Subject : Fundamental of Computer and Python Programming

Program B.E. (Marine Engineering)

Course Name L T P C
Course code Fundamental of
242CS1A53TK Computer and Python 2 1 0 2
Programming
Year / Semester I / II Contact hours/Week 3

Humanities and Management Professional

Professional Core
Social Sciences courses Elective
Course
category Engineering
Basic Science
Science Open Elective Mandatory
✓
1 To understand the fundamental of computer, algorithm and flow chart.

2 To learn the basic programming constructs in Python.

Course To practice various computing strategies for Python-based solutions to real
3
objectives world problems.
4 To use Python data structures - lists, tuples, dictionaries.

5 To do input/output with files in Python.

computer components and flow chart, Develop algorithmic solutions to
CO1
simple computational problems.
Course
outcomes CO2 Read, write, execute by hand simple Python programs.
(On completion CO3 Structure simple Python programs for solving problems.
of the course,
Learners will CO4 Decompose a Python program into functions.
be able to)
CO5 Represent compound data using Python lists, tuples, and dictionaries.
CO6 Read and write data from/to files in Python Programs.

242CS1A53TK - Fundamental of Computer and Python Programming – Syllabus

Notes Prepared by Dr S Srinivasan, Professor, Computer Science

Unit-I COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS 9 Hours

Definition, Block Diagram along with its components, characteristics & classification of computers,
Applications of computers in various fields. Memory: Concept of primary & secondary memory,
RAM, ROM, types of ROM, flash memory, Secondary storage devices: Sequential & direct access
devices viz. magnetic tape, magnetic disk, CD, DVD- Algorithms - building blocks of algorithms
(statements, state, control flow, functions) – Flow chart.
Unit-II DATA, EXPRESSIONS, STATEMENTS 9 Hours
Python interpreter and interactive mode - values and types: int, float, boolean, string, and
list – variables – expressions – statements - tuple assignment - precedence of operators – comments
- modules and functions - function definition and use - flow of execution - parameters and
arguments - Illustrative programs: exchange the values of two variables, circulate the values of n
variables, distance between two points.
Unit-III CONTROL FLOW, FUNCTIONS 9 Hours
Conditionals: Boolean values and operators, conditional (if), alternative (if-else), chained
conditional (if-elif-else) - Iteration: state, while, for, break, continue, pass - Fruitful functions:
return values, parameters, local and global scope, function composition, recursion - Strings:
string slices, immutability, string functions and methods, string module, other built-in libraries.
Unit-IV LISTS, TUPLES, DICTIONARIES 9 Hours
Lists: list operations, list slices, list methods, list loop, mutability, aliasing, cloning lists, list
parameters, advanced list processing, list comprehension - Tuples: tuple assignment, tuple as return
value Application: Queue processing using list, vector processing using tuples.
Unit-V FILES, MODULES, PACKAGES 9 Hours
Files and exception: text files, reading and writing files, format operator - command line
arguments - errors and exceptions - handling exceptions – modules – packages - Illustrative
programs: word count, copy file.
Total hours: 45
Text Books:
1. Allen B. Downey, ``Think Python: How to Think Like a Computer Scientist‘‘, 2nd edition, O‘Reilly
Publishers, 2016.
2.Guido van Rossum and Fred L. Drake Jr, An Introduction to Python –Revised and updated for
Python 3.2, Network Theory L., 2011.
Reference Books:
1.John V Guttag, ―Introduction to Computation and Programming Using Python‘‘, Revised and
expanded Edition, MIT Press, 2013.
2. Robert Sedgewick, Kevin Wayne, Robert Dondero, ―Introduction to Programming in Python: An
Inter-disciplinary Approach, Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd., 2016.
3. Charles Dierbach, Introduction to Computer Science using Python: A Computational Problem-
Solving Focus, Wiley India Edition, 2013.
 UNIT -1
COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Definition, Block Diagram along with its components, characteristics & classification of computers,
Applications of computers in various fields. Memory: Concept of primary & secondary memory,
RAM, ROM, types of ROM, flash memory, Secondary storage devices: Sequential & direct access
devices viz. magnetic tape, magnetic disk, CD, DVD- Algorithms - building blocks of algorithms
(statements, state, control flow, functions) – Flow chart.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

DEFINE COMPUTER :

Computer is an electronic device for storing and processing data, typically in binary form, according
to instructions given to it in a variable program. A computer is an electronic device that accepts
data, performs operations, displays results, and stores the data or results as needed.

A computer system is a basic and functional computer that includes all the hardware and
software that are required to make it functional for the user. It is an electronic device that accepts
the data as input, processes the data in a pre-determined way and then communicates the result as
output on the screen.

CPU which stands for Central Processing Unit is the brain of the computer. It is an electronic circuit
within a computer that executes instructions that make up a computer program. Various blocks of
CPU are-
• It carries out the operations of arithmetic and logical expressions.
• The timing and Control Unit controls the entire operation being performed on the
computer system.
• The register is a very small amount of very fast memory that is built into the CPU in
order to store the current data and instructions that are being performed by the CPU.
• storage unit of the computer system which is used to store the program statement and
data.
• Input and Output unit sends and receives data to display it to the user.
COMPUTER AND ITS COMPONENTS ALONG WITH BLOCK DIAGRAM OF
COMPUTER

For more details, refer the website :

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/computer-and-its-components/
https://byjus.com/govt-exams/computer-components/
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_concepts/computer_concepts_components_of_computer
_system.htm

Computer system is made up of integrated parts like input, output, CPU, and storage unit, wherein
all the parts work together to process data.It is a combination of hardware and software resources
that integrate together and provides various functionalities to the user. Hardware is the physical
components of a computer like a processor, memory devices, monitor, keyboard, etc., while
software is a set of programs or instructions that are required by the hardware resources to function
properly.

Components of computer organization or General Structure of Computer Diagram

Basic operations of a computer:-

⮚ It ACCEPTS the data or instruction through INPUT

⮚ It STORES the data or information in MEMORY
⮚ It can PROCESS data as instructed by the user
⮚ It GIVES results through OUTPUT
⮚ It CONTROLS all the operations
There are basically three important components of a computer:
• Input Unit
• Central Processing Unit(CPU) – which includes ALU, CU, MU
• Output Unit

Input Unit:
The input unit consists of input devices that are attached to the computer. These devices take input
and convert it into binary language that the computer understands. Some of the common input
devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner etc.
• The Input Unit is formed by attaching one or more input devices to a computer.
• A user input data and instructions through input devices such as a keyboard, mouse, etc.
• The input unit is used to provide data to the processor for further processing.

