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The IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) provides protocols for conducting VLF tests and diagnostics on shielded power cable systems. It includes tables to assist in identifying the effectiveness of VLF AC voltage tests for various insulation issues. This document is a revision of the previous standard and was approved on May 20, 2024.

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100% found this document useful (2 votes)

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Ieee 400.2-2024

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IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded

STANDARDS
Power Cable Systems Using Very Low
Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

IEEE Power and Energy Society

Developed by the
Insulated Conductors Committee

IEEE Std 400.2™-2024

(Revision of IEEE Std 400.2-2013)

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IEEE Std 400.2™-2024
(Revision of IEEE Std 400.2-2013)

IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded

Power Cable Systems Using Very Low
Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

Developed by the

Insulated Conductors Committee

of the
IEEE Power and Energy Society

Approved 20 May 2024

IEEE SA Standards Board

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Abstract: Very low frequency (VLF) withstand and other diagnostic tests and measurements that
are performed using VLF energization in the field on shielded power cable systems are described in
this guide. Whenever possible, cable systems are treated in a similar manner to individual cables.
Tables are included as an aid to identifying the effectiveness of the VLF ac voltage test for various
cable system insulation problems.

Keywords: cable fault locating, cable system testing, cable testing, condition assessment,
dielectric spectroscopy, grounding, hipot testing, IEEE 400.2™, partial discharge testing, proof
testing, safety, tangent delta testing, very low frequency testing, VLF ac voltage testing

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Participants

At the time this draft guide was completed, the Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems
Using Very Low Frequency Working Group had the following membership:

Nigel Hampton, Chair

Andrew Morris, Vice Chair

Jason Aaron Jun Guo Lachman Raut

Eyad Al-Sibai Ankur Gupta Mohammad Sadollah
Manfred Bawart J.C. Hernandez Sy Shaheen
Dominique Bolliger Ben Lanz Charles Shannon
Roberto Borges Shannon Lo Albert H. Spear III
Cody Davis Drew Mantey Chasen Tedder
J.F. Drapeau Kat McKitish Wayne Walters
Mike Faughan Eddy Nina Jared Weitzel
Daniel Goetz Henning Oetjen Yingli Wen
Craig Goodwin Joshua Perkel Hernan Yelpez
Robert Probst

The following members of the individual Standards Association balloting group voted on this guide. Balloters
may have voted for approval, disapproval, or abstention.

John Ainscough Hamidreza Heidarisafa Allan Powers

Saleman Alibhay J.C. Hernandez Douglas Proctor
Boon Chong Ang Chris Heron Benjamin Quak
Thomas Barnes Lee Herron Farnoosh Rahmatian
Earle Bascom III Lauri Hiivala Eric Rasmussen
Martin Baur Werner Hoelzl Lakshman Raut
Manfred Bawart David Hughes Robert Reepe
Tyler Black Uwe Kaltenborn Caryn Riley
Dominique Bolliger John Kay Ryandi Ryandi
Kent Brown Paul Knapp Bartien Sayogo
William Byrd Boris Kogan Dennis Schlender
Thomas Campbell Robert Konnik Robert Schlesinger
Suresh Channarasappa Mikhail Lagoda Mark Siira
Zhiman Cen Wang Lei Michael Smalley
Peter Coors Jody Levine Jerry Smith
David Crotty Cory Liu Albert H. Spear III
M. Stephen Daniel Greg Luri Stanley Szyszko
Kurniawan Diharja William McBride Chasen Tedder
Gary Donner Kat McKitish David Tepen
J.F. Drapeau Rishi Menon James Timperley
Tim Fallesen Andrew Morris Peter Tirinzoni
Mike Faughnan Arthur Neubauer Nijam Uddin
Carl Fredericks John Nierenberg John Vergis
Shubhanker Garg Joe Nims Lisseth Villareal
Nadim Giotis Aaron Norris Martin Von Herrmann
Daniel Goetz Bruce Olson Detlef Wald
Craig Goodwin Lorraine Padden Wayne Walters
Steven Graham Bansi Patel Jared Weitzel
Edward Gulski Howard Penrose Yingli Wen
Jun Guo Joshua Perkel Walter Zenger
Robert Hampton Cam Posani Kai Zhou

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When the IEEE SA Standards Board approved this guide on 20 May 2024, it had the following membership:

David J. Law, Chair

Jon Walter Rosdahl, Vice Chair
Gary Hoffman, Past Chair
Alpesh Shah, Secretary

Sara R. Biyabani Hao Hu Paul Nikolich

Ted Burse Yousef Kimiagar Robby Robson
Stephen Dukes Joseph L. Koepfinger* Lei Wang
Doug Edwards Howard Li F. Keith Waters
J. Travis Griffith Xiaohui Liu Sha Wei
Guido R. Hiertz John Haiying Lu Philip B. Winston
Ronald W. Hotchkiss Kevin W. Lu Don Wright
Hiroshi Mano

*Member Emeritus

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Introduction

This introduction is not part of IEEE Std 400.2-2024, IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems
Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz).

A significant investment with respect to electric power systems is underground cables. A high degree
of reliability and reasonable life expectancy of cable systems are necessary. In order to get the optimum
performance, standards and guidelines have been developed which address the specific testing requirements
for new and service-aged extruded and laminated dielectric cable insulations. This Guide is one part of a series
of guides that discuss known diagnostic techniques for performing electrical tests in the field on shielded
power cable systems. An omnibus guide (IEEE Std 400™) provides a general overview of all technique
classes. It is intended that the technique-specific guides provide the definitive information on voltages, times
and criteria.

Ideally, field withstand testing of cable systems would be done using the same power frequency as would
normally applied to the cable under operating conditions, but at higher test voltage. However, because of the
inherent capacitance of long runs of medium-/high-voltage concentric shielded cable, the excessive charging
current is beyond the limits of normally available power sources and test equipment found in the field, except
large ac resonant test systems.

When required to perform field testing on long lengths of medium-/high-voltage cable with an alternating
current source, an alternative to applying power frequency is very low frequency (VLF, 0.01 to 1 Hz). The
charging current at a very low frequency of 0.1 Hz is only 1/500 or 1/600 of that at 50 Hz or 60 Hz respectively
so that significantly smaller and more portable VLF power sources have the capability to test cable systems of
relatively long lengths.

This guide provides a definition of VLF, a description of the wave-shapes and their magnitudes and frequencies
that can be applied as a source for overvoltage field testing, the issues with different wave shapes, the duration
of testing and what diagnostic information can be learned when these VLF voltages are applied.

Acknowledgments

Working Group F03W is grateful to NEETRAC, which made available the tangent delta data collected as part
of its Cable Diagnostics Focus Initiative (CDFI) and also for allowing the use of the data analysis to establish
the assessment criteria. The Working Group would also like to thank EPRI for allowing the use of its data to
expand the database thus allowing greater precision in the data.

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Contents

1. Overview�� 11
1.1 Scope�� 11
1.2 Purpose�� 12
1.3 Word usage�� 12

2. Normative references�� 12

3. Definitions, acronyms, and abbreviations�� 13

3.1 Definitions�� 13
3.2 Acronyms and abbreviations�� 15

4. Safety�� 15
4.1 Safety practices�� 15
4.2 Grounding�� 16

5. Very low frequency (VLF) ac testing�� 17

5.1 General VLF ac withstand voltage testing�� 19
5.2 VLF ac withstand voltage testing with cosine-rectangular waveform�� 23
5.3 VLF ac withstand voltage testing with sinusoidal waveform�� 24
5.4 Tangent delta/tip up/standard deviation tests with VLF sinusoidal waveform�� 25
5.5 Partial discharge (PD) test with VLF sinusoidal waveform�� 33
5.6 Dielectric spectroscopy with sinusoidal waveform�� 34

6. Conclusions�� 36

Annex A (informative) Bibliography�� 37

Annex B (normative) Wave shapes of VLF ac voltage testing voltages�� 40

Annex C (informative) Typical defects in fluid-filled and extruded cable systems�� 41

Annex D (informative) Effect of initial increase in voltage (ramp up)�� 42

Annex E (informative) Figures of merit and range of available tangent delta and differential tangent delta (tip
up) data�� 44

Annex F (informative) Comments on data interpretation and performance�� 46

Annex G (informative) Tan delta results of new cable systems�� 48

Annex H (informative) Development of utility/application specific criteria�� 49

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IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded
Power Cable Systems Using Very Low
Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

1. Overview
This guide provides a description of the methods and practices to be used in the application of very low
frequency (VLF) ac high-voltage excitation for field testing of shielded power cable systems (Baur [B8],
Fletcher [B15] Goodwin [B18] Hartlein [B26]).6 VLF ac voltage testing is an alternative method of continuous
ac voltage near power frequency testing and is used for a broad range of accessory and cable types as well as
testing of rotating machinery, see IEEE Std 433™.7 It provides a method of evaluation, and helps to fill the
need for more complete information on the cable system condition while minimizing or eliminating some
potential adverse charging effects of the direct voltage high-potential test method (commonly known as the
dc hi-pot test) (Srinivas and Bernstein [B40]; Eager, et al. [B13]; Hampton, et al. [B23]; Groenefeld, von
Olshausen, and Selle [B19]; Steennis, Boone, and Montfoort [B41]; Gockenbach and Hauschild [B17]). This
guide addresses VLF ac voltage withstand and dielectric loss testing in the frequency range from 0.01 Hz
to 1 Hz (Fletcher [B15], Goodwin[B18]). The guide does not focus on the effects of insulation materials
parameters: the nature of the differences between insulation materials, the subject of the peroxide crosslinking
agent by-products, or on the influence of the VLF stress application on the cable system (CIGRE [B9],
NEETRAC[B37]). Therefore, caution is recommended in interpretation of results.

The information contained in this guide is intended to provide the methodology, voltages, and factors to be
considered when utilizing VLF ac voltage testing, whether as a withstand test or as a diagnostic test. For
general information regarding other field testing methods, refer to the omnibus standard, IEEE Std 400™.

1.1 Scope
This guide describes VLF withstand and other diagnostic tests and the measurements that are performed in
the field on shielded medium and high-voltage cables rated 5 kV and above with extruded and laminated
insulation. VLF test methods utilize ac signals at frequencies less than 1 Hz. The most commonly used,
commercially available, VLF test frequency is 0.1 Hz. Whenever possible the guide addresses testing
of complete cable systems. Tables are included of the recommended test voltage levels for installation,
acceptance, and maintenance tests.

6
The numbers in brackets correspond to those of the bibliography in Annex A.
7
Information on references can be found in Clause 2.

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IEEE Std 400.2-2024
IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

1.2 Purpose
This guide is intended to provide troubleshooting and testing personnel with information to test shielded
medium- and high-voltage cable systems rated 5 kV and above using VLF ac techniques.

1.3 Word usage

The word shall indicates mandatory requirements strictly to be followed in order to conform to the standard
and from which no deviation is permitted (shall equals is required to).8,9

The word should indicates that among several possibilities one is recommended as particularly suitable,
without mentioning or excluding others; or that a certain course of action is preferred but not necessarily
required (should equals is recommended that).

The word may is used to indicate a course of action permissible within the limits of the standard (may equals
is permitted to).

The word can is used for statements of possibility and capability, whether material, physical, or causal (can
equals is able to).

2. Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document (i.e., they must
be understood and used, so each referenced document is cited in text and its relationship to this document is
explained). For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the
referenced document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies.

Accredited Standards Committee IEEE C2, National Electrical Safety Code® (NESC®).10

ANSI/NETA ATS-2009, Standard for Acceptance Testing Specifications for Electrical Power Equipment and
Systems.11

ANSI/NETA MTS-2011, Standard for Maintenance Testing Specifications for Electrical Power Equipment
and Systems.

IEC 60060-3, High Voltage Test Techniques—Part 3: Definitions and requirements for on-site testing.12

IEC 61230, Live working—Portable equipment for earthing or earthing and short-circuiting.

IEEE Std 400, IEEE Guide for Field Testing and Evaluation of the Insulation of Shielded Power Cable Systems
Rated 5kV andAbove.13,14

IEEE Std 400.3™, IEEE Guide for Partial Discharge Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems in a Field
Environment.

IEEE Std 433™, IEEE Recommended Practices for Insulation Testing of AC Electric Machinery with High
Voltage Rating up to 30 kV at Very Low Frequency.

8
The use of the word must is deprecated and cannot be used when stating mandatory requirements; must is used only to describe
unavoidable situations.
9
The use of will is deprecated and cannot be used when stating mandatory requirements; will is only used in statements of fact.
10
National Electrical Safety Code and NESC are both registered trademarks owned by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, Inc.
11
ANSI publications are available from the American National Standards Institute (https://www.ansi.org/).
12
IEC publications are available from the International Electrotechnical Commission (https://www.iec.ch) and the American National
Standards Institute (https://www.ansi.org/).
13
The IEEE standards or products referred to in Clause 2 are trademarks owned by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
Inc.
14
IEEE publications are available from The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (https://standards.ieee.org/)..

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IEEE Std 400.2-2024
IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

IEEE Std 510™, IEEE Recommended Practices for Safety in High-Voltage and High-Power Testing.

IEEE Std 1617™, IEEE Guide for Detection, Mitigation, and Control of Concentric Neutral Corrosion in
Medium-Voltage Underground Cables.

