained such wide recognition for quality that the
process of making has become widely known. In America the
manipulations of the French process were early dropped. The
essentials were made the basis of a successful factory practice which
has been widely adopted. The American factory practice is discussed
here and the French process briefly considered under the heading
Ripened Neufchâtel. (See Chapter VIII.)
116. Domestic or American Neufchâtel cheeses are soft, have
clean sour milk (lactic acid) flavor and are quickly perishable. In all
but the coldest weather, they require refrigeration to reduce
deterioration and loss. They range in fat-content from traces only to
50 per cent and more; in water from 40 to 75 per cent, according to
the milk used. In texture Neufchâtel is smooth, free from gas, free
from lumps or roughness when rubbed between the fingers. This
flavor and texture is obtained by a combination of slow rennet
curdling with developing acidity. No further ripening is permitted.
117. The factory.—Neufchâtel factories require the standard dairy
equipment for receiving, weighing, testing, separating, heating,
pasteurizing and cooling the milk. Since many factories produce
several products, the same general dairy equipment may serve for
all. In addition to such equipment, Neufchâtel requires a curdling
apparatus which can be held at 70-75° F. This may be a room
properly controlled, or a tank where temperature control is obtained
by water and steam. For draining, a room kept at 60° F. gives nearly
the ideal temperature, which must be supplemented by relative
humidity high enough to prevent the exposed surface of curd from
drying during periods of twelve to twenty-four hours. This requires
almost a saturated atmosphere. A room with special molding
machinery is required and tables for wrapping, labeling and boxing
the product are necessary. Box-making machinery is usually an
economic necessity for work on a large scale. Adequate refrigeration
is requisite both to chill the curd before molding and to preserve it
after packaging.

Fig. 13.—Neufchâtel draining racks.