Central Processing Unit:

Once the information is entered into the computer by the input device, the processor processes it.
The CPU is called the brain of the computer because it is the control centre of the computer. It first
fetches instructions from memory and then interprets them so as to know what is to be done. If
required, data is fetched from memory or input device. Thereafter CPU executes or performs the
required computation, and then either stores the output or displays it on the output device. The CPU
has three main components, which are responsible for different functions: A) Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU), B) Control Unit (CU) and C) Memory registers or Memory Unit
A). Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU, as its name suggests performs
mathematical calculations and takes logical decisions. Arithmetic calculations include
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical decisions involve the comparison
of two data items to see which one is larger or smaller or equal.
• Arithmetic Logical Unit is the main component of the CPU
• It is the fundamental building block of the CPU.
• Arithmetic and Logical Unit is a digital circuit that is used to perform arithmetic and
logical operations.
B). Control Unit: The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and out of the
CPU, and also controls all the operations of ALU, memory registers and also input/output
units. It is also responsible for carrying out all the instructions stored in the program. It
decodes the fetched instruction, interprets it and sends control signals to input/output devices
until the required operation is done properly by ALU and memory.
• The Control Unit is a component of the central processing unit of a computer that directs
the operation of the processor.
• It instructs the computer’s memory, arithmetic and logic unit, and input and output
devices on how to respond to the processor’s instructions.
• In order to execute the instructions, the components of a computer receive signals from
the control unit.
 • It is also called the central nervous system.
C). Memory Registers or Memory Unit: A register is a temporary unit of memory in the
CPU. These are used to store the data, which is directly used by the processor. Registers can
be of different sizes(16 bit, 32 bit, 64 bit and so on) and each register inside the CPU has a
specific function, like storing data, storing an instruction, storing address of a location in
memory etc. The user registers can be used by an assembly language programmer for storing
operands, intermediate results etc. Accumulator (ACC) is the main register in the ALU and
contains one of the operands of an operation to be performed in the ALU.
Memory attached to the CPU is used for the storage of data and instructions, and is called
internal memory The internal memory is divided into many storage locations, each of which
can store data or instructions. Each memory location is of the same size and has an address.
With the help of the address, the computer can read any memory location easily without
having to search the entire memory. When a program is executed, its data is copied to the
internal memory and stored in the memory till the end of the execution. The internal memory
is also called the Primary memory or Main memory. This memory is also called RAM, i.e.,
Random Access Memory. The time of access of data is independent of its location in
memory, therefore, this memory is also called Random Access memory (RAM).
• Memory Unit is the primary storage of the computer.
• It stores both data and instructions.
• Data and instructions are stored permanently in this unit so that they are available
whenever required.
Output Unit :
The output unit consists of output devices that are attached to the computer. It converts the binary
data coming from the CPU to human understandable form. The common output devices are monitor,
printer, plotter, etc.
• The output unit displays or prints the processed data in a user-friendly format.
• The output unit is formed by attaching the output devices of a computer.
The output unit accepts the information from the CPU and displays it in a user-readable form.

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS:-
For more details, refer the website :
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/generations-of-computer/

• I Generation -Vacuum tubes

• II Generation –Transistors
• III Generation- Integrated Circuits
• IV Generation- Microprocessors
• V Generation -Artificial Intelligence.
 1. First Generation (1940s-1950s): The first computers used vacuum tubes for processing
and magnetic drums for storage. They were large, expensive, and unreliable.
2. Second Generation (1950s-1960s): The second generation of computers replaced
vacuum tubes with transistors, making them smaller, faster, and more reliable. Magnetic
core memory was also introduced, which was faster and more reliable than magnetic
drums.
3. Third Generation (1960s-1970s): The third generation of computers used integrated
circuits, which allowed for even smaller and faster computers. They also introduced
magnetic disk storage and operating systems.
4. Fourth Generation (1970s-1980s): The fourth generation of computers saw the
introduction of microprocessors, which made personal computers possible. They also
introduced graphical user interfaces and networking.
5. Fifth Generation (1980s-Present): The fifth generation of computers is still ongoing, and
is focused on artificial intelligence and parallel processing. This generation also saw the
development of mobile computing and the internet.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER or FEATURES OF COMPUTER

For more details, refer the website :

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/characteristics-of-computer-system/

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_concepts/computer_concepts_characteristics_of_co
mputer_system.htm
a. Speed:-
⮚ Computers are very fast in processing
⮚ They solve large problems in less time
⮚ They are faster than humans
⮚ They do millions of calculations per second
b. Accuracy:-
⮚ They perform calculations accurately; accuracy means, without any error
⮚ They process large amount of data without error
c. Storage:-
⮚ A computer can store large amount of data in primary memory and secondary
memory
⮚ Storage is calculated in BYTES. 1 BYTE = 8 BITS. 1 BIT = 0 or 1
⮚ 8Bits = 1 BYTE, 1024 Bytes = 1KB, 1024KB=1MB, 1024 MB = 1GB, 1024GB =
1TB
d. Versatility:-
⮚ Computers are versatile; versatile means, perform many works at same time
⮚ They are used for doing arithmetic and logical operations

e. Diligence:-
⮚ They do not get tired even after performing many calculations
⮚ They perform all the tasks with same accuracy and speed
f. Automation:-
⮚ The computers perform operations without stopping.
⮚ They do the process one by one according to the instructions
THE APPLICATIONS OF A COMPUTER :-

For more details, refer the website :

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_concepts/computer_concepts_basic_applications_of_comp
uter.htm#:~:text=Computers%20are%20used%20to%20perform,like%20interior%20or%20rural%
20areas.