NFPA 70E, Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace.15

3. Definitions, acronyms, and abbreviations

3.1 Definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply. The IEEE Standards Dictionary
Online should be consulted for terms not defined in this clause.16

acceptance test: A field test made after cable system installation, including terminations and joints, but before
the cable system is placed in normal service. The test is intended to detect installation damage and to show any
gross defects or errors in installation of other system components.

cosine rectangular: a voltage waveform that changes polarity from approximately positive to negative dc at
0.1Hz. The transitions equate to frequencies of 30 Hz to 300 Hz.

cross linked polyethylene (XLPE): A thermoset filled or unfilled polymer used as electrical insulation in
cables. If filled, it is referred to as a filled XLPE.

diagnostic test: A field test made during the operating life of a cable system. It is intended to determine the
condition of the specimen under test and, for some tests, locate degraded regions that may cause cable and
accessory failure.

electrical trees: Tree-like growths, consisting of non-solid or carbonized micro-channels, that can occur at
stress enhancements such as protrusions, contaminants, voids, or water trees subjected to electrical stress.
The insulation is damaged irreversibly at the site of an electrical tree.

ethylene propylene rubber (EPR): A type of thermoset filled polymer used as electrical insulation in cables
and accessories.

NOTE—There are several different formulations of mineral-filled EPR and they have different characteristics.
For purposes here, the term also encompasses ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber (EPDM).17

extruded dielectrics: Insulation such as polyethylene (PE), crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE), tree retardant
crosslinked polyethylene (TRXLPE), ethylene propylene rubber (EPR), etc. applied using an extrusion
process.

high pressure paper cable: A cable design using impregnated paper or paper polymer laminate insulation
used for high-voltage (HV) and extra-high-voltage (EHV) cables. The tapes are applied unimpregnated, the
complete insulation being subsequently dried and impregnated with a dielectric fluid. The cable cores are
installed in a separate pipe structure where external devices maintain the fluid or gas at high pressures.

installation test: A field test conducted after cable installation but before jointing (splicing) or terminating
or energizing. The test is intended to detect shipping, storage, or installation damage. It should be noted that
temporary terminations may need to be added to the cable to successfully complete this test, particularly for
cables rated above 35 kV.

15
NFPA publications are published by the National Fire Protection Association (https://www.nfpa.org/).
16
IEEE Standards Dictionary Online is available at:http://dictionary.ieee.org. An IEEE account is required for access to the dictionary,
and one can be created at no charge on the dictionary sign-in page.
17
Notes in text, tables, and figures are given for information only and do not contain requirements needed to implement the standard.

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IEEE Std 400.2-2024
IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

laminated dielectrics: Insulation formed in layers typically from tapes of either cellulose paper or
polypropylene or a combination of the two. Examples are high and low pressure fluid filled (HPFF, HPGF and
LPFF), paper insulated lead covered (PILC) and mass-impregnated non-draining (MIND) cable designs.

low pressure paper cable: A cable design using impregnated paper or paper polymer laminate insulation used
for HV and EHV cables. The tapes are applied unimpregnated, the complete insulation being subsequently
dried and impregnated with a dielectric fluid. The cable cores and the fluid are self contained within a metal
sheath.

maintenance test: A field test made during the operating life of a cable system. It is intended to detect
deterioration and to check the serviceability of the system.

mass-impregnated non-draining (MIND): A cable design using impregnated paper insulation. The
impregnating compound has a sufficiently high viscosity at maximum operating temperature to preclude
migration or draining of compound.

monitored withstand (MW) test: A test in which a voltage of a predetermined magnitude is applied for a
predetermined time. During the test other properties, most commonly tangent delta and partial discharge) of
the test object are monitored and these are used, together with the withstand results, to determine its condition.

paper insulated lead covered (PILC): A cable design using impregnated paper insulation. The paper tapes are
applied unimpregnated, the complete insulation being subsequently dried and impregnated with a compound
as a whole.

polyethylene (PE): A thermoplastic polymer used as electrical insulation in cables.

shielded cable: A cable in which an insulated conductor is enclosed in a conducting envelope.

simple withstand (SW) test: A test in which a voltage of a predetermined magnitude is continuously
applied for a predetermined time. If the test object survives, the test it is deemed to have passed the test.
Syn:non-monitored withstand test.

sinusoidal: a sinusoidal voltage waveform that changes polarity at selected frequencies.

tree retardant cross linked polyethylene (TRXLPE): A thermoset polymer used as electrical insulation
in cables. It is based on XLPE and contains an additive, a polymer modification, or a filler that retards the
development and growth of water trees in the insulation.

U0: Phase-to-ground voltage based on component rating for acceptance tests or system nominal voltage for
maintenance tests.

water trees: Tree-like pattern of electro-oxidation that can occur at stress enhancements such as ionic
contaminants, protrusions, or voids in polymeric materials subjected to electrical stress and moisture. Within
the water tree the insulation is degraded due to chemical modification in the presence of moisture. There is
no evidence of partial discharge (see NOTE) inside the water tree branches. Complete insulation breakdown
may subsequently occur if a water tree either induces an electrical tree and the electrical tree grows a channel
of sufficient length to fail the insulation or leads to thermal runaway. The water tree growth under service
conditions is a very slow process, usually taking many years to completely penetrate the insulation from the
inside or outside.

NOTE—There have been no cases documented of partial discharge detectable in the field from water trees. Water trees
can cause electrical trees to form as a result of a lightning impulse, switching surges, or excessive test voltage levels and
durations. When this occurs, partial discharge may be detectable.

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IEEE Std 400.2-2024
IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

3.2 Acronyms and abbreviations

DS dielectric spectroscopy
EPR ethylene propylene rubber

NOTE—In the cable industry also includes: EPDM (ethylene-propylene-diene) with the “M” referring to the classification
in ASTM D1418 monomers [B2].

HPGF high pressure gas filled cable

HPFF high pressure fluid filled cable
LC leakage current
LPFF low pressure fluid filled cable
MIND mass-impregnated non-draining, a cable design
MW very low frequency-monitored withstand
PD partial discharge
PDIV partial discharge inception voltage
PDEV partial discharge extinction voltage
PE polyethylene
PILC paper insulated lead covered, a cable design
SDev standard deviation of TD (temporal stability)
SW very low frequency simple withstand
TRXLPE tree retardant crosslinked polyethylene
TD tangent delta (dissipation factor)
TU tip up or differential tangent delta
VLF very low frequency (for the purpose of this guide 0.01 Hz to 1.0 Hz)
XLPE crosslinked polyethylene

4. Safety
4.1 Safety practices
Personnel safety is of utmost importance during all testing procedures. All cable and equipment tests shall
be performed on de-energized and isolated systems except where otherwise specifically recommended and
properly authorized. Appropriate safety practices must be followed. The safety practices shall include, but not
be limited to, the following requirements:

— Applicable national, state, local, and company safety operating procedures, e.g., National Electrical
Safety Code® (NESC®).
— IEEE Std 510, IEEE Recommended Practices for Safety in High Voltage and High Power Testing.
— NFPA 70E, Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace.
— ANSI/NETA ATS-2009, Standard for Acceptance Testing Specifications for Electrical Power
Equipment and Systems (Section 7.3.3: Cables, Medium and High Voltage).

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IEEE Std 400.2-2024
IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

— ANSI/NETA MTS-2011, Standard for Maintenance Testing Specifications for Electrical Power
Equipment and Systems (Section 7.3.3: Cables, Medium and High Voltage).
— Physical protection of utility and customer property.

Prior to testing, determination of safe clearances must consider both the test voltage and voltage of nearby
energized equipment as follows:

a) At the one or more cable ends remote from the manned testing site:
1) Cable ends under test must be cleared and cordoned off.
2) Cables that are de-energized should be grounded when not being tested.
3) Remote cable ends must be marked to indicate a high-voltage test is in progress.
b) When a switch or disconnect type device is used to isolate the cable circuit from the rest of the system,
the ability of the device to sustain the VLF ac test voltage and maintain isolation while the other end
is under normal operating voltage shall be checked with the manufacture. In the case of separable
connectors this may include the use of a suitable parkin stand and insulating cap.
c) When isolation is an air gap, such as when a cable terminator connection is removed, the clearance
distance must be sufficient to maintain isolation with the cable system at the VLF ac test voltage and
the surrounding equipment at normal line voltage.
d) All ancillary equipment such as lightning arresters, potential transformers and motors should be
disconnected from the cable terminals if possible.

At the conclusion of high-voltage testing, attention should be given to the following:

a) At the end of the test it is good practice to slowly reduce the test voltage to zero.
b) Discharging cables and cable systems including test equipment. The discharging of the cable should
be carefully monitored for the time needed to fully discharge.
c) Grounding requirements for cables and test equipment to help eliminate the after effects of recharging
the cables due to dielectric absorption and capacitance characteristics.

4.2 Grounding
Cable systems can be de-energized and grounded when, among other things, conductor and metallic shield are
connected to system ground at the test site and, if shield continuity has not been confirmed, at the far end of the
cable.

When testing, a single system ground at the test site is recommended, see Figure 1. The metallic shield of
the cable to be tested is connected to system ground. If this connection is missing or deteriorated, it shall be
replaced at this time. A safety ground cable shall connect all test instrument cases with system ground. All
exposed conductive parts of the test system shall be bonded to the common ground point. If the test instrument
is a high-voltage device, an external safety ground cable should be used to ground the cable to be tested.
This cable should be able to accommodate the fault current of the system. Once the test lead from the VLF
test equipment is connected to the cable to be tested, this safety ground can be removed so that testing can
commence.

Should a local ground be advisable or recommended for the test equipment, case ground shall remain
connected to system ground in order to maintain an acceptable single ground potential.

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IEEE Std 400.2-2024
IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

Figure 1—Recommended test hook-up

Care should be taken to verify that all ground connections cannot be disconnected accidentally. Grounding
connections that can be securely tightened are recommended. Portable ground clamps and grounding
assemblies built and tested per IEC 61230 are recommended.

5. Very low frequency (VLF) ac testing

VLF ac testing methods utilize ac signals in the frequency range from 0.01 Hz to 1 Hz, most commonly 0.1 Hz.
In withstand testing, (Baur, et al. [B8], Goodwin, et al. [B18], Hampton, et al. [B25], Hartlein, et al. [B26], and
Werelius [B43]) the test object should survive a specified voltage applied across the insulation for a specified
period of time without breakdown of the insulation (Hampton, et al. [B23]). The magnitude of the withstand
voltage is usually greater than the operating voltage. If the accessory or cable insulation is sufficiently
degraded a breakdown can occur. The cable system may be repaired and the insulation retested until it passes
the withstand test. Diagnostic testing allows the determination of the relative amount of degradation of a
cable system section and establishes, by comparison with figures of merit or accumulated data, whether a
cable system section is likely to continue to perform properly in service. It should be noted that values of
the diagnostic quantity measurements obtained during VLF ac voltage tests may not correlate with those
values obtained at other excitation frequencies, for example, the tangent delta is larger at 0.1 Hz than at power
frequency and partial discharge (PD) signals may differ in terms of magnitude, repetition characteristics and
inception voltage.

There are risks associated with high-voltage testing and diagnostics. Diagnostic tests can be non-destructive
if they are performed at voltages at or below the normal operating voltage. However, there is a trade-off
between gathering additional information about the cable under test and going to elevated voltage levels,
with the associated higher risk that the cable may fail as the voltage is increased. It should be noted that at the
prescribed withstand levels in Table 3, a failure indicates that the cable is already in a highly compromised
condition. In addition, should a failure occur under test, the resultant fault current and collateral damage to the
cable and surrounding assets will be limited. This may not be the case should the cable fail under operating
conditions.

Examples of the various waveforms (shown in Annex B) are as follows:

— VLF ac voltage testing with cosine-rectangular waveform.

— VLF ac voltage testing with sinusoidal waveform.

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IEEE Std 400.2-2024
IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

The VLF diagnostic test methods of cable systems currently used are as follows:

a) Tangent delta measurement (TD); see 5.4.

b) Tip up (differential tangent delta) (TU); see 5.4.
c) Tangent delta standard deviation (temporal stability) (SDev); see 5.4.
d) Partial discharge (PD) measurement; see 5.5.
e) Monitored withstand (MW).
f) Comparison between results for different phases

Field testing techniques frequently employ a combination of diagnostic test methods. Test methods should
be selected based on considerations such as ease of operation, operator training requirements, cost/benefit
ratio, the cable system age and condition, and the capability of the cable owner to endure and accommodate a
possible cable failure. Diagnostic test results can be used for asset management decision support, e.g., different
maintenance activities, replacement, and condition assessment steps.

CAUTION
The potential consequences of a cable system insulation failure during any high-voltage test should be
considered prior to undertaking any such test.

The consideration of various VLF ac voltage testing methods should be based upon the following guidelines
as tabulated in Table 1.

Table 1—Criteria considerations: various VLF ac voltage testing methods

Comparison Withstand test methods Other diagnostic test methods
Equipment VLF cosine- VLF VLF power source plus one or VLF power
rectangular sinusoidal more of the following measuring source plus
power source power source equipment: TD/TU/SDev/MW PD measuring
equipment PD
Ease of Connect HV power supply Connect HV power supply and ancillary equipment,
operation and apply voltage of specified if recommended, to make diagnostic measurements.
magnitude for specified time The effectiveness of these methods relies on the
effectiveness of noise filtering of the test equipment.
Detect overall Localization of defect Overall condition of insulation Localization
condition/ of defect in
localized insulation or
defect at interface

The density and severity [size, shape, location, material, etc. (Arabenferari, et al. [B1] and Hartlein, et al.
[B26])] of the defects in a cable system influence the effectiveness of any diagnostic method including the
VLF ac voltage test methods. As a general rule the more severe the defects, the lower the ac dielectric strength
(Hernandez, et al., 2009 [B27] and Hvidstein, et al., 2000 [B30]). Typical defects for fluid-impregnated and
extruded cable systems are listed in Annex C.