118. Cans.—For curdling, the "shot-gun" can, about nine inches in

diameter and twenty inches deep, is generally used. This holds thirty
to forty pounds of milk. Increased capacity is dependent, therefore,
on the number of units installed, not on changes in the units
themselves.
119. Draining racks.—A draining rack is required for each can of
curd. These racks also are standardized units whose number limits
the capacity of the factory.
The design of these racks
(Figs. 13, 14) and their
arrangement in the
draining room are taken
from Bulletin 78 of the
Storrs Agricultural
Experiment Station: "The
racks are rectangular,
thirteen inches wide,
thirty-six inches long and
ten inches deep. The
corner posts extend one Fig. 14.—Detail of a Neufchâtel draining rack.
and one-half inches
beyond the strips at top and bottom with the tops rounded as a rule
as seen in the photograph. The bottom slats fit loosely into notches,
hence are removable for washing purposes. The materials required
are four corner posts one and one-half by one and one-half inches;
nine strips one by three-eighths by thirty-six inches; six strips one by
three-eighths by thirteen inches, two strips one by three-eighths by
twelve and a quarter inches, notched to receive the bottom slats; all
made from pine."
120. Cloths.—For each draining rack, a cloth one yard wide and
one and one-half yards long is required. Cotton sheeting is
satisfactory for the purpose; "even-count, round-thread,
unmercerized voile" is suggested by Dahlberg.36
121. Molding machinery.—For work on a large scale, special
power machines37 are regularly used. These consist of a hopper and
worm delivering a standard size stream of curd through a proper size
and shape of delivery tube. This curd stream is cut by an automatic
device into the proper lengths to form the standard cheese. In this
way a uniform size of cheeses is obtained. Experimental work with
 hand apparatus showed that a
worm six inches in diameter is
required to deliver curd in a
smooth column one and one-
half inches square. If the
pressure is not sufficient, the
column will frill at the edges.
Such irregular surfaces cannot
be wrapped smoothly enough
to delay spoilage.
On a small scale, a fair grade
Fig. 15.—Neufchâtel and cream cheese of product can be molded
molds. through a tin tube (see Fig.
15) one and three-quarters
inches in diameter and ten inches long in which the curd is
compressed by a close fitting plunger operated by hand.
122. Milk for Neufchâtel should be clean, free from gas and taint.
Such milk should preferably be not more than twelve hours old when
received and in no case show higher than 0.20 per cent lactic acid
by titration. Milk testing 4 per cent fat or higher will produce a
higher quality of product than lower grade milk, although every
grade from skimmed-milk to cream is used in producing some form
of Neufchâtel. This milk should be pasteurized unless shown to be
free from tuberculosis by proper test of the cattle. Evidence38 that
the organism of tuberculosis will withstand the regular handling
process for cheeses of this group and retain its ability to cause
disease in experimental animals makes the introduction of
pasteurization necessary in this whole group of cheeses. Any
effective pasteurization may be used, but temperatures of 140-145°
F. for thirty minutes have been effective with less changes in the
milk than higher temperatures for shorter periods. The milk should
be cooled to curdling temperature and the starter and rennet added
and stirred into the milk in bulk. The milk may then be quickly
distributed into the curdling cans with a hose or from the gate valve
of the mixing vat.
123. Starter.—To insure the development of a clean acid flavor, a
small amount of lactic starter should be used. The quantity to use
depends on the quality of the milk. With skimmed-milk, a pint for
each thirty-pound can is recommended by Matheson and Cammack39
and by Dahlberg. (See page 98.) For whole-milk Neufchâtel, 2 c.c. to
a thirty-pound can of milk commonly gives good results. On this
basis 2 ounces of starter would be sufficient if properly stirred into
about 1000 pounds of milk. Too slow development of acid is
preferable to over-rapid souring.
124. Renneting or setting.—The milk should be cooled after
pasteurizing to between 70° and 75° F. Rennet is added at the rate
of ½ c.c. to a thirty-pound can (roughly ⅓ ounce to 1000 pounds).
This will thicken the milk sufficiently in the first few hours to reduce
the separation of the cream. For completion of the curdling and
souring process, twelve to eighteen hours are required. Usually the
cans stand overnight at uniform temperature. When ready to drain,
the curd should be firm, smooth and mildly acid. Whey separating
from it should not titrate above 0.35 per cent titrated as lactic acid.
125. Draining.—A cloth is spread over a draining rack and the
contents of one "shot-gun" can poured upon the cloth with as little
breaking as possible. In this way a large surface is exposed. The
room must be kept wet to prevent the surface of the curd drying to
form crusts which stop draining. A temperature of 60° F. is favorable
to the maintenance of proper texture and humidity without the
development of objectionable organisms, especially Oidium lactis,
which tends to cover every exposed surface in such rooms. Draining
may be hastened by turning the curd or changing the position of the
cloth. In factory practice, the large draining surface reduces the
necessity of handling the curd and reduces the loss of fat. About
twelve hours are required upon the draining racks.
On a small scale with a few cans of curd in the home, any form of
draining rack may be used, such as a potato or berry crate, or the
corners of the cloth may be brought together, tied and the mass
hung up. The curd must be turned by pulling up the corners of the
cloth to prevent drying at the edges and stoppage of draining from
the center of the mass. Such treatment produces much more rapid
drainage than the factory practice and involves proportionately more
labor and larger fat losses.
126. Cooling Neufchâtel.—When whey ceases to separate readily,
the corners of the cloth are loosed from the rack, folded diagonally
or tied, and the curd cooled on ice or in refrigerators. When
thoroughly chilled the bags of curd are put into presses, where light
but increasing pressure forces more whey out of the mass. Tests at
this time should show about 0.60 per cent acid in the whey. With
low-fat curd every step of the process may be hastened, but with
high-fat care must be exercised to prevent loss of fat during pressing
especially. Any pressing device permitting continuous pressure with
ease of manipulation may be used.
127. Pressing.—The ideals of the maker must determine the extent
of pressing. A high yield is obtained by leaving whey in the curd. If
immediate consumption is certain, such cheese may be satisfactory,
but if the cheese is to be held some days the extra whey carrying
more milk-sugar favors increased acid development. This produces
very sour cheese with much more danger of other fermentations
which cause objectionable flavor. Too much water favors more active
bacterial growth as well as produces cheese too soft for the
necessary handling in the market.
In the press, several bags of curd may be piled together. The press
should be released and the bags turned from time to time to insure
even drainage. Several hours of pressing are usually required. The
danger of insufficient pressing is due to the difference of texture
between the worked and unworked curd. Before working, curd
carrying 10 per cent excess moisture resembles the finished product
sufficiently to deceive any but the experienced maker. But if this curd
is transferred to the worker and to the molding machine, it is found
to become soft, pasty and
sticky, to lack "body," hence to
make very unsatisfactory
packages and to spoil very
quickly. The masses of curd
should come out of the press
as dry and hard flat cakes.
128. Working and salting
Neufchâtel.—The cakes of
curd go from the press to the
working table. Here they are
broken by hand or by a
butter-worker or kneading
machine (Fig. 16). Salt at the
rate of one and one-half
Fig. 16.—Working Neufchâtel.
pounds to 100 pounds of curd
is added. If the curd is not
sufficiently pressed, the masses become mushy or pasty during the
working process. The working is continued until the whole mass is
uniformly smooth and buttery.
129. Storage.—The draining and working processes permit the
contamination of the curd with organisms from the air and from the
apparatus. These are distributed throughout the mass. Air is also
worked thoroughly into the curd. Such a product spoils quickly.
Distributing houses find the Neufchâtel trade uncertain in volume
from day to day, hence many of them store the cheese in bulk and
package only fast enough to fill orders. This minimizes the loss due
to spoilage. Such curd may be packed into tubs and kept for
considerable time in cold storage. If molded for the retail trade, it is
more quickly perishable. When packed solidly in mass, curd is largely
protected from spoilage by the exclusion of air and perhaps the
quick exhaustion of free oxygen through the respiration of the micro-
organisms present and by its acidity. This must be supplemented by
low temperature to reduce the loss to a minimum. Even when
spoilage begins, it is easily confined to the slight growth of Oidium
lactis or green mold and bacteria on exposed areas. These can be
removed with minimum loss and damage to the mass. On the other
hand, such curd molded into the commercial package of 3 to 6
ounces and wrapped in paper, with tin-foil or carton for protection,
still presents enormously increased surface for the growth of aerobic
forms—especially Oidium lactis, green mold (Roquefort mold is the
usual green species) and accompanying bacteria. Curd in tubs may
be kept some days; in commercial packages lowering of quality
(flavor) begins almost at once.
130. Molding.—When the standard molding machine (Fig. 17) is
provided, curd is brought directly from the refrigerator to the
machine. If permitted to become warm, the mass becomes sticky;
when cold it is more readily handled. The machine is fitted with the
special delivery tube for the variety to be handled, cylindrical for
Neufchâtel in its various forms, rectangular in section for cream.
Enough workers should be provided to wrap and label the cheese
without leaving it exposed to contamination or heat. Parchment
paper and tin-foil cut the proper size for each variety and bearing
printed labels are readily obtainable. Each cheese should be
wrapped with paper and tin-foil and put directly into a flat box which
holds a standard number (usually 12 or 24) of the special product.
 Fig. 17.—Molding Neufchâtel.