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/basic-applications-of-computers/

1. It is used to store, display, send and receive information

2. It is used to draw graphs, pictures
3. It is used in medical clinic and labs
4. It is used to control rockets and aero planes
5. It is used for banking purpose also
6. It is used in horoscope
7. It is used in Crime investigation
8. It is used to control Robots

Computers used in many areas as below:-

Education:-
⮚ It is used in education, online classrooms, online library, etc

Marketing:-
⮚ It is used in preparing advertisements

Banking:-
⮚ It is used in banking to store the account details of customers
⮚ It is used in ATM, internet banking

Video games:-
⮚ It is used in playing video games, online games, etc

Training:-
⮚ Computers are used to give training to the workers
 Hospitals:-
⮚ It is used in hospitals to help the doctors to find the disease and give treatment
⮚ It stores the record of patients Ex: Scan, blood test, ECG, etc

Railways:-
⮚ It is used in online ticket reservation, see the schedule of trains, etc

Science:-
⮚ It is used in research by scientists
⮚ It helps in finding earth quake, Tsunami, etc

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS :-

For more details, refer the website :

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/classification-of-computers/

The computer systems can be classified on the following basis:

1. On the basis of size.
2. On the basis of functionality.
3. On the basis of data handling.

1.Classification on the basis of size

1. Super computers : The super computers are the most high performing system. A
supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance compared to a general-
purpose computer. The actual Performance of a supercomputer is measured in FLOPS
instead of MIPS. All of the world’s fastest 500 supercomputers run Linux-based
operating systems. Additional research is being conducted in China, the US, the EU,
Taiwan and Japan to build even faster, more high performing and more technologically
superior supercomputers. Supercomputers actually play an important role in the field of
computation, and are used for intensive computation tasks in various fields, including
 quantum mechanics, weather forecasting, climate research, oil and gas exploration,
molecular modeling, and physical simulations. and also Throughout the history,
supercomputers have been essential in the field of the cryptanalysis.
eg: PARAM, jaguar, roadrunner.
2. Mainframe computers : These are commonly called as big iron, they are usually used
by big organisations for bulk data processing such as statistics, census data processing,
transaction processing and are widely used as the servers as these systems has a higher
processing capability as compared to the other classes of computers, most of these
mainframe architectures were established in 1960s, the research and development
worked continuously over the years and the mainframes of today are far more better than
the earlier ones, in size, capacity and efficiency.
Eg: IBM z Series, System z9 and System z10 servers.
3. Mini computers : These computers came into the market in mid 1960s and were sold
at a much cheaper price than the main frames, they were actually designed for control,
instrumentation, human interaction, and communication switching as distinct from
calculation and record keeping, later they became very popular for personal uses with
evolution.
In the 60s to describe the smaller computers that became possible with the use of
transistors and core memory technologies, minimal instructions sets and less expensive
peripherals such as the ubiquitous Teletype Model 33 ASR.They usually took up one or
a few inch rack cabinets, compared with the large mainframes that could fill a room,
there was a new term “MINICOMPUTERS” coined
Eg: Personal Laptop, PC etc.

4. Micro computers : A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer with

a microprocessor as its CPU. It includes a microprocessor, memory, and minimal I/O
circuitry mounted on a single printed circuit board.The previous to these computers,
mainframes and minicomputers, were comparatively much larger, hard to maintain and
more expensive. They actually formed the foundation for present day microcomputers
and smart gadgets that we use in day to day life.
Eg: Tablets, Smartwatches.

2. Classification on the basis of functionality

1. Servers : Servers are nothing but dedicated computers which are set-up to offer some
services to the clients. They are named depending on the type of service they offered.
Eg: security server, database server.

2. Workstation : Those are the computers designed to primarily to be used by single user
at a time. They run multi-user operating systems. They are the ones which we use for our
day to day personal / commercial work.
3. Information Appliances : They are the portable devices which are designed to
perform a limited set of tasks like basic calculations, playing multimedia, browsing
internet etc. They are generally referred as the mobile devices. They have very limited
memory and flexibility and generally run on “as-is” basis.
4. Embedded computers : They are the computing devices which are used in other
machines to serve limited set of requirements. They follow instructions from the non-
volatile memory and they are not required to execute reboot or reset. The processing
 units used in such device work to those basic requirements only and are different from
the ones that are used in personal computers- better known as workstations.

3. Classification on the basis of data handling

1. Analog : An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously-

changeable aspects of physical fact such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities
to model the problem being solved. Any thing that is variable with respect to time and
continuous can be claimed as analog just like an analog clock measures time by means
of the distance traveled for the spokes of the clock around the circular dial.
2. Digital : A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities
represented as digits, usually in the binary number system of “0” and “1”, “Computer
capable of solving problems by processing information expressed in discrete form. from
manipulation of the combinations of the binary digits, it can perform mathematical
calculations, organize and analyze data, control industrial and other processes, and
simulate dynamic systems such as global weather patterns.
3. Hybrid : A computer that processes both analog and digital data, Hybrid computer is a
digital computer that accepts analog signals, converts them to digital and processes them
in digital form.
MEMORY: CONCEPT OF PRIMARY & SECONDARY MEMORY

RAM, ROM, TYPES OF ROM, FLASH MEMORY

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES: SEQUENTIAL & DIRECT ACCESS DEVICES VIZ.

MAGNETIC TAPE, MAGNETIC DISK, CD, DVD
For more details , refer the web sites :-
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-memory-and-storage/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oEORcCQ62nQ

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/understanding-file-sizes-bytes-kb-mb-gb-tb-pb-eb-zb-yb/

https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/memory

https://www.educba.com/types-of-memory-in-computer/

Memory is a unit in computer that is capable of storing programs or data on a temporary

permanent basis.
Memory unit has two basic operations: Read and write operations mentioned in below
diagram.
-Read operation reads the previously stored data
-Write operation stores new data in the memory

The memory unit is responsible for transferring information to other units of the computer
when needed. It is also known as an internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary
storage or Random Access Memory (RAM) as all these are storage devices. Its size affects
speed, power, and performance.

Instruction format describes the internal structures (layout design) of the bits of an
instruction, in terms of its constituent parts.
An Instruction format must include an opcode, and address is dependent on an
availability of particular operands.

The block diagram of memory unit is mentioned below:

 Memory Unit – Stores data, instructions etc.

▪ Memory Unit is the primary storage of the computer.

▪ It stores both data and instructions.
▪ Data and instructions are stored permanently in this unit so that they are
available whenever required.