In extruded cable systems severe defects are, for example, large water trees, large contaminants, large voids,
or large sharp protrusions that can initiate partial discharges and/or electrical trees at test voltages. The loss
and harmonic loss currents increase with the severity of water treeing. Less severe defects—those that have a
longer elapsed time to failure—are, for example small water trees, small contaminants or voids, and less sharp
protrusions that may not initiate partial discharges and/or tracking or electrical trees at test voltages.

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IEEE Std 400.2-2024
IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

All types of VLF ac voltage tests are applicable to jacketed and unjacketed cable systems with all types of
metallic shields. Corrosion of the metallic shield, particularly for helically applied copper tapes (Guo and
Boggs [B20]) can limit the sensitivity of PD tests due to the attenuation of high frequency signals. If the
corrosion is so severe that there is no continuity, the PD and TD tests may not be valid. Such discontinuities
represent a significant operational and safety concerns and should be addressed expeditiously. Refer to
IEEE Std 1617 for guidance to determine the extent of metallic shield corrosion. The usefulness of various
VLF ac voltage testing methods for selected cable and/or insulation conditions is tabulated in Table 2.

Table 2—Usefulness of VLF ac voltage testing methods for selected cable and/or insulation
conditions
Cable condition Diagnostic test methods
Simple withstand Monitored Tangent delta Partial Dielectric
(SW) test withstand (MW) (TD) {SDev, discharge spectroscopy
test {PD, TD} TU, TD} (PD) (DS)
Cables with Research
Poor (see
metallic shield Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable
NOTE 1)
corrosion
Extensive Poor (see Research
Acceptable Good Good
water treeing NOTE 2)
Few large defects Research
Acceptable/ Good Acceptable/
or few localized Good Acceptable/Good
(see NOTE 3) Good
electrical trees
Acceptable Research
Acceptable/ Good Acceptable/Good Acceptable
Defective splices (see
(see NOTE 4) (see NOTE 3) (see NOTE 3)
and terminations NOTE 2)
Mixed insulation Research
Good Poor/Good Good (See
(extruded and/ Good
(see NOTE 4) (see NOTE 4) NOTE 5)
or laminated)
NOTE 1—PD testing can be less sensitive on aged taped shielded cables due to the opportunity for corrosion of the
shield overlaps that causes attenuation of the PD signals (Guo and Boggs [B20]). PD sensitivity may decrease with
increasing length of the cable under test due to the likelihood that the PD source is further from the detector and thus
impacted by attenuation, dispersion and reflections.
NOTE 2—PDs are detectable only if there are one or more active electrical trees or tracking sites or there are gas-filled
voids in the cable insulation or accessories. Moreover, it should be noted that PD inception conditions at VLF may be
different from those at other frequencies.
NOTE 3—Supplemental testing is recommended to distinguish a severe localized defect from general overall
deterioration.
NOTE 4—As this test technique measures the average of all the insulations under test, supplemental testing is
recommended to measure individual sections of the insulation. SDev, TU, DS, or non-VLF techniques can be used to
differentiate mixed cable insulations. If the individual sections cannot be measured, the test method may not be useful.
NOTE 5—The different propagation characteristics of the various cable sections (different sizes and/or insulations)
may make it difficult to locate the PD.

5.1 General VLF ac withstand voltage testing

5.1.1 VLF ac withstand voltage test parameters

The purpose of a withstand test is to verify the integrity of the cable under test. If the test cable has a defect
severe enough an electrical tree will initiate and grow in the insulation at the withstand voltage (Hartlein
et al. [B26] Hampton, et al., “Estimating the impact…,” 2015 [B25]). It is important for the withstand test
duration to be long enough for any electrical trees that are initiated to progress to all the way breakdown
during the time of the test. This reduces the risk that the cable is returned to service with an incompletely

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IEEE Std 400.2-2024
IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

grown electrical tree that will fail in short order at operating voltage. Inception of an electrical tree and channel
growth time are functions of several factors including test voltage, source frequency and amplitude, and the
geometry of the defect. For an electrical tree from the tip of a needle in PE insulation in laboratory conditions
to completely penetrate the insulation during the test duration, VLF ac voltage test levels and testing time
durations have been established for the two most commonly used test voltage sources, the cosine-rectangular
and the sinusoidal wave shapes. However, the time to failure will vary according to the type of insulation such
as HMWPE, XLPE, WTRXLPE, paper, and rubber. Thus the electrical tree growth rate is not the same for all
materials and defects.

The voltage levels (installation and acceptance) are based on the good experience derived from the previous
version of the guide (Hampton, et al., “Estimating the impact…,” 2015 [B25], Hartlein, et al. [B26]) from less
than 1.7 U0 to 3U0, where U0 is the rated rms phase to ground voltage, for cables rated between 5 kV and and
above. The maintenance test level is about 75% of the acceptance test level. Evidence (Hartlein, et al. [B26],
Hernandez-Mejía, 2009 [B27]) indicates that increasing the voltage above 3U0 to compensate for reduced
test cycles (time) does not replicate performance either on test or in service as compared to the lower voltage,
longer time tests.

Table 3 lists voltage levels for VLF withstand testing of shielded power cable systems using cosine-rectangular
and sinusoidal waveforms. In a sinusoidal waveform the rms is 0.707 of the peak value, assuming the harmonic
distortion is less than 5%. The rms and peak values of the cosine-rectangular waveform are assumed to be
equal.

Table 3—VLF withstand test voltages for sinusoidal and cosine-rectangular waveforms
Waveform Cable system Installation Acceptance Maintenance
rating (phase to (phase to ground) (phase to ground) (phase to ground)
phase) [kV] (see NOTE 2) (see NOTE 1
and NOTE 3)
[kV rms] [kV rms] [kV rms]
Sinusoidal 5 9 10 7
8 11 13 10
11 14 16 13
15 19 21 16
20 24 26 20
22 26 28 22
25 29 32 24
28 32 36 27
30 34 38 29
33 37 42 31
35 39 44 33
46 51 57 43
66 72 80 60
69 75 84 63
90 98 110 82
115 (NOTE 4) 125 140 105
132 (NOTE 4) 143 160 120
138 (NOTE 4) 150 168 126

Table continues

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IEEE Std 400.2-2024
IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

Table 3—VLF withstand test voltages for sinusoidal and

cosine-rectangular waveforms (continued)
Waveform Cable system Installation Acceptance Maintenance
rating (phase to (phase to ground) (phase to ground) (phase to ground)
phase) [kV] (see NOTE 2) (see NOTE 1
and NOTE 3)
[kV rms] [kV rms] [kV rms]
Cosine- 5 13 14 10
Rectangular 8 16 18 14
(NOTE 6)
11 20 23 18
15 27 30 23
20 34 37 28
22 37 40 31
25 41 45 34
28 45 51 38
30 48 54 41
33 52 59 44
35 55 62 47
46 72 81 61
69–138 (NOTE 5) (NOTE 5) (NOTE 5)
NOTE 1—If the operating voltage is lower than the rated voltage of the cable, it is recommended that the
maintenance test voltages should be those corresponding to the operating voltage class.
NOTE 2—Voltage Levels are based upon current practice where the relative test voltages decrease as the
cable rating increases to compensate for the changes in design stress for HV versus MV cables. Considering
typical cable designs the stresses at test voltages for HV cables are more than twice those for MV cables.
NOTE 3—The maintenance voltage is approximately 75% of the acceptance test voltage magnitude.
NOTE 4—Lower voltages levels may be used upon agreement with the circuit owner.
NOTE 5—Practical test equipment are not known to be available for these voltage levels.
NOTE 6—Test voltages for Cosine Rectangular are set from those determined for Sinusoidal using a √2
multiplier.

It should be noted that terminations may need to be added to avoid flashover for installation tests on cables
rated above 5 kV.

Regarding the test times:

— The recommended minimum testing time for a simple withstand test on aged cable circuits is 30 min
at 0.1 Hz (Goodwin, et al. [B18], Fletcher, et al. [B15], Hampton, et al., 2010 [B23], Hartlein et al.
[B26]).
— If a circuit is considered as important, e.g., feeder circuits, then consideration should be given to
extending the testing time to 60 min at 0.1 Hz (Hernandez, et al., 2019 [B28]).
— The recommended minimum testing time for an installation and/or acceptance withstand test on new
cable circuits is 60 min at 0.1 Hz (Hampton, et al., “Estimating the impact…,” 2015 [B25]).
— The recommended minimum testing time for acceptance withstand test on HV cable circuits is 60 min
at 0.1 Hz (CIGRE TB 728 [B9]).
— A test time within the range 15 min to 30 min may be considered, for MV cable systems (< 46kV), if
the monitored characteristic remains stable for at least 15 min and no failure occurs. It should be noted
that the recommended test time for a withstand test is 30 min.

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IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

If the circuit fails during the test, it should be repaired or replaced and then retested, preferably using a
monitored withstand test to assess the workmanship of the repair. Repairs will use differing amounts of new
components (accessories/cables) together with those of the original cable. As the repaired section has already
seen a failure and contains new components and potential workmanship issues, the test time above for new
circuits is recommended. The choice of test voltage (acceptance or maintenance) should be guided by the make
up of the repair: the acceptance Level is likely appropriate for a complete replacement while the maintenance
level is likely appropriate when significant amounts of original components are retained. Monitoring cannot
be used to reduce the testing time for retests as the cable system has already been shown to be potentially weak
by the prior failure.

VLF ac voltage testing methods utilize ac signals at frequencies in the range of 0.01 Hz to 1 Hz. The most
commonly used, commercially available VLF ac voltage test frequency is 0.1 Hz. VLF ac test voltages with
cosine-rectangular and the sinusoidal wave shapes are most commonly used. While other wave shapes maybe
available for testing of cable systems, recommended test voltage levels have not been established.

Other commercially available frequencies for dielectric spectroscopy are in the range of 0.001 Hz up to
1 Hz. Frequencies lower than 0.1 Hz may be useful for diagnosing cable systems where the length of the cable
system exceeds the limitations of the test equipment at 0.1 Hz. However, if withstand tests at frequencies
below 0.1 Hz are carried out, consideration should be given to extending the test duration so that there are a
sufficient number of cycles to cause breakdown if an electrical tree is initiated.

5.1.2 Testing considerations

Testing considerations are as follows:

— Details about the cable including cable capacitance and a route map should be available so that
personnel will be familiar with the cables involved, the location of open points, where the cables or
joints may be accessible and the types of cable constructions used. Time domain reflectometry may be
used to determine the location of accessories, open points and the length of the circuit.
— The test set, and power supply, used should be sufficiently powerful and well regulated to supply and
dissipate or recover the total cable system charging energy during every test and monitoring cycle.
— If the accessory or cable insulation is in an advanced condition of degradation, the test can cause
breakdown before it can be terminated when using test voltages above the operating voltage.
— Crews should be prepared to install a new splice, cable or termination if failure unexpectedly occurs
during the test.
— If a cable circuit has failed and a new section of cable installed, an installation test can be performed on
the new length before it is spliced and a maintenance test carried out on the complete circuit after it is
installed.
— There are situations where the cable system is not operated at the rated voltage of the components (for
example 15 kV operated at 13 kV or 25 kV operated at 27 kV). In these situations the end user should
be consulted to determine the appropriate test voltage: rated voltage or operating voltage.
— An issue can arise while testing existing circuits according to their original cable rating or according to
normal circuit voltage of use. As an example, utilities sometimes install a higher rated cable in a circuit
that is energized at a lower voltage in preparation for a later upgrade of the circuit or to assure better
reliability. It is prudent to test according to the full cable rating for the installation test before the circuit
is connected to equipment with lower voltage rating. However the test voltage should be discussed
with the circuit owner if the cable is not operated at its rated voltage, in these cases it is common to test
according to the actual voltage of operation for maintenance tests.
— At the conclusion or at an interruption of a VLF ac voltage test, the test object should be discharged and
then grounded.

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IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

— The voltage application in some equipment has two components: the ramp up and the hold portions,
whereas in other equipment the voltage reaches the test voltage during the first cycle. At the present
time any failure that occurs during the test is considered to have occurred at the test voltage (the hold
portion). Some additional useful information may be collected by collecting the ramp and hold portions
separately, see Annex D.

5.2 VLF ac withstand voltage testing with cosine-rectangular waveform

5.2.1 Measurement and equipment calibration

Some VLF cable test sets provide a cosine-rectangular voltage waveform. A typical waveform is shown in
Figure B.1. A dc test set forms the high-voltage source and a dc-to-ac converter changes the dc voltage to the
VLF ac test signal. The converter consists of a high-voltage inductor and a switching rectifier. Changing the
polarity of the cable system being tested every 5 s generates a 0.1 Hz bipolar pulse waveform.

The measurement of the test voltage and frequency should be made with an approved and calibrated measuring
system as described in IEC 60060-3. The peak value of the test voltage should be measured with an overall
uncertainty of ± 5% and the response time of the measuring system should not be greater than 0.5 s. It should
be verified that positive and negative peaks do not differ by more than 2%. It is important that all measuring
equipment is under a valid calibration.