In working with the hand molding tube (Fig. 15) the same care is
required. Chilled curd is forced into a firm smooth mass with the
plunger. It is removed and wrapped when it reaches the regular size
of the variety.
All forms when molded go directly into the boxes and then back to
the refrigerators until demanded for actual use. The details of the
process differ according to the form made.
131. Skimmed-milk Neufchâtel.—Separator skimmed-milk is
frequently made into curd by the Neufchâtel process. The absence of
fat eliminates the largest element of loss in manufacture. Each stage
of the making process, therefore, may be shortened. The demand
that the curd shall be smooth and buttery in texture rather than
rough or gritty requires the exercise of care in curdling of milk. The
draining and pressing of the curd may be accomplished much more
rapidly than in the fatty cheeses. The final product should differ from
cottage cheese in smoother texture, milder acidity and, as a rule,
cleaner flavor. In composition, the absence of fat must be largely
compensated by leaving more water in the cheese. Such a product
reaches the market with 65 to 75 per cent of water and perhaps
1.25 per cent of salt. Casein forms 20 to 30 per cent of the mass.
These cheeses are very perishable on account of their high water-
content. The destructive effect of microorganisms both in the interior
of the cheese and upon its surface is rapid.
Cheeses of this description may be found in the trade as cottage
cheese, Neufchâtel style, and as Neufchâtel made from skimmed-
milk; skimmed-milk Neufchâtel would be a strictly proper labeling.
132. Baker's cheese.—There is considerable market for skimmed-
milk curd as Baker's cheese. This product is essentially skimmed-milk
Neufchâtel curd, partially drained and sold in bulk. When the bakery
is near by, the curd is frequently shoveled into milk-cans in very wet
condition and sent directly from the factory to the bakery. If the
distance is such as to require considerable time for transportation,
the same care is frequently given as for Neufchâtel curd packed in
bulk for storage and transportation.
Great variations in practice are found among the makers of this type
of product. In some cases low grade skimmed-milk is handled on a
large scale. Curdling is done quickly and little care is given to the
details of flavor and texture in the curd. Working in this manner, two
men are able to make a ton of such curd, and ship it out in milk-cans
each day. The resulting product, although very deficient in flavor and
texture, goes into manufactured specialties which conceal its
deficiencies if considered as cheese.
133. Domestic Neufchâtel.—The name Neufchâtel, unless limited
clearly by the label, should designate a cheese made from fresh
whole milk. Cheeses of this group are produced in a small number of
well-equipped factories scattered widely through the dairy states of
the North and Northeast. Every factory uses one or more trade
names for its product. The same product is frequently relabeled by
the distributor who uses his own trade name instead of that of the
maker.
The usual form of package is cylindrical, about 1¾ inches in
diameter and 2½ inches long, or sometimes rectangular 2½ by 1½
by 1½ inches. The cheese is protected by wrapping in parchment
paper closely surrounded by tin-foil. These packages vary from 2½
to 4 ounces. In some cases screw-topped glass jars are substituted
for the tin-foil package. They are objectionable, first, because of cost
and, second, because they are so commonly associated with less
perishable products as to mislead either dealer or consumer into
holding the product for too long a time. The paper or tin-foil
package can be kept only at refrigerator temperature, hence
automatically keeps its possessor reminded of the perishable nature
of its contents.
Neufchâtel of the best quality made from whole milk testing about 4
per cent fat may be expected to fall within the following limits;40
many grades contain more water than this at the expense of flavor
and keeping quality:
Water 50-55 per cent
Fat 23-28 per cent
Casein 18-21 per cent
Salt 0.5-1.25 per cent