Main memory or primary Memory :-

• Stores data, instructions, intermediate results ,output, temporarily during
processing of data
• Has limited storage capacity due to its high cost
• Two kinds: Random Access Memory(RAM) and Read Only Memory(ROM)
• It is a part of CPU
⮚ Its storage capacity is limited
⮚ It contains magnetic core or semiconductor cells
⮚ It is used for temporary storage

Memory: Memories are made up of registers. Memory refers to the location of short-term data. Each
register in the memory is one storage location. Storage location is also called as memory location.
Memory locations are identified using Address. The total number of bit a memory can store is its
capacity. Memory is a vital component of a computer system, as it allows the computer to store and
access data quickly and efficiently. Memory are of three type:
1. Primary Memory
2. Secondary Memory
3. Cache memory .

It can be described below one by one :-

1. Primary Memory: Also known as main memory or internal memory, primary memory is the
memory that a computer uses to store data temporarily while the CPU is processing it. The two main
types of primary memory are Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read-Only Memory (ROM).
MAGNETIC CORE MEMORY:
⮚ It contain a small dough-nut shaped objects made of ferromagnetic material
⮚ Current is passed through wire in one direction, magnetized in one direction
SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY:
⮚ It contains IC chips on silicon
⮚ They are small, high processing speed, low power is used, cheap, easy to assemble

ROM:
Read-only memory is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic devices.
Data stored in ROM cannot be electronically modified after the manufacture of the memory device.

⮚ Major type of memory in a computer is called ROM

⮚ Read Only Memory
⮚ It can be read, cannot be written
⮚ It is used for storing permanent values
⮚ ROM does not gets erased, even after the power is switched off
⮚ They are non-volatile ( information cannot be erased)
⮚ We can store the important data into the ROM
Ex: Hard disk

Types of ROM:-
PROM:
⮚ Programmable Read Only Memory
⮚ They contain 1000 of fuses burnt, applying 12V to the memory boxes
⮚ These fuses say 0 or 1
EPROM:
⮚ Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
⮚ They can be deleted
⮚ This chips have glass panel, UV rays are passed
⮚ Fuses are rearranged in UV rays (all bits become 1)
EEPROM:-
⮚ Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
⮚ They can be erased using electric current

RAM:-
Random Access Memory, or RAM, is the primary storage of a computer. When you're working on a
file on your computer, it will temporarily store data in your RAM.

⮚ They are used for storing programs and data that are executed
⮚ It is different from ROM
⮚ Random Access Memory
⮚ It can be read and written
⮚ It is volatile
⮚ When the power is turned off, its contents are erased
⮚ It is also called as RWM (Read Write Memory)
⮚ It is faster than ROM
⮚ Static RAM (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM) are its types
⮚ Its cost is high
⮚ Its processing speed is also high

FLASH MEMORY:-
Flash memory is secondary memory and so it is not volatile which means it persists the data even
if there is not an electrical supply provided. This flash memory works on the principle of EEPROM.
EEPROM stands for Electrical Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. ROM operation can
only one time write and many times read and we can’t erase it. But Flash Memory can be erased
multiple times and update the data or program integrated into it. So it gives flexibility to the updation
of the program but ROM has no such type of feature.

The main steps of flash memory are:-

• Writing the data into flash memory:
 Flash memory is made up of small-small memory cells which are made up of floating-
gate transistors. All memory cells are organized in the sequential order called an array
of memory cells. Data can be stored to the hardware in the form of 0 and 1 only. So to
store the data into the flash memory we should give the electric supply to add the
pattern of 0 and 1 into the flash memory and once this pattern is embedded on to the
chip then corresponding data is also stored in the flash memory. If we want to erase the
data from flash memory then we have to do it by supplying electrical impulse to make
all bits of memory cell to 0.

• Reading the data into flash memory:

By reading the stored 0 and 1 into the cell we can get our data stored in the flash
memory. So to read the bit which can contain 0 or 1 we have to apply voltage to the
gate of transistor, and whatever the current flow in the circuit is measured and by using
that measurement we are good to go to identify the bit present in the cell.

2. Secondary Memory: Secondary memory refers to external storage devices that can be used to
store data for long-term use, even when the computer is turned off. Examples of secondary memory
include hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs), USB flash drives, and memory cards.
Secondary memory is also referred to as auxiliary memory
• It is a non-volatile memory that extends the storage capacity of the computer
• It is slow, but are cheaper compared to that of the primary memory
and have a greater capacity
• Information are retained even when the power is turned off.
• It is classified into magnetic storage devices, optical storage devices,
and flash memory devices
• Floppy disk drive, hard disk drive, USB flash disk, etc., are some the examples of
secondary memory
Storage: Storage allows you to store and access data on a long-term basis. Data remains the same
and nothing changes in the hard disk drive: everything gets pulled off into the main memory. Storage
allows you to access and store your applications, operating system and files for an indefinite period
of time.
Storage devices can be classified into two categories: internal storage and external storage. Internal
storage devices are located within the computer, such as the hard drive, solid-state drive, or flash
memory. External storage devices, on the other hand, are connected to the computer via an external
port, such as a USB or Thunderbolt port.
The capacity of a storage device is measured in bytes, with larger units being kilobytes (KB),
megabytes (MB), gigabytes (GB), terabytes (TB), and so on. When choosing a storage device, it’s
important to consider the capacity, speed, and durability of the device, as well as the compatibility
with the device you plan to use it with.
For Example:
1. HDD
2. SDD
3. SD Cards
4. CD, DVD, etc
SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES: SEQUENTIAL & DIRECT ACCESS DEVICES VIZ.
MAGNETIC TAPE, MAGNETIC DISK, CD, DVD

Sequential access devices

Sequential access devices are usually a form of magnetic storage or optical storage. While
sequential access memory is read in sequence, arbitrary locations can still be accessed by "seeking"
to the requested location. This operation, however, is often relatively inefficient (see seek time,
rotational latency).
Example : Magnetic Tape
 Direct access devices
Common direct access storage devices include solid-state drives (SSDs) and hard disk drives
(HDDs). Direct access storage devices include RAID arrays like the one pictured here, hard disk
drives, solid state drives, systems like magnetic drums and data cells, optical discs and PC storage
devices.