5.2.2 Method

The cable or cable system to be tested is connected to the VLF ac voltage test set and the cosine-rectangular
test voltage raised to a value up to that specified in Table 3. During the test cycle the leakage current may be
monitored and recorded if the necessary equipment is available. When the cable or cable system passes the VLF
voltage test, the test voltage is reduced to zero and cable and test set are discharged and grounded. The cable
or cable system can be returned to service. If a cable or cable system fails the test, the test voltage collapses.
The VLF ac voltage test set is turned off to discharge the cable and test set; the cable is then grounded. The
cable fault may be located with standard cable fault locating equipment. After the fault has been located and
repaired, the circuit should be retested.

5.2.3 Advantages

The advantages are as follows:

— Simple withstand tests are usually straightforward and may not require an expert to interpret the
results.
— The 0.1 Hz cosine-rectangular waveform changes polarity in the frequency range 30 Hz to 300 Hz.
Because of the cosinusoidal transitions are between the positive and negative polarities, traveling
waves are not generated, and because of continuous polarity changes, space charges are not likely
to be developed in the insulation unless the frequency is less than 0.01 Hz and the electric stress
is > 10 kV/mm (Takada [B42] and Dissado, et al. [B11]). The electrical stresses given by the voltages
in Table 3 are below 10 kV/mm. The actual stress for space charge trapping will be related to the degree
and nature of the degradation.
— Cable systems may be tested with an ac voltage greater than the rated conductor to ground voltage with
a device comparable in size, weight, and power requirements to a dc test set.
— The VLF ac voltage test can be used to test cable systems with extruded and laminated dielectric
insulation.
— Monitored withstand testing, e.g., leakage current, monitors the effect of the test on the cable system
during voltage application and may be able to detect possible defects or failure sites that do not fail
during the test.

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IEEE Std 400.2-2024
IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

5.2.4 Disadvantages

The disadvantages are as follows:

— When testing cable systems with extensive insulation degradation, simple VLF withstand testing alone
may, on rare occasions, result in repeated failures. Additional diagnostic tests, such as leakage current
measurements that measure the extent of insulation losses, are recommended.
— Cable systems must be taken out of service for testing.
— Only gross workmanship defects are likely to be detected on new cable systems.
— Simple withstand testing does not monitor the effect of the test on the cable during the voltage
application and can fail to detect a potentially destructive defect.
— Diagnostics methods such as tangent delta measurements are currently not available with this voltage
waveform.

5.3 VLF ac withstand voltage testing with sinusoidal waveform

5.3.1 Measurement and equipment calibration

The VLF cable test sets provide sinusoidal ac output voltages (see Figure B.1).

The measurement of the test voltage should be made with an approved and calibrated measuring system as
described in IEC 60060-3. The peak value of the test voltage should be measured with an overall uncertainty
of ± 5% and the response time of the measuring system should not be greater than 0.5 s. If the ratio of peak to
rms values is not within √2 ± 5%, it should be verified that positive and negative peaks do not differ by more
than 2%. It is important that all measuring equipment is under a valid calibration.

5.3.2 Method

The VLF ac voltage test set is connected to the cable system to be tested and the test voltage raised or preset
to a value up to that specified in Table 3. When the cable or cable system passes the VLF voltage test, the test
voltage is reduced to zero, the cable or cable system and test set are discharged and the cable or cable system
is grounded.

If a failure occurs during the test, the test voltage collapses. The VLF ac voltage test set is turned off to discharge
the cable system and test set. The breakdown voltage and the testing elapsed time are recorded. During the test
cycle the leakage current may be monitored and recorded. The cable is then grounded. When a defect has
caused breakdown, the latter can then be located with standard fault locating equipment. Cable systems can
be tested after installation, for acceptance, or in preventive maintenance programs or after outages. Identified
faults can be repaired or faulted cable sections replaced. Once a cable system passes the VLF withstand test, it
may be returned to service.

5.3.3 Advantages

The advantages are as follows:

— Simple withstand tests are usually straightforward and may not require an expert to interpret the
results.
— Because of continuous sinusoidal polarity changes, space charges are less likely to form in the cable
insulation unless the frequency is less than 0.01 Hz and the electric stress is > 10 kV/mm. (Takada
[B42], Dissado, et al. [B11]). The electrical stresses given by the voltages in Table 3 are below
10 kV/mm. The actual stress for space charge trapping will be related to the degree and nature of the
degradation.

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IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

— Cable systems may be tested with an ac voltage greater than the rated conductor to ground voltage with
a device comparable in size, weight, and power requirements to a dc test set.
— The VLF ac voltage test can be used to test extruded, laminated, and mixed dielectrics.
— VLF ac voltage test sets with 0.1 Hz tangent delta or partial discharge measurement capability for
diagnostically identifying cable systems with range (low, medium, or high) levels of degradation are
available.
— Partial discharge-free VLF high-voltage generators for diagnostic testing of cables are useful to
monitor and locate single and multiple defects. These tests are described in 5.5.
— Monitored VLF withstand testing can include measurement of tangent delta and partial discharge
characteristics.
— Monitored withstand testing monitors the effect of the test on the cable system during voltage
application and can identify the presence of defects that do not fail during the test.

5.3.4 Disadvantages

The disadvantages are as follows:

— When testing cables with extensive insulation degradation, simple VLF withstand testing may, on
very rare occasions, result in repeated failures. Additional diagnostic tests that measure the extent of
insulation losses is recommended, see 5.4.
— Cable systems have to be taken out of service for testing.
— Only gross workmanship defects are likely to be detected on new cable systems.
— Simple withstand testing does not monitor the effect of the test on the cable during the voltage
application and can fail to detect a potentially destructive defect although practical experience has
shown that this rarely occurs.

5.4 Tangent delta/tip up/standard deviation tests with VLF sinusoidal waveform
5.4.1 Measurement and equipment

VLF Tangent delta, differential tangent delta, tangent delta stability, leakage current, and loss current harmonics
measurements may be used to monitor aging and deterioration of cable systems (Werelius [B43]). However,
tangent delta stability (SDev), tip up (TU) and tangent delta (TD), measurements are the most commonly used
methods in the field. A correlation between an increasing 0.1 Hz tangent delta and a decreasing insulation
breakdown voltage level at power frequency has been reported (Bach, Kalkner, and Oldehoff [B5]; Hvidsten,
et al., 1998 [B31], Hernandez-Mejía, et al., “Correlation between…., 2009 [B27], Hartlein [B26], and Perkel,
et al. [B38]) for PE and cross linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables. The dielectric properties at 0.1 Hz are
mainly determined by degradation of the cable insulation (water-trees), corroding metallic shields, insulation
moisture, and degraded accessories. The measurement of the tangent delta, differential tangent delta and/
or tangent delta stability with a 0.1 Hz sinusoidal waveform offer comparative assessment of the aging of
HMWPE, XLPE, TRXLPE, EPRs, and paper-type insulations and can be used as a diagnostic test. The test
results permit differentiating between new, defective, and highly degraded cable systems (Hartlein [B26] and
Perkel, et al. [B38]).

Cable systems can be tested in preventive maintenance programs and returned to service after testing. The
measurements at VLF can be used to make decisions on cable/accessory replacement, cable rejuvenation, or
repair expenditures.

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IEEE Std 400.2-2024
IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

The measurement of the test voltage, frequency and tangent delta should be made with an approved measuring
system as described in IEC 60060-3. The peak value of the test voltage should be measured with an overall
uncertainty of ± 5% and the response time of the measuring system should not be greater than 0.5 s. The
positive and the negative halves of the output waveform should be symmetrical.

5.4.2 Method

A VLF generator with tangent delta measurement capability is connected to the cable under test. At least one
end of the cable has to be accessible. In common with all practical field diagnostics it is good practice to verify
that the terminations are clean and in good repair prior to commencing the test program. After measurement
of tangent delta at selected voltages, values of differential tangent delta and/or tangent delta stability can
be calculated from the data. These values should be computed and reviewed before a simple or monitored
withstand test. The results of these tests will assist in assessing the severity of the cable condition and give
guidance in determining the duration of the withstand test.

The individual tangent delta (TD) at 0.5 U0, U0, and 1.5 U0, are measured for each cycle. The tangent delta
stability (SDev or standard deviation) and the mean tangent delta TD  ‾ ( TD
‾) at a constant voltage are calculated
from these data. The tip up or differential tangent delta is calculated from the means at selected voltages.

∑ ni=1  T D
  ‾ =  _
TD n (1)

____________
‾  
√
( )2
∑ TD −  TD
____________
SDev =   
  
     (2)
n−1

  ‾ @ 1 . 5 U 0 −  TD
Tip up = (TD ‾ @ 0 . 5 U 0) (3)

In addition, the variation of tangent delta with time at a selected constant voltage amplitude (SDev), usually
over a period of some minutes, can be measured and from which the mean and standard deviation of the
readings can be calculated. The tangent delta values of aged extruded and oil-paper insulations usually increase
with time but occasionally a decrease occurs. The mechanisms for the increase or decrease in tangent delta are
not fully understood at this time, but the greater the change in tangent delta the more severe is the insulation
aging. A decrease has been attributed to wet splices in paper insulated lead covered (PILC) cable systems.

The voltage should be set at 0.5 U0 and raised to 1.5 U0 in steps of 0.5 U0. The maximum withstand value
may also be used as a final step. Although the criteria for the SDev listed in Table 4 to Table 6 are given
for measurements at U0 it is a good practice to make measurements in steps of 0.5 U0 so that severely aged
cables can be identified sooner without going to elevated voltage levels. Each step should include at least
six single TD measurements at intervals of 10 s between each measurement at 0.1 Hz. The intervals will be
correspondingly longer at lower frequencies. Alternatively, the stability values can be calculated from tangent
delta measurements taken at each voltage level and at the end of the 30-min withstand period.

5.4.3 Assessment criteria—aged cable systems

The calculated features SDev, TU and TD are primarily influenced by the condition (age, contamination,
and moisture ingress) of the various cable system components (accessories, cable insulation, and metallic
shield). In addition, some utilities may have components connected to the cable circuit being measured, e.g.,
oil-filled switches, that cannot be removed but can influence the test results. Most users of dielectric response
techniques choose to measure the entire cable system response that would include the responses from all
terminations, cable, and joints within the circuit.

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IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

Analysis of laboratory and service data indicates that the SDev is better able to discriminate cable system
condition than TU and is better able to discriminate cable system condition than TD on its own. Moreover, the
research shows that the curvature at different voltages in the TU has a significant diagnostic value, similar to
that of SDev. If a high value of SDev TU and/or TD is detected then a user has a number of choices as follows:

— The user can compare the results with the historical figures of merit set out in Table 4, Table 5 and
Table 6.
— The user may clean or replace terminations and other components.
— The user can perform additional testing in the form of a monitored withstand, non-monitored withstand,
or partial discharge test should they wish to identify a localized problem.
— The user can compare results between different phases of the same segment or sequential sections to
better place the result in context.
— The user can divide circuits into subsections and retest, perform a visual analysis of circuit components
where accessible and replace suspect parts, or replace the accessories, especially if they appear to be
old, and re-measure.
— The user can perform additional testing in the form of a monitored withstand, non-monitored withstand,
or partial discharge test should they wish to identify a localized problem.

Tangent delta measurements provide a global assessment of the dielectric loss. Thus, a single region of high
loss such as a region of severe water treeing, degraded accessory, area of high moisture or different cable
insulation can cause the measured value to rise even though the bulk loss of the majority of the system will
be lower. The measured value will be less than the actual loss of the high loss region. A comparison of results
between different phases of the same segment or sequential section will help identify if this is the case.

A comparison of data from similar cable systems should improve the usefulness of tests. For example,
comparisons of the phase or voltage dependencies of the tangent delta can increase the diagnostic efficiency
(Fletcher, et al. [B15] and Goodwin, Oetjen, and Peschel [B18]). Statistical comparisons of many results
increase the security of criteria levels established. Dielectric losses can be affected by insulation material
parameters such as different materials and the cross-linking by-products, although in older cables the
concentration of the latter will be negligible. Data from VLF diagnostics may not be comparable with data at
higher frequencies, e.g., power frequency.

Partial discharges produced by the accessories may influence the calculated features SDev, TU, or TD results;
this can be easy to recognize by highly increased TU at increasing voltage levels. With the exception of wet
accessories and trees this method cannot detect singular defects in extruded cable insulation and requires
hundreds of large water trees to be present to cause the smallest indication (Baur [B7]). A hybrid cable system
with multiple insulation types can give measured features that will be related to the relative lengths of each
type of insulation.

The absolute values of the calculated features are used as figures of merit or compared to historical data to
grade the condition of the cable insulation as one of the following:

— No action required
— Further study advised
— Action required

If there is a significant difference, as defined by Table 4 through Table 7, in tangent delta with increasing and
decreasing voltage (TU) or a significant variation of tangent delta with time (SDev), there may be a section of
severely damaged insulation in the cable insulation or accessory.

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The no action required condition assessment means that, although the cable system can be returned to service,
the cable system may be retested at some later date to observe the trend of the tangent delta.

The action required condition assessment means that the cable system has an unusually high set of tangent delta
characteristics that may be indicative of poor insulation condition and should be considered for replacement or
repair immediately after the test or in the near future. These results may also be used to trigger further testing.