Yield 12-14 lb. per 100 lb. of milk.

134. Partially skim Neufchâtel.—Brands of Neufchâtel made

from milk that would test every gradation from whole milk to
separator skimmed-milk may be found. The quality of the product
varies with the skill of the maker from brands no better than cottage
cheese to products scarcely distinguishable from the best whole-milk
Neufchâtel. Many factories that produce more than one quality of
Neufchâtel use labels of different color, different design or both to
separate them; for example, blue labels usually stand for whole milk,
red labels represent lower grades. Sometimes the difference in
material is indicated by a clear cut grade mark. Frequently color, a
design of label or both are the only definite marks upon the cheese.
The consumer unfamiliar with the trade practice commonly has no
means of knowing the quality of the product offered. Such cheeses
vary in water-content from 55 to 70 per cent; in fat from 10 to 25
per cent; in casein from 18 to 25 per cent.
135. Cream cheese.—The Neufchâtel process is also used to make
cream cheese. The material utilized is commonly what has been
called double cream. This is produced by separating about half of a
given volume of milk and running the cream into the other half.
Usually cream cheese is made in the same factory as various grades
of Neufchâtel. No material is lost. In some instances, cream cheese
is prepared by working thick cream into the Neufchâtel type of curd
from practically skimmed-milk. In working with high percentages of
fat in curd, care must be taken to avoid loss of fat in draining and
pressing. The curd is carefully chilled before pressing to reduce this
loss. This may be done under refrigeration or upon cracked ice.
Otherwise the manipulations of the process are unchanged. The
cheeses are commonly molded in the Neufchâtel machine into
square cakes weighing about 4 ounces and measuring approximately
3 by 2¼ by ⅞ inches. These are wrapped in paper and tin-foil and
handled exactly as Neufchâtel.
Cream cheese of high quality made from reënforced milk testing 7 to
9 per cent fat may be expected to test approximately as follows:41
Water 38-43 per cent
Fat 43-48 per cent
Protein 13-16 per cent
Salt 0.5-1.25 per cent

Yield 16-18 lb. per 100 lb. of cream.

Increases of water, hence greater yields, are very common but

usually associated with loss in quality both as to flavor and texture,
and in more rapid spoilage; certain brands regularly carry 50 to 60
per cent of fat but their increased cost of manufacture and sale
restricts them to the rôle of specialties with closely limited
distribution. Trade names such as Philadelphia Cream, Cow Brand,
Eagle Brand, Square Cream, Blue Label and many other factory
brands are on the market.
136. Neufchâtel specialties.—Neufchâtel or cream cheese curd is
frequently mixed with some flavoring substance, such as pimiento
(pickled Spanish peppers), olives, nuts, spices or other cheeses,
such as Roquefort. These bear appropriate trade names and form a
very attractive addition to our varieties of cheese. Among the names
found are Pimiento, Olive, Nut, and Pim-olive or Olimento.
137. Gervais is a brand of cream cheese made in Paris and sold
widely in France and even in other continental countries. It
occasionally comes to America. As made in Paris, these cheeses are
flat cakes containing approximately 40 per cent water and 35-45 per
cent fat. It clearly differs only in detail from the square cream
cheeses made in America. The name Gervais is the property of a
particular company. Since the cheese differs in no essential feature
from other cream cheeses, this name should not be applied to a
domestic cream brand.
138. European forms occasionally imported.—Among the
cheeses related to Neufchâtel as they reach the market are the
"White" cheeses of southern Europe. These differ greatly in quality
according to their source and to their content of cow, sheep, goat's
milk or some combination of these. This texture and flavor link them
with unripened Neufchâtel. The time required for importation puts a
minimum possible period of ten to fifteen days between production
and consumption with a probable period of at least one month for
most samples. As they come to America, these forms usually show
fermentive changes beyond those tolerated in the domestic product.
This may take either of several forms: (1) intensification of acid
flavor with the intensification of the characteristic flavors of the
particular brand; (2) the development of old or rancid flavors; (3)
the development of Oidium and partial softening of the mass
through its agency; (4) the growth of Roquefort mold and
development of the flavor associated with that organism. This last
form was found in a shipment of Hungarian Briuse which showed
about 40 per cent fat, 14 per cent protein and 43 per cent water.
 CHAPTER VIII

SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY MOLD

The ripened soft cheeses include a series of groups of varieties
which, in addition to initial souring, have been subjected to special
ripening processes, and which in the ripened condition are soft in
texture and mostly have high flavors. The varieties in each group
have in common some essential principles of manufacture together
with a ripening process dominated by a characteristic group of
organisms. In certain groups, the ripening is dominated by a
yellowish or orange viscid surface slime containing Oidium lactis and
bacteria; in another series, the characteristic organism is a mold of
the genus Penicillium (P. Camemberti). Referring to the analysis of
groups (page 83), the ripened soft cheeses are found to fall into
three well-marked groups, one of which may perhaps be subdivided
as indicated. The series curdled by souring alone begins with
approximately cottage cheese curd and develops high flavors by
ripening, as in "hand" cheese. Ripened Neufchâtel curdled by
souring and rennet together finds its basis in Neufchâtel curd also
but modifies the final product until the familiar flavor and texture of
the unripened form are no longer recognizable. Among the forms
curdled by rennet alone the Camembert series contains one form,
Coulommiers, which is occasionally used unripe, but represents in
general a mold-ripened group of highly flavored forms. The series of
soft rennet cheeses ripened by bacteria may be broadly designated
the Limburger group.
139. Hand cheese and its allies.—Among skim cheeses, there is
a series of forms largely German in origin in which curd not far
removed from cottage cheese is the basis of the product. Harz
cheese is one of the best-known of these forms as studied by Eckles
and Rahn.42 One of these forms, hand cheese,43 is manufactured on
a commercial basis in farm dairies among families of German
descent principally in Pennsylvania, and on a factory basis in a few
places in New York, northern Illinois and Wisconsin. On the small
scale, curd is made by natural souring or by use of starter, heated to
expel water, cooled and molded by hand into cakes two to three
inches in diameter and one-half to three-quarters inch in thickness.
The freshly formed cakes are placed upon a shelf to dry. There they
are turned daily until fairly firm, then packed in rolls into wooden
boxes and ripened in a cool damp room. In this ripening there is a
prompt development of a heavy viscous slime, which consists of
Oidium and bacteria. Other molds forming loose cottony mycelium
are brushed off if they appear. The proper consistency of this slimy
covering depends on a close adjustment of water-content in the
cheese with temperature and relative humidity in the ripening room.
If conditions are too dry, the cheeses harden quickly or if less dry
they are attacked by green or blue-green molds. If too wet, the
slimy covering becomes too soft and watery, or secondarily covered
with loose shimmering masses of mold (Mucor sp.). Ripening should
proceed slowly and occupy a period of six to eight weeks.
140. Pennsylvania pot cheese.—A form of "pot" cheese is made
in certain counties of Pennsylvania, principally for local use.
Production of this cheese on a factory basis is now being attempted.
The steps in manufacture are about as follows:44 (1) The home-
made type of cottage cheese curd is prepared, put into a crock or
pot and covered carefully; (2) kept in a warm place (in kitchen
usually); (3) stirred from time to time, until it has ripened to a semi-
liquid condition. This occurs very rapidly under the attack of Oidium
lactis accompanied by bacteria. Within a period of three to seven
days, according to the temperature and to the water-content of the
mass, the granules of curd become covered with a wrinkled
gelatinous almost viscid mass of mold mycelium beneath which is a
layer of semi-liquid curd with a strong characteristic odor and taste.
This ripened or semi-liquid part reaches about half the total mass in
four or five days at favorable temperatures. (4) The vessel is then
placed in a larger vessel of water and heated over the fire with
constant stirring until the whole mass is melted and smooth. (5)
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