Example : SSD, HDD

Secondary Storage:-
⮚ The speed of primary memory is fast, but secondary memory is slow
⮚ The memory capacity of primary memory is low. So, secondary memory is used
⮚ It contains large memory space
⮚ It is also called as additional memory or auxiliary memory
⮚ Data is stored in it permanently
⮚ Ex: Magnetic tape, Hard disk, Floppy, Optical Disc, USB drives

Secondary Memory Devices or Storage Devices:-

Solid-state drive (SSD):
A solid-state drive (SSD) is a solid-state storage device that uses integrated circuit assemblies
as memory to store data persistently. It is also sometimes called a solid-state device or a
solid- state disk
SSDs lack the physical spinning disks and movable read-write heads used by
conventional electromechanical storage such as hard drives ("HDD") or floppy disks. Because of
this, it is more portable, and produces less heat compared to traditional magnetic storage devices.
Less heat means that components last longer.
Solid state storage is also faster than traditional hard disk drives because the data is stored
electrically in silicon chips called cells.
Within the cells, the binary data is stored by holding an electrical current in a transistor with an on
/ off mode.
Magnetic devices:

Magnetic devices such as hard disk drives use magnetic fields to magnetise tiny individual
sections of a metal spinning disk. Each tiny section represents one bit. A magnetised section
represents a binary '1' and a demagnetised section represents a binary '0'. These sections are so tiny
that disks can contain terabytes (TB) of data.

As the disk is spinning, a read/write head moves across its surface. To write data, the
head magnetises or demagnetises a section of the disk that is spinning under it. To read data, the
head makes a note of whether the section is magnetised or not.

Magnetic devices are fairly cheap, high in capacity and durable. However, they are susceptible to
damage if dropped. They are also vulnerable to magnetic fields - a strong magnet might possibly
erase the data the device holds.

Optical devices:

Optical devices use a laser to scan the surface of a spinning disc made from metal and plastic. The
disc surface is divided into tracks, with each track containing many flat areas and hollows. The flat
areas are known as lands and the hollows as pits.
 When the laser shines on the disc surface, lands reflect the light back, whereas pits scatter the laser
beam. A sensor looks for the reflected light. Reflected light - land - represents a binary '1', and no
reflection - pits - represents a binary '0'.

Examples:

1. A compact disc, or CD, is a thin circular piece of equipment that can be used to
store data, including graphics and music. It was developed in the late 1970s and was the
first mainstream way to digitally store music. Standard CDs are 12 centimeters, or about
4.7 inches, in diameter.

a. CD-ROM drives could read CDs but not write them.

b. CD-RW, for CD-rewritable. These discs can be written more than once, so if one has
data on it, it can be rewritten with a new set of files or music.

2. Digital versatile discs, or DVD_s: They could also be used to store files and held up to
about 8.5 gigabytes worth of data, a dramatic increase from CDs.

3. Blu-ray was first introduced at the CES on January 4, 2006, and can store up to 25 GB
single-layer disc and 50 GB on a dual-layer disc, each disc being the same size as
a standard CD. Blu-ray technology gets its name from the blue-violet laser that is used to
read Blu-ray disks. a blue laser permits more information to be stored at a greater density.

Magnetic tape:-
⮚ It is used for large computers like mainframe computers
⮚ Large volume of data is stored for a long time
⮚ It is like a old tape-recorder cassette
⮚ They are cheap
⮚ They store data permanently
⮚ Its diameter is 12.5mm to 25mm, length is 500M to 1200M
⮚ It is compact, low cost, portable, unlimited storage, easy to handle

Magnetic Disk or Hard disk:- (HDD) Hard Disk Drive

⮚ Hard disks are disks that store more data and works faster
⮚ It can store 10GB to 2TB
⮚ It consists of platters
 ⮚ Two heads are there for read and write
⮚ It is attached to single arm
⮚ Information in hard disk is stored in tracks
⮚ A track location that cuts across all platters is called as a cylinder
⮚ All platters have same no.of tracks

Floppy Disk:-
⮚ They can store 1.4MB of data
⮚ They are 5.25 to 3.5 inch in diameter
⮚ They are cheap, portable

Optical Disk:-

✓ CD-ROM: Compact Disk

⮚ They are made of reflective material

⮚ High power laser beam is passed to store data onto CD
 ⮚ Cost is low, storage capacity is 700MB
⮚ Its size is 4.5inches in diameter
⮚ It can only be READ, cant be written
⮚ Only a single side can be used for storage

✓ DVD:
⮚ Digital Video Disk
⮚ It is the improved version of CD
⮚ It can store 4.7GB of data
⮚ Both the sides are used for storage
⮚ They cannot be scratched or damaged like CD

✓ USB drives:-

⮚ They are commonly called as PEN DRIVES

⮚ They are removable storage
⮚ They are connected to the USB port of a computer
⮚ They are fast and portable
⮚ They store larger data when compared to CD, DVD (1GB to 64GB pendrives)

3. Cache Memory: Cache memory is a small amount of memory that a computer uses to store
frequently accessed data for quick retrieval. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory,
helping to speed up data access times. Cache memory is typically built into the CPU or located on
a separate chip on the motherboard. It is a very small memory used to store intermediate results and
data . Cache memory do the following functions:
⮚ It stores the data that are more frequently called for processing

⮚ It is present inside the CPU, near the processor

⮚ It is used for the faster execution

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEMORY AND STORAGE:

S.NO. MEMORY STORAGE

Memory is an electronic component that is capable of Storage refers to physical storage

1
storing data and information on a temporary basis. devices.

Data is stored both temporarily and

2 It is temporary data storage.
permanently.

3 Memory is faster than storage. Storage is slower than memory

Storage cannot access or modify data

4 Memory can access data and information instantly.
as fast as the memory.

It is a collection of computer chips installed in memory It is a technology consisting of core

5
modules. components of a computer.

6 When the computer loses the power, Data is lost . No data is lost.

7 The memory module are expensive than storage. Storage devices are cheaper.

There size are much larger than

8 There size are not much larger and goes upto GBs.
memory and goes upto TBs.

It is used when data is stored for long

9 It is used when data is stored for short time.
term.

Volatile Memory:
It is the memory hardware that fetches/stores data at a high-speed. It is also referred as temporary
memory. The data within the volatile memory is stored till the system is capable of, but once the
system is turned off the data within the volatile memory is deleted automatically. RAM (Random
Access Memory) and Cache Memory are some common examples of volatile memory. Here, data
fetch/store is fast and economical.