The further study advised condition assessment means that additional information is needed to make an
assessment, the additional information could come from previous circuit failure history or additional
assessment from an additional diagnostic test; for example, a monitored withstand test can be performed, The
information from the monitored withstand test could be used to enhance the diagnostic and leading eventually
to a condition assessment of no action required or action required.

If there is a significant increase in tangent delta during the test with increasing voltage from 0.5 U0 to U0,
there may not be a need to raise the voltage to test at 1.5 U0, as the significant increase is an indication that the
cable system is highly degraded and thus there is a danger of initiating electrical trees in the severely damaged
insulation. In this case, the cable system condition is assessed as action required.

More importantly, it must be understood that, for different insulations, installations, and cable types, tangent
delta, differential tangent delta and tangent delta stability figures of merit can vary significantly from
each other. Therefore, the tangent delta tests—work best when comparing present measurements against
established historical figures of merit for a particular cable system type as a whole (i.e., including the cable,
terminations, and joints). Table 4 to Table 6 show historical figures of merit (see also Annex E) that could
be used for condition assessment for aged PE-based (e.g., HMWPE, XLPE, TRXLPE cables), aged filled
insulations (e.g., EPR cables), and aged oil impregnated paper (e.g., laminated cables) respectively. In Table 4
to Table 7, U0 is the cable phase to ground operating voltage. The values given in Table 4 to Table 7 can also be
given in percentage, in which case the values are multiplied by 100, for example, 0.1 × 10−3 becomes 0.01%.
The columns in Table 4 to Table 7 are arranged in the order of sensitivity of the measurements to insulation
deterioration, i.e., the time stability is the most sensitive followed by the voltage stability followed by the
actual value of TD.

The values in Table 4 to Table 6 were derived from empirical cumulative distribution functions (CDF) for the
data consisting of data points obtained for aged cable systems, mainly in utilities from North America, i.e., the
data are from maintenance tests. The tables use the probability criteria of 80% (selected based on the Pareto
principle where the best ranked 80% of the population only account for 20% of the issues) and 95% of the
poorest values. The figures of merit are constructed so that they may be used with the basic insulation system
information available to test engineers at the time of the field investigations. More details of how the figures of
merit are derived are given in Annex E and Annex H.

There are some circumstances where the precise cable design (e.g., shielded or belted, conducting or non-
conducting shield), system composition, insulation material, or vintage is known. In these cases the figures
of merit are useful guides. However, an owner can develop his or her own “cable system specific” criteria
to provide better discrimination, using the approach detailed previously. These nuances are not included in
these tables due to the fact that only a small number of installations are precisely identified to enable the
discrimination. Furthermore, the differences that have been identified are not statistically significant for the
data available. As an example, several formulations of EPR (the mineral-filled class) have been used; however,
the formulations that may be definitively identified represent 2% of the filled data.

Some comments on data interpretation and subsequent performance after simple or monitored withstand test
are given in Annex F.

It should be noted that Table 4 to Table 7 apply to maintenance tests on cable systems that have been in
operation for five or more years, i.e., the cables can be considered to be aged.

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Table 4—Historical figures of merit for condition assessment of service-aged PE-based

insulations (e.g., PE, XLPE, and TRXLPE) using 0.1 Hz
Condition TD time stability Tip up (TU) Mean TD
assessment (SDev) measured by (difference in mean at U0 [10−3]
standard deviation TD) between 0.5 U0
at U0, [10−3] and 1.5 U0 [10−3]
No action required < 0.1 and <5 and <4
Further study 0.1 to 0.5 or 5 to 80 or 4 to 50
advised
Action required > 0.5 or > 80 or > 50

Table 5—Historical figures of merit for condition assessment of service-aged

filled insulations (e.g., mineral-filled EPR) using 0.1 Hz
Condition Filled insulation system TD time stability Tip up (TU) Mean TD
assessment (SDev) measured (difference at U0 [10−3]
by standard in mean TD)
deviation at between 0.5 U0
U0, [10−3] and 1.5 U0 [10−3]
If it is not possible to
definitively identify an < 0.1 <5 < 35
insulation (see Note 1)
Carbon-filled (black) EPR < 0.1 < 2 < 20
Mineral-filled (pink) EPR < 0.1 < 4 < 20
No action
Discharge resistant and and
required < 0.1 < 6 < 100
EPR (see NOTE 2)
Lead free mineral filled
< 0.1 < 4 —
(White) EPR (see NOTE 2)
Mineral-filled XLPE
— — < 100
(see NOTE 2)
If it is not possible to
definitively identify an 0.1 to 1.3 5 to 100 35 to 120
insulation (see NOTE 1)
Carbon-filled (black) EPR 0.1 to 2.7 2 to 120 20 to 100
Mineral-filled (pink) EPR 0.1 to 1 4 to 120 20 to 100
Further study
Discharge resistant or or
advised 0.1 to 1 6 to 10 100 to 350
EPR (see Note 2)
Lead free mineral filled
0.1 to 1 4 to 120 —
(White) EPR (see Note 2)
Mineral-filled XLPE
— — 100 to 350
(see Note 2)
Table continues

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Table 5—Historical figures of merit for condition assessment of service-aged

filled insulations (e.g., mineral-filled EPR) using 0.1 Hz (continued)
Condition Filled insulation system TD time stability Tip up (TU) Mean TD
assessment (SDev) measured (difference at U0 [10−3]
by standard in mean TD)
deviation at between 0.5 U0
U0, [10−3] and 1.5 U0 [10−3]
If it is not possible to
definitively identify an > 1.3 > 100 > 120
insulation (see NOTE 1)
Carbon-filled (black) EPR > 2.7 > 120 > 100
Mineral-filled (pink) EPR > 1 > 120 > 100
Action
Discharge resistant or or
required > 1 > 10 > 350
EPR (see NOTE 2)
Lead Free Mineral Filled
> 1 > 120 —
(White) EPR (see NOTE 2)
Mineral-filled XLPE
— — > 350
(see NOTE 2)
NOTE 1—Experience has shown that it is quite difficult to precisely identify the type of filled insulation of
field‑installed cable. The issues encountered include: incorrect or missing records, obliterated or obscured markings on
the cable jacket, indistinct coloring, etc. In these cases, it is recommended to use the criteria for the collated data sets.
NOTE 2—Insufficient data have been collected on these materials and cable designs using these materials to make
precise estimates of criteria, consequently the criteria are likely to contain considerable uncertainties. However, they
are included here to provide some guidance to engineers encountering these insulation systems in the field. Experience
indicates that the TD time stability and tip up provide the basis for any assessment.

Table 6—Historical figures of merit for condition assessment of service-aged paper

insulations (e.g., LPFF, HPFF, MIND, PILC) using 0.1 Hz
Condition TD time stability Tip up (TU) Mean TD
assessment (SDev) measured by (difference in mean at U0 [10−3]
standard deviation TD) between 0.5 U0
at U0, [10−3] and 1.5 U0 [10−3]
No action required < 0.1 and –35 to 10 and < 85
–35 to –50
Further study advised 0.1 to 0.4 or or or 85 to 200
10 to 100
< –50
Action required > 0.4 or or or > 200
> 100

The condition assessment for the cable system may be undertaken by considering the characteristics in the
sequence first SDev, then TU and lastly TD. The condition assessment is given by the most serious condition
of any of the features. Any prioritization or extra differentiation between tested cable system portions may be
accomplished by looking at the assessments for different features. Examples of condition assessment of cable
systems to demonstrate the approach using Table 4 to Table 6 are shown in Table 7.

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Table 7—Examples of condition assessment of service-aged cables based on TD

measurements using 0.1 Hz. The context of the values with the limits of
Table 4, Table 5 and Table 6 are identified by the color of the boxes
(green = No action required, amber = further study, red = action required)
Cable system TD time stability (SDev) Differential TD (TU) Mean TD Condition
insulation measured by standard (difference in mean at U0 [10−3] assessment
deviation at U0, [10−3] TD) between 0.5 U0
and 1.5 U0 [10−3]
No action
PE 0.1 2 3.5
required
Further study
Paper 0. 35 –50 90
advised
Action
Filled 2.5 30 110
required
Lead free mineral No action
0.05 3 90
filled EPR required
Further study
XLPE 0.3 20 3
advised

The values given in Table 4 to Table 7 are based on data collected from North American cable designs and
installations.

5.4.4 Assessment criteria—effect of cable length

As a tangent delta measurement gives the average value of the dielectric loss for the whole cable circuit tested
including the cable and the accessories, it does not give information about how much variation in the loss there
is along the cable length. Tangent delta tests can be conducted on cable system lengths from 30 m (100 ft)
to > 3.6 km (> 12 000 ft) with a mean length of 180 m (600 ft). As an example, a short length of cable or
an accessory could have a high loss whereas the rest of the circuit has low losses, or severe metallic shield
corrosion could affect the tangent delta measurements. One way to overcome this is to compare the tangent
delta results with the physical characteristics of the individual circuits, such as the cable length and the number
of accessories in the circuit and then plotting the data graphically (tangent delta versus cable length), preferably
on logarithmic scales if there are large variations in the lengths tested or in the tangent delta values measured.
Table 8 lists the possible diagnoses based on the slope of the tangent delta versus cable length curves obtained
from extensive measurements.

Table 8—Interpretation of the slopes of the tangent delta versus cable length plot
Slope of tangent delta versus length Possible diagnosis
Flat (loss independent of length) Uniform loss for all parts of the cable system.
Random (no clear length dependence) No clear pattern of loss. Each length tested is different from others
in the same area. Could be local variations between lengths
Positive slope (loss Corrosion of the metallic shield or poor contact between the
increasing with length) metallic shield and the insulation shield.
Increasing faction of isolated loss regions such as lossy accessories.
Negative slope (loss Decreasing fraction of isolated loss regions such
decreasing with length) as lossy accessories or heavily water treed regions
within a large proportion of low loss cable.

5.4.5 Assessment criteria—new cable systems

Withstand tests (installation and/or acceptance) on new cable systems can be carried out using the test voltage
levels listed in Table 3. The recommended test duration is 60 min. Acceptance tests are conducted on new
cable systems to detect the presence of contamination, manufacturing defects, poor installation practices etc.

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Some users wish to add a VLF diagnostic test to the withstand for different types of newly installed cable
systems to establish a baseline for use in subsequent testing and trending. In new cable systems, the stability
(SDev) and tip up (TU) are expected to be low and lower than those seen in aged cable systems. Analysis of
large data sets (see Hartlein, et al. [B26], Hernández-Mejía, et al. [B27]) has shown that the SDev and TU
represent the most useful diagnostic factors to track and trend (see Annex G). Although the analysis shows
that the absolute value of the tangent delta is the least useful diagnostic feature for new cable systems from an
assessment or trending perspective; it is considered useful for comparison with the other cables or phases in
that circuit to ensure all phases have similar results.

It is important to note that the figures of merit from diagnostic tests on aged cable systems that are listed in
Table 4 to Table 6 should not be directly applied to new cable systems.

5.4.6 Advantages for tangent delta measurements

The advantages are as follows:

— The measurement of the bulk properties of extruded insulation is an indicator of the severity of water
treeing.
— On highly degraded cables, or cables of a critical nature tangent delta diagnostic tests can be performed
at or below operating voltage U0 of the cable, yielding good information about the condition of the
cable, without the need to raise the voltage above the operating voltage.
— Cable system insulation condition can be graded among no action required, further study advised, or
action required.
— Cable system insulation can be monitored over time by means of periodic tangent delta measurements
and a cable system history developed.
— SDev, TU and TD tests provide an overall condition assessment on a given phase when compared to
adjacent phases, so long as the phases have the same configuration. This also applies to T-branched or
complex circuits.
— Measurements are simple and quick to perform.
— Minimal influence from external electric fields/noise.
— Basic results available at end of test.
— If there is no metallic shield corrosion, cable replacement, repair, and cable rejuvenation priorities and
expenditures can be planned.
— Test sets are transportable and power requirements are comparable to standard cable fault locating
equipment.
— In monitored VLF ac withstand test systems, tangent delta may be used as one of the ways to monitor
partial discharge activity during a 30 min to 60 min withstand test procedure.
— Periodic measurements or reference data are useful to accurately assess the condition of cable systems.

5.4.7 Disadvantages for tangent delta measurements

Disadvantages are as follows:

— Data from diagnostic tests may not be comparable with power frequency data.
— Cables have to be taken out of service for testing.
— Higher cable temperatures are expected to influence the TD results in XLPE, MIND, and PILC cables,
i.e., after switching off of the system, the cable temperature can influence the test results. Measuring
and recording the cable temperature are recommended.

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— The measured features cannot locate singular defects in extruded insulation.

— Some utilities may have components connected to the cable circuit being measured, e.g., oil-filled
switches that cannot be removed but can influence the test results.
— The measurement of the response of terminations, if needed, from that of the cables plus splices, may
require the addition of guard circuits.

5.4.8 Open issues

Open issues are as follows:

— The measured features are effective tests for mixed dielectric if the results are correlated with the
relative lengths of each type of cable.
— On hybrid cables with different insulation types, the operator should not consider the TD value itself
unless it is excessively high, but rather the SDev and TU.
— The tangent delta should be observed over time, preferably over several years. In general, an increase
in the tangent delta in comparison to previously measured values indicates additional degradation has
occurred.
— Measurements can be made even when there is significant metallic shield corrosion. Generally, the
measured loss is increased under this circumstance; however, the precise impact on the loss is not clear.
— It remains unclear as to how different frequencies of the applied voltage affect the tangent delta
condition assessment criteria.