Non-Volatile-Memory:
It is the type of memory in which data or information is not lost within the memory even power is
shut-down. ROM (Read Only Memory) is the most common example of non-volatile memory. It’s
not economical and slow in fetch/store as compared to volatile memory however stores higher
volume of data. All such information that needs to be stored for an extended amount of time is
stored in non-volatile memory. Non-volatile memory has a huge impact on a system’s storage
capacity.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN VOLATILE AND NON-VOLATILE MEMORY

S.
No. Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory

Non-volatile memory is the type of memory in

Volatile memory is the type of memory in
1. which data remains stored even if it is powered-
which data is lost as it is powered-off.
off.

Contents of Volatile memory are stored Contents of Non-volatile memory are stored
2.
temporarily. permanently.

3. It is faster than non-volatile memory. It is slower than volatile memory.

RAM(Random Access Memory) is an ROM(Read Only Memory) is an example of

4.
example of volatile memory. non-volatile memory.

In volatile memory, data can be easily

In non-volatile memory, data can not be easily
5. transferred in comparison to non-volatile
transferred in comparison to volatile memory.
memory.

6. In Volatile memory, process can read and write. In Non-volatile memory, process can only read.

Volatile memory generally has less storage Non-volatile memory generally has more storage
7.
capacity. capacity than volatile memory.

In volatile memory, the program’s data are

In non-volatile memory, any kind of data which
8. stored which are currently in process by the
has to be saved permanently are stored.
CPU.

9. Volatile memory is more costly per unit size. Non-volatile memory is less costly per unit size.

Volatile memory has a huge impact on the Non-volatile memory has a huge impact on a
10.
system’s performance. system’s storage capacity.

In volatile memory, processor has direct access In non-volatile memory, processor has no direct
11.
to data. access to data.
S.
No. Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory

Volatile memory chips are generally kept on the Non-volatile memory chips are embedded on the
12.
memory slot. motherboard.

Advantages- Advantages-
• Fast speed • More reliable
13. • Low power consumption • Stores data permanently
• Better system performance as it • Inexpensive memory
increases speed • Helps in booting of operating system

Disadvantages-
Disadvantages-
• Expensive
14. • Slow speed
• Limited storage space
• Can only read data
• Stores data temporarily

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RAM AND ROM

Random Access Memory(RAM) Read Only Memory(ROM)

RAM is a volatile memory ROM is a non-volatile memory
RAM memory is only used to store ROM memory is used to store
the temporary information and is permanent information and cannot
deleted as system shuts down be deleted.
RAM stores data and instructions ROM stores mostly operating
during the execution of programs system programs
It allows reading and writing od It allows only writing of data.
data.
The two main types of RAM are The types of ROM include PROM,
static RAM and dynamic RAM. EPROM and EEPROM.
ALGORITHMS - BUILDING BLOCKS OF ALGORITHMS

(STATEMENTS, STATE, CONTROL FLOW, FUNCTIONS)

For more Detail , Refer :

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/introduction-to-algorithms/

https://www.simplilearn.com/tutorials/data-structure-tutorial/what-is-an-algorithm

Define Algorithm :

It is defined as a sequence of instructions that describe a method for solving a problem. In other
words it is a step by step procedure for solving a problem.

It is a sequence of instructions designed in such a way that if the instructions are executed in the
specified sequence, the desired results will be obtained. The instructions in an algorithm should not
be repeated infinitely. The algorithm should be written in sequence.

Algorithms are one the most basic tools that are used to develop the problem solving logic. An
algorithm is defined as a finite sequence of explicit instruction that when provided with a set of input
values process an output and then terminates. Algorithms can have steps that repeat or require
decisions until the task is completed

• Algorithm is a powerful tool for learning programming.

• Algorithm refers to a set of rules/instructions that step-by-step define how a work is to be

executed upon inorder to get the expected results.

• It is a step-by-step analysis of the process

• The word Algorithm means “a process or set of rules to be followed in calculations or

other problem-solving operations”.

Properties of algorithm:
• It is written in simple English.
• Each step of an algorithm is unique and should be self explanatory.
• An algorithm must have at least one input.
• An algorithm must have at least one output.
• An algorithm has finite number of steps.
• Each and every instruction should be precise and unambiguous.
• Instructions in an algorithm should not be repeated infinitely.
• Algorithm should conclude after a finite number of steps.
• It Should have an end point
• Derived results should be obtained only after the algorithm terminates.
 The Building Blocks of Algorithm :
Algorithms can be constructed from basic building blocks namely, sequence, selection and
iteration.
Statements:
Statement is a single action in a computer.
In a computer statements might include some of the following actions
input data-information given to the program
process data-perform operation on a given input
output data-processed result
State:
Transition from one process to another process under specified condition with in a time is called
state.
Control flow:
The process of executing the individual statements in a given order is called control flow.
The control can be executed in three ways
1. Sequence
2. Selection
3. Iteration

1.Sequence:
A sequence is one of the basic logic structures in computer programming. In a sequence structure, an
action, or event, leads to the next ordered action in a predetermined order. All the instructions are
executed one after another is called sequence execution.
Example:
Add two numbers:
Step 1: Start
Step 2: get a,b
Step 3: calculate c=a+b
Step 4: Display c
Step 5: Stop

2. Selection:
A selection (also called a decision) is also one of the basic logic structures in computer programming.
In a selection structure, a question is asked, and depending on the answer, the program takes one of
two courses of action, after which the program moves on to the next event.
A selection statement causes the program control to be transferred to a specific part of the program
based upon the condition. If the conditional test is true, one part of the program will be executed,
otherwise it will execute the other part of the program.
A selection (also called a decision) is also one of the basic logic structures in computer programming.
In a selection structure, a question is asked, and depending on the answer, the program takes one of
two courses of action, after which the program moves on to the next event. The selection diagram
below :
Example
Write an algorithm to check whether he is eligible to vote?
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Get age
Step 3: if age >= 18 print “Eligible to vote”
Step 4: else print “Not eligible to vote”
Step 6: Stop

3. Iteration
In some programs, certain set of statements are executed again and again based upon conditional
test. i.e. executed more than one time. This type of execution is called looping or iteration.