5.5 Partial discharge (PD) test with VLF sinusoidal waveform

5.5.1 Measurement and equipment

PD measurements to monitor aging and degradation of paper-insulated cables have been reported (Hartlein
[B26]). The described method is based on the application of a pure, sinusoidal 0.1 Hz wave to the cable system.
The applied voltage of up to two times the rms system line-to-ground voltage may generate partial discharges
at insulation defect sites. A traveling wave method may be used to measure the magnitude of PD, locate,
and record the partial discharges from the various defect locations in the cable, splices, or terminations. PD
measurements are a diagnostic tool used to detect, in a nondestructive manner, the location and severity of an
insulation defect. There may be differences in the PD characteristics measured at VLF and power frequency.
The measurement of the test voltage should be made with an approved measuring system, as described in IEC
60060-3. The peak value of the test voltage should be measured with an overall uncertainty of ±5% and the
response time of the measuring system should not be greater than 0.5 s.

It is recommended that test procedures be followed according to IEEE Std 400.3 where possible, to aid in
consistency of results.

5.5.2 Method

Details of the test methods are provided in IEEE Std 400.3. The results of the testing enable recommendations
about repair or replacement of cable system sites, cable sections, or complete cable systems to be made.
However, as with all PD diagnostic test methods, it should be noted that there is insufficient data to allow an
accurate interpretation of PD results from either extruded or PILC cables. As an example, some sites with high
PD activity have not failed and there have been some failures at sites with little or no PD activity. Caution is
advised in the interpretation of PD data. The test is diagnostic; after the test, the cable system can be returned
to service until such time when repairs or replacements will be made.

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5.5.3 Advantages

The advantages are as follows:

— Cables are tested with an ac VLF voltage up to the partial discharge inception voltage, PDIV, or during
a withstand test voltage level.
— The location of PD activity can be detected and measured.
— Cable system insulation condition can be graded as no further action required, further study required,
or action required when the measurement data are compared against historically established cable
system PD data.
— Cable system repairs and/or replacements can be made when schedules permit.
— Test sets are transportable and power requirements are comparable to standard cable fault locating
equipment.
— In monitored VLF ac withstand test systems, partial discharge detection may be used as one of the
ways to monitor partial discharge activity during a 30 min to 60 min withstand test procedure.
— The test becomes more useful after historical comparative cable system data have been accumulated.

5.5.4 Disadvantages

The disadvantages are as follows:

— PD does not occur in water trees. A PD test can only detect areas of water treed insulation if the electric
stress created by a water tree is sufficiently high and the electric strength low enough to initiate an
electrical tree and there is sufficient PD activity at the test voltage.
— External surface discharges, PDs in joints and accessories, corona discharge, and cable attenuation
may have a great influence on the PD test results.
— Cable systems have to be taken out of service for testing.
— Some utilities may have components connected to the cable circuit being measured, e.g., oil-filled
switches, that cannot be removed but can influence the test results.
— PD testing can be less sensitive on aged helically taped shielded cables due to poor contact due to
corrosion of the shield overlaps or low tension such that increases in the impedance of the tape and
increases the attenuation of the PD pulses (Guo and Boggs [B20]).

5.6 Dielectric spectroscopy with sinusoidal waveform

5.6.1 Measurement and equipment

Measurements over a range of frequencies and voltages, e.g., dielectric spectroscopy, are rarely undertaken
in the field but have been undertaken in the laboratory setting. However, they may provide information about
the status of the insulation as insulations in good condition are expected to show only small dependences
upon frequency. A programmable high-voltage generator and an active bridge have been used to measure loss
currents in medium-voltage cables at high voltages and frequencies from 0.1 mHz to 1 kHz (Hvidsten, et al.,
1998 [B31] and Werelius [B43]).

The loss currents at frequencies below 1 Hz are sensitive to degradation due to water trees in extruded XLPE
cables. The loss currents also offer a comparative assessment of the aging of paper/oil cables. No work has
been reported on mineral-filled EPR cables.

In common with all diagnostics it is good practice to verify that the terminations are clean and in good repair
prior to commencing the test program.

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The measured value is primarily influenced by the condition (age, contamination, and moisture ingress) of
the various cable system components (accessories, cable insulation, and metallic shields). In addition, some
utilities may have components connected to the cable circuit being measured, e.g., oil-filled switches, that
cannot be removed but can influence the test results. Most users of dielectric response techniques choose to
measure the entire cable system response that would include the responses from all terminations, cable, and
joints within the circuit. If a high value of loss is detected, then a user has a number of choices as follows:

a) The user can compare results between different phases of the same segment or sequential sections to
better place the result in context.
b) The user can replace the terminations, especially if they appear to be old, and re-measure.
c) The user can perform additional testing in the form of a monitored withstand, non-monitored
withstand, or partial discharge test should they wish to identify a localized problem.
d) The user may separate the response of terminations and other components if connected from cables
plus splices, by, if practical, adding guard circuits at the terminations.

The measurement of the test voltage should be made with an approved measuring system as described in IEC
60060-3. The peak value of the test voltage should be measured with an overall uncertainty of ± 5% and the
response time of the measuring system should not be greater than 0.5 s.

5.6.2 Method

A programmable high-voltage generator with a variable frequency between 0.001 Hz to 1 Hz is connected to

the laboratory cable system to be tested. In the field variable frequency VLF test sets are used with frequencies
between 0.01 Hz and 0.1 Hz. Once the test ranges of frequencies and voltages have been defined, the active
bridge automatically measures the complex dielectric constant and the tangent delta at each voltage and
frequency by measuring accurately the voltage across and the loss and capacitive currents in the cable under
test with a voltage divider and an electrometer. Typical measurement times take less than 15 min.

When testing hybrid circuits, the tangent delta should be observed over time, preferably with repeat
measurements over several years. In general, an increase in the tangent delta in comparison to previously
measured values indicates additional degradation has occurred.

5.6.3 Advantages

The advantages are as follows:

— The test is a diagnostic test that may be effective using voltage levels up to the operating voltage.
— When loss and capacitive currents increase together, the tangent delta, which is the ratio of these
currents, may be less sensitive in detecting cable degradation. Therefore, both the loss and capacitive
currents can be plotted separately as a function of voltage and frequency.
— Periodic measurements allow the condition of the cable system to be monitored with time and a cable
history developed.
— Test sets are transportable and power requirements are comparable to standard cable fault locating
equipment.

5.6.4 Disadvantages

The disadvantages are as follows:

— At present, the maximum commercially available test voltages at a particular VLF frequency and the
maximum cable capacitance that can be tested limits the application of dielectric spectroscopy to the
testing of medium voltage cable systems.

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— The technique measures the average condition of the insulation.

— At very high test voltage levels and frequencies below 0.01 Hz, space charges might be produced in
extruded cable insulation.
— Cables have to be taken out of service for testing.
— Difficult to interpret results for hybrid circuits.
— Some utilities may have components connected to the cable circuit being measured, e.g., oil-filled
switches, that cannot be removed but can influence the test results.
— The measurement of the response of terminations, if needed, from that of the cables plus splices, may
require the addition of adding guard circuits.

5.6.5 Open issue

There is one open issue, as follows:

— Cable circuits with healthy cables that have accessories, which utilize stress grading materials with
non-linear voltage characteristics, may exhibit characteristics of degraded cables.

6. Conclusions
VLF ac testing uses frequencies of the applied voltage in the range of 0.01 Hz up to 1 Hz. There are two main
wave shapes presently in use, the sinusoidal and cosine-rectangular waveforms. This guide addresses the use of
VLF non-monitored (simple) and monitored withstand and other diagnostic field testing of installed shielded
power cable systems covering voltage classes from 5 kV up to and above. Non-monitored and monitored
withstand, tangent delta, differential tangent delta, tangent delta stability, and partial discharge tests at VLF are
used as diagnostic tools to assess the condition of cable systems.

Tables of test voltage levels are included for installation, acceptance, and maintenance tests on cable systems
up to and above. Also included are tables giving limits of the temporal stability of tangent delta, differential
tangent delta (difference in tangent delta at two test voltages), and absolute values of tangent delta for new
and service-aged cable systems. The values of the test voltages and tangent delta criteria listed are based on
laboratory and field test results and experience gained over many years.

The tangent delta criteria have been taken as the 80% and 95% values of the cumulative measurement
data and assume the higher the tangent delta reading the worse the performance. Users may use their own
cumulative measurement data and percentile values to develop their own figures of merit for the different
types of cable systems. There is evidence of a correlation between the tangent delta criteria and subsequent
cable performance, as shown in Figure F.1. Monitoring the future performance of tested circuits will help to
strengthen or modify the correlations as more data are collected. As more data are acquired, the values may
change and these changes will be introduced in future editions of this guide.

The guide describes the methodology (data driven, consistent percentiles, percentile estimates, etc.) for the
selection of the critical levels. Important benefits of using this methodology are the availability of a framework
with which to rapidly and transparently update criteria as more data become available, and the flexibility in the
methodology to be adapted to the needs of the user.

The variation of tangent delta with time at constant voltage is the most sensitive technique to detect insulation
aging of cable systems. The variation of tangent delta with test voltage is also sensitive to insulation aging.
Both measurements are significantly more sensitive to aging than the measurement of the absolute value of
tangent delta.

The advantages, limitations, and open issues with respect to VLF ac testing of cables and accessories are
discussed. VLF ac voltage testing techniques, along with other test techniques, are continuing to develop.

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Annex A
(informative)

Bibliography
Bibliographical references are resources that provide additional or helpful material but do not need to be
understood or used to implement this standard. Reference to these resources is made for informational use
only.

[B1] Arabenferari, M., J. Guo, and R. N. Hampton, “Gas Discharge in a Cavity - First Part of PD Measurement
Process in Power Cable Systems,” International Conference on Insulated Power Cables JICABLE23, Lyon
France, June 2023.

[B2] ASTM D1418, Standard Practice for Rubber and Rubber Latices—Nomenclature.18

[B3] Bach, R., “Quervergleich Verschiedener Spannungsarten zur Pruefung von Mittelspannungskabelanlagen,”
Technical University of Berlin, Annual Report of Research Activities, 1989.

[B4] Bach, R., “Testing and Diagnostic Techniques for Assessing Medium Voltage Service-aged Cables and
New Cable Techniques for Avoiding Cable Faults in Future,” CIRED Conference, Brussels, 1995, Paper No.
3.05.1.

[B5] Bach, R., W. Kalkner, and D. Oldehoff, “Verlustfaktormessung bei 0.1 Hz an betriebsgealterten PE/VPE
Kabelanlagen,” Elektrizitdswirtschaft, Jg. 92, Heft 17/18, pp. 1076–1080, 1993.

[B6] Bahder, G., C. Katz, G. S. Eager, and E. Leber, E., S.M. Chalmers, W.H. Jones, and W.H. Mangrum, “Life
Expectancy of Crosslinked Polyethylene Insulated Cables Rated 15 to 35 kV,” IEEE Transactions PES, vol.
100, pp. 1581–1590, April 1981.

[B7] Baur, M., “Why should we test power cables with Very Low Frequency?” IEEE Conference ALTAE
2007, Cuernvaca, Mexico.

[B8] Baur, M. and P. Mohaupt, T. and Schlick, “New Results in Medium Voltage Cable Assessment Using
Very Low Frequency with Partial Discharge and Dissipation Factor Measurement,” CIRED 17th International
Conference on Electricity Distribution, Barcelona, May 12–15, 2003.

[B9] CIGRE TB 728, Onsite Partial Discharge Assessment of HV and EHV Cable Systems.19

[B10] CIGRE TB 751, Electrical properties of electrical insulating materials under VLF voltage.

[B11] DIN VDE 0276-620:2010–11: Power cables—Distribution cables with extruded insulation for rated
voltages from 3.6/6 (7.2) kV up to and including 20.8/36 (42) kV.20

[B12] Dissado, L. A., C. Laurent, G. C. Montanari, and P. H. F. Morshuis, “Demonstrating a Threshold for
Trapped Space Charge Accumulation in Solid Dielectrics under dc Fields,” IEEE Trans. on Diel. and Elect,”
Insul., vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 612–620, 2005. [DEIS]

18
ASTM publications are available from the American Society for Testing and Materials (https://www.astm.org/).
19
CIGRE publications are available from the Council on Large Electric Systems.
20
DIN publications are available from the Deutsches Institut für Normung (https://www.din.de/en/about-standards/din-standards).

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IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

[B13] Eager, G. S. Jr., B. Fryszczyn, C. Katz, H. A. ElBadaly, and A. R. Jean, “Effect of D.C. Testing Water
Tree Deteriorated Cable and a Preliminary Evaluation of V.L.F. as Alternative,” IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 1582–1591, July 1992.

[B14] Eager, G. S., C. Katz, B. Fryszczyn, J. Densley, and B. S. Bernstein, “High Voltage VLF Testing of
Power Cables,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 565–670, 1997.

[B15] Fletcher, C. L., R.N. Hampton, J.C. Hernandez, J. Hesse J., M.G. Pearman, J. Perkel, T. Wall, W.
Zenger, “First practical Utility Implementations of Monitored Withstand Diagnostics in the USA,” Jicable11,
Verasailles, 2011.

[B16] Gnerlich, H. R., “Field Testing of HV Power Cables: Understanding VLF Testing,” IEEE Electrical
Insulation Magazine, vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 13–16, September/October 1995.

[B17] Gockenbach, E. and W. Hauschild, “The Selection of the Frequency Range for High Voltage On-Site
Testing of Extruded Insulation Systems,” IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 11–16,
November/December 2000.

[B18] Goodwin, C., H. Oetjen, and M. Peschel, “Use of VLF Methods in Utility Reliability Programs—Basic
Concepts,” Minutes of IEEE ICC Fall 2009 Meeting, Scottsdale AZ.

[B19] Groenefeld, P., R. von Olshausen, and F. Selle, “Fehlererkennung und Isolationsgefaehrdung bei der
Pruefung Water-tree haltiger VPE-Kabel mit Spannungen unterschiedlicher Form,” Elektrizitaetswirtschaft,
Jg. 84, H. 13, pp. 501–505, 1985.

[B20] Guo, J. J. and S. A. Boggs, “High Frequency Signal Propagation in Solid DielectricTape Shielded Power
Cables,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 1793–1802, July 2011.

[B21] Hamon, V., “An Approximate Method for Deducing Dielectric Loss Factor from Direct-Current
Measurements,” Proc. IEE (London), Vol. 99 (Monograph No. 27), pp. 151–155, 1952.

[B22] Hampton, R. N. and R. Patterson, “Tangent Delta Testing: Effect of Terminations,” Minutes of IEEE
ICC Spring 2008 Meeting, St Petersburg FL.

[B23] Hampton, R. N., J. Perkel, J. C. Hernandez, M. Begovic, J. Hans, R. Riley, P. Tyschenko, F. Doherty, G.
Murray, L. Hong, M. G. Pearman, C. L. Fletcher, and G. C. Linte, “Experience of Withstand Testing of Cable
Systems in the USA,” CIGRE. Paper No, 2010, pp. B1–B303.

[B24] Hampton, R. N., J. C. Hernandez, and J. Perkel, “Repeated Field Tests - Utility Case Studies of the Value
of Trending,” International Conference on Insulated Power Cables JICABLE15, Versailles France, June 2015.

[B25] Hampton, R. N., J. C. Hernandez, J. Perkel, V. Tomer, and M. Kunetzov, “Estimating the impact of VLF
Frequency on Effectiveness of VLF Withstand Diagnostics,” International Conference on Insulated Power
Cables JICABLE15, Versailles France, June 2015.

[B26] Hartlein, R., N. Hampton, J. Perkel, J.C. Hernandez, S. Elledge, Y. del Valle, J. Grimaldo, and K. Deku,
“Applying Diagnostics to Enhance Cable System Reliability (Cable Diagnostic Focused Initiative, Phase II)”.
United States: N. p., 2016. Web. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1255949

[B27] Hernández-Mejía, J. C., J. Perkel, R. Harley, N. Hampton, and R. Hartlein, “Correlation between
Tangent delta Diagnostic Measurements and Breakdown Performance at VLF for MV XLPE Cables,” IEEE
Trans. on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 162–170, February 2009.

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IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

[B28] Hernandez-Mejia, J. C., J. Perkel, J. F. Drapeau, and R. N. Hampton, “Methods and Experience of
Very Low Frequency (VLF) Diagnostic Testing to Support Asset Management of Critical MV Circuits;,
International Conference on Insulated Power Cables JICABLE19, Versailles France, June 2019.

[B29] Hetzel, E. and R. R. MacKinlay, “Diagnostic Field Testing of Paper Insulated Lead Covered MV
Cables,” JICABLE, 4th International Conference on Insulated Power Cables, Versailles, 1995.

[B30] Hvidsten, S., H. Faremo, J. T. Benjaminsen, and E. Ildstad, “Condition Assessment of Water Treed
Service Aged XLPE Cables by Dielectric Response Measurements,” Paper 21–201 presented at CIGRE 8 pp.
2000.

[B31] Hvidsten, S., E. Ildstad, B. Holmgren, and P. Werelius, “Correlation between AC Breakdown Strength
and Low Frequency Dielectric Loss of Water Tree Aged XLPE Cables,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery,
vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 40–45, 1998.

[B32] Hyvoenon, P., B. Oyegoke, and M. Aro, “Diagnostics and testing of high voltage cable systems,”
Technical report TKK-SJT- 63, High Voltage Institute, Helsinki University of Technology, 19 pp. (available at
http://www.hut.fi/Units/HVI/).

[B33] IEC 60840, Power Cables with Extruded Insulation and Their Accessories for Rated Voltages Above
30 kV (Um = 36 kV) up to 150 kV (Um = 170 kV), Test Methods and Requirements.

[B34] Kobayashi, S., K. Uchida, T. Kawashima, K. Hirotsu, H. Inoue, and H. Tanaka, H., and S. Sakuma,
“Study on detection for the defects of XLPE cable links,” Proceedings of 1995 Jicable Conference, Paper
A.6.3, pp. 151–157.

[B35] Krefter, K.-H., “Prüfung zur Beurteilung von Kabelanlagen in Mittelspannungsnetzen,” page 127 cont.,
VWEW-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 1991.

[B36] Moh, S. C., “Very low frequency testing—Its effectiveness in detecting hidden defects in cables,” 2003
CIRED (17th International Conference on Electricity Distribution), Barcelona, Paper 84, May 12–15, 2003.

[B37] NEETRAC—Cable Diagnostic Focused Initiative (CDFI) Reports, Project Nos. 04–211 (DOE), 09–
166. Award No. DE-FC02–04CH11237. Georgia Tech Research Cooperation, GTRC Project No. E-21-RJT.

[B38] Perkel, J., J. C. Hernández, R. N. Hampton, J. F. Drapeau, J. Densley, and Y. Del Valle, “Challenges
Associated with the Interpretation of Dielectric Loss data from Power Cable System measurements,”
Jicable11, Versailles 2011.

[B39] Riley C, J.C. Hernandez, J. Perkel, R.N. Hampton, J. Altamirano, “Laboratory Study of the Impact of
Repeated VLF Application and Subsequent AC Performance” Jicable23 Lyon, 2023.

[B40] Srinivas, N.H. and B.S. Bernstein, “Effect of D.C. Testing on Aged XLPE Insulated Cables with
Splices,” JICABLE 91, Paris, France, Paper B.3.1, June 1991.

[B41] Steennis, E. F., W. Boone, and A. Montfoort, “Water Treeing in Service-aged Cables, Experience and
Evaluation Procedure,” IEEE Transactions, PES-5, no. 1, pp. 40–46, Jan. 1990.

[B42] Takada, T., ““Acoustic and Optical Methods for Measuring Electric Charge Distributions in Dielectrics,”
IEEE Trans. on Diel. and Elect,” Insul., vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 519–547, 1999. [DEIS]

[B43] Werelius, P., “Power Cable Diagnostics by Dielectric Spectroscopy,” Paper presented at Panel on
Diagnostic Measurement Techniques for Power Cables at the 1999 IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution
Conference, New Orleans, April 11–16, 1999.

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Annex B
(normative)

Wave shapes of VLF ac voltage testing voltages

Figure B.1—Withstand voltages waveforms

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Annex C
(informative)

Typical defects in fluid-filled and extruded cable systems

Typical defects in fluid-filled and extruded cable systems are listed in Table C.1.

Table C.1—Typical defects in fluid-filled and extruded cable systems

Fluid-filled cable systems
Typical defects Defect causes
Decreased oil level in accessories Lack of maintenance, aging, leaks
Drying out of insulation Lack of maintenance, aging, leaks, cracks in sheath
Moisture ingress Cracks in sheath, aging environment
Cavities Lack of maintenance and poor workmanship
Contamination Errors in human performance
Poorly hardened resin Errors in human performance
Asymmetrical conductor positioning Errors in human performance, overheating, environment
Conductor problems Errors in human performance, overheating, environment
Faulty materials Manufacture
Extruded cable systems
Typical defects Defect causes
Interface problems Errors in human performance, aging
Protrusions on connectors Errors in human performance, poor manufacture
Moisture penetration Lack of maintenance, aging,
environmental, poor manufacture
Water trees Aging, environment
Contaminants Errors in human performance, poor
manufacture, environment
Cavities/delamination of shield Errors in human performance,poor manufacture
Incorrect assembly of accessories Errors in human performance, poor
manufacture, complicated design
Conductor problems Poor operation, poor workmanship, environment
Metallic shield corrosion Poor manufacture, poor installation, environment
Faulty materials Poor manufacture, errors in human performance

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Annex D
(informative)

Effect of initial increase in voltage (ramp up)

The voltage application during a withstand test has two components—the ramp up and the hold portions. In
some equipment, voltage reaches the test voltage in the first cycle so that the ramp is a quarter cycle of the
voltage waveform. At the present time, any failure that occurs during the test is considered to have occurred at
the test voltage (the hold portion). If more engineering information is required, failures during the ramp up and
hold portions can be collected separately as follows:

— Test times are specified for the hold portion.

— The ramp up process should be defined by the user and consistent from one test to another.
— Records of all successful and unsuccessful tests (simple and monitored withstands) form a valuable
diagnostic resource (Hampton, et al. [B23]) and should be retained.
— If a failure occurs during the voltage ramp up stage then the VLF voltage, Uf, (not the instantaneous
voltage) should be recorded; see Figure D.1.
— If a failure occurs during the hold period, the time, tf, into the hold period should be recorded; see
Figure D.2. In equipment that allows the voltage to reach the test voltage in the first cycle the ramp is a
quarter cycle of the voltage waveform and the instantaneous breakdown voltage is recorded.

Figure D.1—Failure during ramp up period [Record voltage at which failure occurs (Uf).]

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IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

Figure D.2—Failure during hold period [record time on test (tf).]

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Annex E
(informative)

Figures of merit and range of available tangent delta and

differential tangent delta (tip up) data
Collated (March 2011) data are available for measurements made on a range of utility systems. These data
have been segregated for cable system type. The behavior of the measured cable system tangent delta stability
(SDev), tip up (1.5U0 to 0.5U0) (TU), and mean tangent delta (U0) is shown in Figure E.1 to Figure E.3,
respectively. The recommended critical assessment levels of further study required and action required are
derived from these data by taking the values at the 80% (following the Pareto Principle) and 95% probabilities,
respectively.

Figure E.1—Cumulative distribution of cable system tan delta stability values: U0, 0.1 Hz

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IEEE Std 400.2-2024
IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

Figure E.2—Cumulative distribution cable system tangent delta tip up criteria: 0.1 Hz

Figure E.3—Cumulative distribution of cable system tangent delta: U0, 0.1 Hz

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IEEE Std 400.2-2024
IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

Annex F
(informative)

Comments on data interpretation and performance

Some comments on the risk of failure under a simple withstand test can be made based on data collected from
approximately 16 000 km (10 000 mi) of cable systems since 2000 from several North American utilities
(Hampton, et al., 2010 [B23], Hampton, et al., “Estimating the impact…., 2015 [B25], NEETRAC [B37]).
However, the risk of failure on test does not relate to the whole population but the smaller/older/concerning
subset that utilities subject to a condition assessment. Thus, this overestimates the risk of failure for new or
well- maintained circuits but may underestimate the risk for particularly poorly performing circuits. VLF
withstand tests can be performed on a large range of cable lengths [~75 m (~250 ft) to ~4.5 km (~15000 ft)].
Thus, the risk of failure on test can be considered on the following two levels as shown in Table F.1:

a) Risk of failure on test as a function of cable length.

b) Risk of failure on test for a specific length of cable, e.g., 300 m (1000 ft).

Table F.1—Risk of failure on test as function of cable system length for simple withstand
tests for 30 min and recommended maintenance voltages
Risk of failure on test of cable systems with typically > 25 years
of service or showing evidence of poor performance
First failure Second failure
Any length of cable system 10%–30% < 2%
Cable system length of 300 m (1000 ft) 4% < 0.5%

The failure rates in service after the completion of a successful VLF test are low, with > 90% of the cable
systems surviving longer than 5 years after the test. Cable systems that fail on test and are then repaired have a
5 year survival rate > 95%.

Overall insulation failures on test account for between 1% and 2%, see Figure F.1, of the number of cable
systems tested according to the recommended voltage step protocol.

There is evidence of a correlation between the tan delta criteria and subsequent cable performance (Perkel,
et al. [B38]). Some tested cable systems, which were already known to have questionable (due to age or
failures in service) service performance, were monitored for a number of years to determine their service
performance. Figure F.1 shows an example of the performance in service of PE-based insulations up to five
years after testing. The times are shown in Weibull format segregated by the action classes: no action required,
further study, and action required. If left unaddressed following a diagnosis, it has been estimated that for
these PE‑based cable systems ~7.5% [(0.8 × 6), from no action required plot; + (0.15 × 13), from further
study plot; + (0.05 × 20), from action required plot, from Figure F.1] of the tested cable systems would fail
in service within 5 years. It should be noted that these results do not apply to cable systems at large but to the
small subset that have already come to the user’s attention due to age, criticality, poor service performance,
or combinations of these factors. Monitoring the future performance of tested circuits will help to strengthen
or modify the correlations as more data are acquired. The new data will be included in future revisions of this
document.