Example
Write an algorithm to print all natural numbers up to n
Step 1: Start
Step 2: get n value.
Step 3: initialize i=1
Step 4: if (i<=n) go to step 5 else go to step 7
Step 5: Print i value and increment i value by 1
Step 6: go to step 4
Step 7: Stop

Functions:
Definition of Functions:
• Function is a sub program which consists of block of code(set of instructions) that
performs a particular task.
• For complex problems, the problem is been divided into smaller and simpler tasks
during algorithm design.

Benefits of Using Functions

➢ Reduction in line of code
➢ code reuse
➢ Better readability
➢ Information hiding
➢ Easy to debug and test
➢ Improved maintainability

Example:
Algorithm for addition of two numbers using function:
Main function()
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Call the function add()
Step 3: Stop

sub function add()

Step 1: Function start
Step 2: Get a, b Values
Step 3: add c=a+b
Step 4: Print c
Step 5: Return
How to Design an Algorithm?
To write an algorithm, the following things are needed as a pre-requisite:
1. The problem that is to be solved by this algorithm i.e. clear problem definition.
2. The constraints of the problem must be considered while solving the problem.
3. The input to be taken to solve the problem.
4. The output is to be expected when the problem is solved.
5. The solution to this problem is within the given constraints.

1. Example for Algorithm : Design an algorithm to find the average of four numbers.

Step 1 : Start
Step 2 : Input four numbers, : A, B,C and D
Step 3 : Compute total of four numbers . TOTAL =A+B+C+D
Step 3 :Compute average of four numbers .AVERAGE = TOTAL / 4
Step 4 : Display AVERAGE Step
Step 5 : Stop

2. Example : Write the algorithm to generate the Fibonacci series

• Start.
• SET f=0,f1=0,f2=1
• Read N
• Compare F Less than N Go to step 5
f=f1+f2
f1=f2;
f2=f;
• Display f
• Stop.
Qualities of a Good Algorithm:

The following are the primary factors that are often used to judge the quality of the algorithms.
• Time – To execute a program, the computer system takes some amount of time. The lesser is
the time required, the better is the algorithm.
• Memory – To execute a program, computer system takes some amount of memory space.
The lesser is the memory required, the better is the algorithm.
• Accuracy – Multiple algorithms may provide suitable or correct solutions to a given
problem, some of these may provide more accurate results than others, and such algorithms
may be suitable.
Example:
Write an algorithm to print „Good Morning”
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Print “Good Morning”
Step 3: Stop

Characteristics of an Algorithm:

Not all procedures can be called an algorithm. An algorithm should have the following
characteristics :

• Unambiguous − Algorithm should be clear and unambiguous. Each of its steps (or
 phases), and their inputs/outputs should be clear and must lead to only one meaning.
• Input − An algorithm should have 0 or more well-defined inputs.
• Output − An algorithm should have 1 or more well-defined outputs, and should match the
desired output.
• Finiteness − Algorithms must terminate after a finite number of steps.
• Feasibility − Should be feasible with the available resources.
• Independent − An algorithm should have step-by-step directions, which should be
independent of any programming code.

FLOWCHART

For more detail, Refer the website :

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/an-introduction-to-flowcharts/

https://youtu.be/wrM2CnUu9vo

https://www.zenflowchart.com/guides/algorithm-vs-flowcharts-definitions-and-how-they-
differ

Define Flowchart :
A flowchart is a pictorial representation of an algorithm in which the steps are drawn in the form
of different shapes of boxes and the logical flow is indicated by interconnecting arrows. The
boxes represent operations and the arrows represent the sequence in which the operations are
implemented.
A flowchart is a blueprint that pictorially represents the algorithm and its steps.

It explains the steps of a program in a graphical way.

• It is a representation of an algorithm.
• Programmers often use it as a program-planning tool to solve a problem.
• It makes use of symbols which are connected among them to indicate the flow of
information and processing
 Need of Flowchart :
Flow chart is required to
• Understand the logic clearly
• Better Communication
• Effective Analysis
• Effective Synthesis
• Effective Coding
• Program proper documentation
• Systematic Debugging\
• Systematic Testing
• Effective program maintenance

The Rules For Drawing A Flowchart :

1.The flowchart should be clear, neat and easy to follow.
2. The flowchart must have a logical start and finish.
3. Only one flow line should come out from a process symbol.

4. Only one flow line should enter a decision symbol. However, two or three flow lines may leave the
decision symbol.

5.Only one flow line is used with a terminal symbol.

6. Within standard symbols, write briefly and precisely.

7. Intersection of flow lines should be avoided.
8. The standard symbols should only be used.
9.The arrowheads in the flowchart represent the direction of flow of control in theproblem.
10.The usual direction of the flow of procedure is from top to bottom or left to right.
11.The flow lines should not cross each other.
12.Be consistent in using names and variables in the flowchart.
13.Keep the flowchart as simple as possible.
14. Words in the flowchart symbols should be common statements and easy to understand.
15.Chart main line of logic, and then incorporate all the details of logic.
16.If a new page is needed for flowcharting, then use connectors for betterrepresentation.
17.Don’t chart every details or the flowchart will only be graphical represented.

Symbols Used in Flowchart:

Symbol Symbol Name Description

Flow Lines or Arrows Used to connect
symbols – (Arrows)

Terminal or Start / End Used to represent

start, pause or halt or
end in the program
logic.
Input/Output Represents the
information entering
or leaving the system.
Processing or Process Represents arithmetic
and logical
instructions.
Decision Represents a decision
to be made.

Connector Used to join different

flow lines.

The other various Symbols Of Flowchart are :-

Start or end of the program

 Computational steps or processing function of a program

Decision making and branching

Input or output operation

Connector or joining of two parts of program

Magnetic Tape

Magnetic Disk

Off-page connector

Flow line

Some advantages flow chart are :-

• Makes Logic Clear.
• Communication.
• Effective Analysis.
• Efficient coding.
• Proper testing and debugging.
• Appropriate documentation
• Effective analysis
• Proper Debugging
• Efficient Program maintenance
1. Example : Design a flowchart to find the average of four numbers.