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IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Very Low Frequency (VLF) (less than 1 Hz)

Figure F.1—Diagnostic performance curves for tan delta measurements on cable systems
with questionable performance using PE-based insulations
(Values on right hand side are the percentage of failures at 60 months for the different plots)

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Annex G
(informative)

Tan delta results of new cable systems

The criteria provided in Table 4, Table 5, and Table 6 have been collated from measurements on aged cable
systems. Traditionally new cable systems have been assessed or commissioned using a simple withstand
approach using the voltages set out in the Acceptance column of Table 3. Some users wish to add a VLF
diagnostic test to the withstand for different types of newly installed cable systems to establish a baseline for
use in subsequent testing.

In new cable systems, the tip up and the stability are expected to be low and lower than those seen in aged
cables. Analysis (5.4.5) shows that the absolute value of the Tangent Delta is the least useful diagnostic feature
for new cable systems from an assessment or trending perspective; it is considered useful for comparison with
the other cables or phases in that circuit to ensure all phases have similar results.

The guidance set up in Table G.1 and Table G.2 may be applied to establish a baseline.

Table G.1—Guidance for context of newly installed cables

with PE-based insulations (XLPE and TRXLPE)
For interpretation of baseline, trending only
Tangent delta stability Tip up TU (1.5U0 Tangent delta
Condition assessment
SDev at U0 [10−3] – 0.5U0) [10−3] at U0 [10−3]
Acceptable ≤ 0.1 and ≤ 0.8 and No guidance
Subject to further
Further study advised > 0.1 or > 0.8 or research
Action required No guidance defined

Table G.2—Guidance for context of newly installed mineral-filled EPR cables

For interpretation of baseline, trending only
Tangent delta stability Tip up TU (1.5U0 Tangent delta
Condition assessment
SDev at U0 [10−3] – 0.5U0) [10−3] at U0 [10−3]
Acceptable ≤ 0.1 and ≤5 and No guidance
Subject to further
Further study advised > 0.1 or > 5 or research
Action required No guidance defined

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IEEE Std 400.2-2024
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Annex H
(informative)

Development of utility/application specific criteria

In many cases, the criteria (the divisions between “No action required to further study” and “Further study to
action required”) have to be estimated from a smaller set of data than that used to develop the tables in the body
of the standard. When the data are limited, experience has shown that a number of issues need to be considered
by the engineer. These are set out below, using the filled insulation, and its sub-classes, as an example.

Sufficient information is required to determine the desired percentiles selected for the critical levels. In this
document, the 80th and 95th percentiles have been selected through analogy with the Pareto Principle and
Shewart Charts. In these cases it has been found that reasonable estimates can be developed with sample sets
of the order of 100 separate entries. The process can be applied with lower numbers; however, the estimates
are much coarser (see 95% confidence limits for discharge resistant and mineral filled XLPE in Table H.1, and
subject to much larger changes as more data become available at later dates. Obviously the 95th percentile
(action required) is the level that is most sensitive to this issue as this is at the extreme of the data distribution.

Table H.1—Historical figures of merit for condition assessment of service-aged filled

insulations using 0.1 Hz including the upper and lower 95% confidence limits
Condition Filled insulation systems TD Tip up (TU) Mean
assessment time stability (difference TD
limits (SDev) measured in mean TD) at U0
by standard between 0.5 U0 [10−3]
deviation at U0 and 1.5 U0
[10−3] [10−3]
If it is not possible to 0.08 3.7 30
definitively identify < 0.1 <5 < 35
a filled insulation 0.13 6.75 41
— 1.64 14
Carbon-filled (black) EPR < 0.1 < 2 < 20
— 2.43 29
No action
— 3.6 19
required
Mineral-filled (pink) EPR < 0.1 and < 4 and < 20
to further
— 4.5 24
study
— 5.1 80
Discharge resistant EPR < 0.1 < 6 < 100
0.15 7.4 150
60
Mineral-filled XLPE — — < 100
165
If it is not possible to 0.97 74 102
definitively identify > 1.3 > 100 > 120
a filled insulation 1.75 135 141
0.75 81 66
Carbon-filled (black) EPR > 2.7 > 120 > 100
9.8 177 151
Further
0.68 82 75
study to
Mineral-filled (pink) EPR > 1 or > 120 or > 100
action
1.7 175 133
required
0.2 7.5 237
Discharge resistant EPR > 1 > 10 > 350
6.4 14.1 515
212
Mineral-filled XLPE — — > 350
576

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As already mentioned, this document has, for consistency across insulation classes, selected the 80th and 95th
percentiles as the critical levels. These are not the only levels that a user may select; for example 75th and 90th
percentiles may be equally valid and the choice is often guided by the remediation and risk strategies of the
user. However, care should be exercised to make sure that unreasonably low or high values are not selected,
e.g., 50th or 99th percentiles. The 80th and 95th percentiles were guided by the cusps or split points in the
distributions of data (see the distribution for mineral-filled EPR shown in Figure H.1). In this case, there is
no precise agreement with the percentiles but their adoption is reasonable to enhance consistency across all
insulation systems and to provide a framework for the consistent upgrading of criteria.

Figure H.1—Three parameter Weibull fit to the available tangent delta data collected at U0
segregated for mineral-filled EPR

Inherent in any estimate of criteria is the error introduced by the data. A convenient way to determine and
represent this is through the confidence limits associated with fits of statistical distributions. Thus the engineer
may choose either the percentile estimate or the lower (most common) or upper confidence limits on the
estimate for the critical levels. Again this is a judgment guided by the remediation and risk strategies. In the
case of the VLF tangent delta features (stability, tip up, and tangent delta) this is complicated for service-aged
data by the fact that no single distribution can adequately fit the data over the whole range for all insulations.
The following figures show the issues to be faced by the engineer.

The mineral-filled EPR data (Figure H.1) clearly have multiple modes (represented by the straight line
segments and cusps) such that an adequate fit cannot be attained for the whole data even when a sophisticated
three parameter Weibull distribution is used. Whereas, the data for discharge-resistant mineral filled EPR
(Figure H.2) appears to be well fitted by the three-parameter Weibull distribution (it is not clear if this level of
fit is an attribute of the sparse data on this material). In this case then it is rather straightforward to develop the
confidence limits for the percentiles. For example, at the 80th percentile in Figure H.2, the user may choose to
use 80 E-3 or 150 E-3 as the division between the no action or further study areas (see Table H.1 The dearth of
data leads to the issue faced at the 95th percentile where the data would suggest an upper limit at 540, while the
distribution argues for 250. In these situations it would seem prudent to recognize the limitations in the data
and weight the limit toward the data; in this case 515. However, in this case, the issue carries less sensitivity in
that it refers to the upper limit, which is rarely used to determine criteria.

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Figure H.2—Three parameter Weibull fit to the available tangent delta data collected at U0
segregated for discharge resistant mineral-filled EPR

The situation is more complicated for the filled insulation—mineral-filled EPR and carbon-black filled EPR
categories—as a single distribution does not provide an adequate fit for any of the features. In these cases, it
is necessary to recognize the constraint of the Weibull approach in that it is designed to be applied to a single
mode at a time. Therefore it is necessary to segregate the complete data sets into smaller subgroups and then
apply a distribution approach. The segregation is straightforward and can be accomplished by inspection of
the empirical distributions; to date it has not been found necessary to use any optimization tools. The outcome
of this approach is shown for the tip up data for the mineral-filled EPR class (Figure H.3). In this case three
separate distributions (1, 2, and 3) have been used; of these distributions #3 is of most interest for the criteria
at the 80th and 95th percentiles. As can been seen, the distribution fit is adequate over the area of interest and
thus the confidence range for the tip up can be established—no action required to further study, 3.7 to 6.75, and
further study to action required, 74 to 135. The outcome for all features and types of filled insulation class are
shown in Table H.1

The revision of this document has clearly demonstrated the benefits of clearly establishing the methodology
(date driven, consistent percentiles, percentile estimates, etc.) for the selection of the critical levels. The chief
among these benefits is the availability of a framework with which to rapidly and transparently update criteria
as more data become available.

The criteria used for the historical figures of merit provided in this document have been selected using the
estimate of the 80th and 95th percentiles, not the lower confidence limits.

Many users will find the ranges provided in Table H.1 cumbersome to use and will prefer the clarity of the
percentile estimates in the main document. However, there is a benefit in recognizing the probabilistic nature
of the criteria.

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Figure H.3—Three parameter Weibull fits to the different modes within the tip up
(tangent delta @ 1.5 U0 – tangent delta @ 0.5 U0) data for mineral-filled EPR. Mode 3 is used
to establish the confidence limits at the 80th and 95th percentiles of the whole
(not segregated into modes) distribution of data

The guidance on test voltages, criteria and classifications detailed in this document have been developed from
a large, collated data set of test data from North America (see tables and figures of this Annex). Utilities in
other countries have evolved different methods (TD TDR PD combined), test voltages (2U0), criteria (skirt,
percentages etc.) and classifications (4, 6 levels). The technical references for these practices are tabulated in
Table H.2. The provenance of the underlying data or the criteria development has not been established by the
working group.

Table H.2—References for national/utility assessment practices

Usage Title Source
Singapore Condition monitoring of distribution cables using CEPSI Conference
Power Grid VLF diagnostic test with Tangent Delta, Time Domain 2016
Reflectometry and Partial Discharge measurement
Germany Schwachstellen im Verteilernetz aufspüren Netzpraxis Magazine
RWE 2012
France Diagnostic for Paper Cable Condition Assessment Jicable
EDF 2007
South Korea A Study on Three Dimensional Assessment of the Aging IEEE Trans DEI V21
KEPCO Condition of Polymeric Medium Voltage Cables Applying 2014
Very Low Frequency (VLF) tan δ Diagnostic

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Ieee 400.2-2024

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Ieee 400.2-2024

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IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded

IEEE Power and Energy Society

IEEE Std 400.2™-2024

IEEE Guide for Field Testing of Shielded

Insulated Conductors Committee

Approved 20 May 2024

IEEE SA Standards Board

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Copyright © 2024 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

PDF: ISBN 979-8-8557-1082-3 STD27216

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Laws and regulations

Updating of IEEE Standards documents

Nigel Hampton, Chair

Jason Aaron Jun Guo Lachman Raut

John Ainscough Hamidreza Heidarisafa Allan Powers

David J. Law, Chair

Sara R. Biyabani Hao Hu Paul Nikolich

Annex B (normative) Wave shapes of VLF ac voltage testing voltages���������������������������������������������������������� 40

Annex C (informative) Typical defects in fluid-filled and extruded cable systems����������������������������������������� 41

Annex D (informative) Effect of initial increase in voltage (ramp up)����������������������������������������������������������� 42

Annex F (informative) Comments on data interpretation and performance��������������������������������������������������� 46

Annex G (informative) Tan delta results of new cable systems���������������������������������������������������������������������� 48

Annex H (informative) Development of utility/application specific criteria�������������������������������������������������� 49

1.3 Word usage

NFPA 70E, Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace.15

3. Definitions, acronyms, and abbreviations

polyethylene (PE): A thermoplastic polymer used as electrical insulation in cables.

shielded cable: A cable in which an insulated conductor is enclosed in a conducting envelope.

sinusoidal: a sinusoidal voltage waveform that changes polarity at selected frequencies.

3.2 Acronyms and abbreviations

HPGF high pressure gas filled cable

At the conclusion of high-voltage testing, attention should be given to the following:

Figure 1—Recommended test hook-up

5. Very low frequency (VLF) ac testing

Examples of the various waveforms (shown in Annex B) are as follows:

— VLF ac voltage testing with cosine-rectangular waveform.

a) Tangent delta measurement (TD); see 5.4.

Table 1—Criteria considerations: various VLF ac voltage testing methods

5.1 General VLF ac withstand voltage testing

Table 3—VLF withstand test voltages for sinusoidal and

Regarding the test times:

5.1.2 Testing considerations

Testing considerations are as follows:

5.2 VLF ac withstand voltage testing with cosine-rectangular waveform

The advantages are as follows:

The disadvantages are as follows:

5.3 VLF ac withstand voltage testing with sinusoidal waveform

The advantages are as follows:

The disadvantages are as follows:

5.4.3 Assessment criteria—aged cable systems

Table 4—Historical figures of merit for condition assessment of service-aged PE-based

Table 5—Historical figures of merit for condition assessment of service-aged

Table 5—Historical figures of merit for condition assessment of service-aged

Table 6—Historical figures of merit for condition assessment of service-aged paper

Table 7—Examples of condition assessment of service-aged cables based on TD

5.4.4 Assessment criteria—effect of cable length

5.4.5 Assessment criteria—new cable systems

5.4.6 Advantages for tangent delta measurements

The advantages are as follows:

5.4.7 Disadvantages for tangent delta measurements

Disadvantages are as follows:

— The measured features cannot locate singular defects in extruded insulation.

5.4.8 Open issues

Open issues are as follows:

5.5 Partial discharge (PD) test with VLF sinusoidal waveform

The advantages are as follows:

The disadvantages are as follows:

5.6 Dielectric spectroscopy with sinusoidal waveform

A programmable high-voltage generator with a variable frequency between 0.001 Hz to 1 Hz is connected to

The advantages are as follows:

The disadvantages are as follows:

— The technique measures the average condition of the insulation.

Annex B (normative) Wave shapes of VLF ac voltage testing voltages�� 40

Annex C (informative) Typical defects in fluid-filled and extruded cable systems�� 41

Annex D (informative) Effect of initial increase in voltage (ramp up)�� 42

Annex F (informative) Comments on data interpretation and performance�� 46

Annex G (informative) Tan delta results of new cable systems�� 48

Annex H (informative) Development of utility/application specific criteria�� 49