2. Example : Draw the flow chart for finding the area and circumference of a circle.

Start

Read radius

area = 3.14 * radius * radius

circum= 2*3.14*radius

Print area,circum

Stop
3. Draw a flowchart to find biggest of two number

4. Draw the flow chart to find the largest among 3 numbers.

 5. Write Algorithm and Draw a flowchart to find the factorial of a number.
Algorithm:

Step 1:Start
Step 2:Read the value of n
Step 3:set initial values to fact=i=1
Step 4:ifi<=n else goto step 6
Factfact*i
Ii+1
Step 5:goto step 4
Step 6:print fact
Step 7:stop

Flowchart :-
6.Draw a flow chart to find sum first 100 natural numbers

7. Write an algorithm and flowchart to find area of a rectangle

Step 1: Start
Step 2: get l,b values
Step 3: Calculate A=l*b
Step 4: Display A
Step 5: Stop
8. Write an algorithm and flowchart for Calculating simple interest
Step 1: Start
Step 2: get P, n, r value
Step3:Calculate
SI=(p*n*r)/100
Step 4: Display S
Step 5: Stop
9. Write algorithm and flowchart to check greatest of two numbers
Step 1: Start
Step 2: get a,b value
Step 3: check if(a>b) print a is greater
Step 4: else b is greater
Step 5: Stop

10. Write algorithm and flowchart to check leap year or not.

Step 1: Start
Step 2: get y
Step 3: if(y%4==0) print leap year
Step 4: else print not leap year
Step 5: Stop
11. Write algorithm and flowchart to check positive or negative number

Step 1: Start
Step 2: get num
Step 3: check if(num>0) print a is positive
Step 4: else num is negative
Step 5: Stop

12. Write algorithm and flowchart to check greatest of three numbers

Step1: Start
Step2: Get A, B, C
Step3: if(A>B) goto Step4 else goto step5
Step4: If(A>C) print A else print C
Step5: If(B>C) print B else print C
Step6: Stop
13. Write an algorithm and flowchart to find factorial of a given number
Step 1: start
step 2: get n value
step 3: set initial value i=1, fact=1
Step 4: check i value if(i<=n) goto step 5 else goto step8
step 5: calculate fact=fact*i
step 6: increment i value by 1
step 7: goto step 4
step 8: print fact value
step 9: stop
DIFFERENTIATE ALGORITHM AND FLOWCHART

Sample Case Study :- Write an algorithm and structured chart to stimulate the railway
ticket booking process.

1)Employee
emp name emp id,addr,gender,phone no
2)Ticket
 pnr no,ticket no,source,destination,class,fare,train id,seat id
3)station
station name,station id,no of platforms
4)train
train name,train num
4)class
1st class,2nd class,sleeper class,general class
5)Time
departure time,train id,arrival time
Algorithm
Step No 1 : Know Your Train
A - The World Of Quotas
B- Look At Route - Source And Destination Rack Composition Train Timings

Step 2 : Look At Your Waiting List

If You Look Closely Your Wait List Ticket Will Show Two Numbers Wl 58/ 24

Step No 3 Check Current Affairs And Other Common Rules

Train ,Train Class ,Days Available, Station,Passenger ,Passenger Ticket,Train Status,,Route
BASICS OF COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Computer Hardware:
o It includes physical components of computer system.
o It consists of electronic components like ICs, diodes, registers, crystals, boards,
insulators, etc.
o Hardware design is based on architectural decisions to make it work over a range of
environmental conditions and time.
o It is mostly constructed for all types of computer systems.
o The hardware can understand only low-level language or machine language.
o The hardware works only on binary codes 1‟s and 0‟s.
o The hardware consists of input devices, output devices, memory, etc.

Computer Software:
o It is a collection of programs to bring computer hardware system into operation.
o It includes numbers, alphabets, alphanumeric symbols, identifiers, keywords, etc.
o Software products evolve by adding new features to existing programs to support
hardware.
o It will vary as per computer and its built-in functions and programming language.
o It is designed and developed by experienced programmers in high-level language.
o It is represented in any high-level language such as BASIC, COBOL, C, C++, JAVA, etc.
o The software is categorized as operating system, utilities, language processor, application
software, etc.

Machine Language and High Level Language:-

High Level Language:

o It is programmer friendly language.
o High level language is less memory efficient.
o It is easy to understand.
o It is simple to debug.
o It is simple to maintain.
o It is portable.
o It can run on any platform.
o It needs compiler or interpreter for translation.
o It is used widely for programming.

Machine Language:
o It is a machine friendly language.
o Low level language is high memory efficient.
o It is tough to understand.
o It is complex to debug comparatively.
o It is complex to maintain comparatively.
 o It is non-portable.
o It is machine-dependent.
o It needs assembler for translation.
o It is not commonly used now-a-days in programming.

Application Software:-
o Application software is commonly defined as any program or number of programs
designed for end-users. That‟s it, in a nutshell.
o Examples of application software include items like Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel,
or any of the web browsers used navigate the Internet.
Types of Application Software
o Utility software: This could include firewall utilities and antivirus applications.
o Integrated software: Software that does more than one thing, or includes
different bundled applications.
o Specific application software: This would be a single application developed for
one defined purpose that is not a utility.

Computer Program:-
• A computer program is a list of instructions that tell a computer what to do.
• A computer program is written in a programming language.
• A computer program is stored as a file on the computer's hard drive. When the user runs
the program, the file is read by the computer, and the processor reads the data in the file as
a list of instructions. Then the computer does what the program tells it to do.
• A program is prepared by first formulating a task and then expressing it in an appropriate
computer language

INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEM :-

Operating System:
• An Operating system (OS) is a software which acts as an interface between the end user
and computer hardware. Every computer must have at least one OS to run other
programs.
• The OS helps you to communicate with the computer without knowing how to speak the
computer's language.

Features of Operating System:

• Protected and supervisor mode
• Allows disk access and file systems Device drivers Networking Security
• Program Execution
• Memory management Virtual Memory Multitasking
• Handling I/O operations
• Manipulation of the file system
• Error Detection and handling
• Resource allocation
• Information and Resource Protection

Types of Operating System:

• Batch Operating System
• Multitasking/Time Sharing OS
• Multiprocessing OS
• Real Time OS
• Distributed OS
• Network OS
• Mobile OS

******