MONITORING AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

OBJECTIVES
1. Describe a control system
2. Identify the common features of a control system.
3. Identify the areas of application of control systems

Monitoring and control systems use real time processing. Real-time processing means that the
computer has to keep pace with some external operation by processing the data that it receives more
or less instantaneously and producing immediate results.

CONTROL SYSTEMS
A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by controlling the output. The
following figure shows the simple block diagram of a control system.

ADC DAC
Process

The above diagram shows the control system represented by a single block. Since, the output is
controlled by varying input, the control system got this name.

INPUT – The inputs are provided by the sensors which detects the changes in the environment
around it such as temperature, speed, position, etc which are in analogue form, these are all things
which change continuously in time. Computers work in discrete digital values and it is therefore
necessary to convert the analogue changes into a form which the computer can understand
PROCESS – Data is passed to a computer (microprocessor) inside the device which analyses it and
decide what action to take. The computer sends the instruction to the device telling it what to do such
as motors, heaters, etc which control the process.
OUTPUT – The device would carry the instruction.

The above system must work in real time as the computer is affecting the situation in the real world,
and it therefore forms a closed loop. The computer must be able to react quickly to any changes
produced by its own output.

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FEATURES OF A CONTROL SYSTEM

MICROPROCESSOR
Use of microprocessor in domestic appliances Microprocessor based controllers are available in home
appliances, such as microwave oven, washing machine etc., microprocessors are being used in
controlling various parameters like speed, pressure, temperature etc. These are used with the help of
suitable transduction.

Functions of a Microprocessor
- It receives signals from the input device.
- It compares the input values against the set values.
- It decides on what action to take.
- It sends instructions to the actuator (output device) telling it what to do.

Examples − Traffic lights control system, automatic washing machine, burglar alarm, microwave
ovens, automatic cookers, computer controlled greenhouses etc
Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of input signal is
applied to this control system and the output is one of the three lights that will be on for some
duration of time. During this time, the other two lights will be off. Based on the traffic study at a
particular junction, the on and off times of the lights can be determined. Accordingly, the input
signal controls the output. So, the traffic lights control system operates on time basis.
Control Systems can be classified as open loop control systems and closed loop control systems
based on the feedback path.
OPEN LOOP SYSTEMS
In open loop control systems, output is not fed-back to the input. So, the control action is
independent of the desired output.
The following figure shows the block diagram of the open loop control system.

Here, an input is applied to a controller and it produces an actuating signal or controlling signal. This
signal is given as an input to a plant or process which is to be controlled. So, the plant produces an
output, which is controlled. The traffic lights control system which we discussed earlier is an
example of an open loop control system.
CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input. So, the control action is dependent
on the desired output.
The following figure shows the block diagram of negative feedback closed loop control system.

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The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input and the
feedback signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback elements) by considering
the output of the overall system as an input to this block. Instead of the direct input, the error signal
is applied as an input to a controller.
So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this combination, the
output of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the desired response. Hence, the
closed loop control systems are also called the automatic control systems. Traffic lights control
system having sensor at the input is an example of a closed loop control system.
Another example is a computer controlled greenhouse.

The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems are mentioned in the
following table.

Open Loop Control Systems Closed Loop Control Systems

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 Control action is independent of the desired output. Control action is dependent of the desired
output.

Feedback path is not present. This is why they are Feedback path is present. This is why they
called as non-feedback control systems. are feedback control systems.

They are easy to design. They are difficult to design.

EXPERT SYSTEMS

OBJECTIVES
1. State the different features of an expert system
2. List a range of Artificial Intelligence (AI) applications
3. Describe how organizations can use Artificial Intelligence (AI) to make decisions

Expert Systems are knowledge-based systems, use human knowledge to solve problems that normally
would require human intelligence. These expert systems represent the expertise knowledge as data or
rules within the computer. These rules and data can be called upon when needed to solve problems.
Expert Systems have been used in many problem areas, such as medicine, chemistry, geology,
meteorology, computer systems, etc.
Expert Systems can generally be used in problem areas that:
* do not require common sense to solve
* are well understood
* data that is input to the expert system can be described objectively
* Human expertise is scarce * Expertise needed in many locations, or in hostile environments
* There are considerable advantages in reaching an accurate answer quickly
i.e. contains the knowledge and analytical skills of one or more human experts

Features of an expert system

 A knowledge-base - This is a collection of facts and rules. The knowledge base is created
from information provided by human experts.
 A user interface (able to support diagnostic or similar discussion with the user) –
interactive user interface. This is the system that allows a non-expert user to query
(question) the expert system, and to receive advice. The user-interface is designed to be
simple to use as possible
 An inference engine (deals with incomplete answers). This acts like a search engine,
examines the knowledge base for information that matches the users query. The non-expert
user queries the expert system. This is done by asking a question, or by answering questions
asked by the expert system. The inference engine uses the query to search the knowledge base
and then provides an answer or some advice to the user.

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There are certain major roles of individuals who interact with the expert system to fully exploit its
functionality and capability. They are the:

 Domain expert – the individual or individuals whose expertise are solving the problems the
system is intended to solve;
 Knowledge engineer – the individual who encodes the expert’s knowledge in a form that can
be used by the expert system;
 System user – the individual who will be consulting with the system to get advice which
would have been provided by the expert.

Majority of the expert systems are built with expert system shells which contains an inference engine
and user interface. The shell will be used by a knowledge engineer to build a system catered for
specific problem domain. Sometimes expert systems are also built with custom developed shells for
certain applications. In this scenario, there will be another additional individual

 System engineer – the individual who builds the user interface, designs the declarative format
of the knowledge base, and implements the inference engine.

Advantages of an expert system.

 The computer can store more information than a human.
 The computer does not 'forget' or make mistakes.
 The expert system is always available 24 hours a day and will never 'retire'.
 The system can be used at a distance over a network.

Disadvantages of an expert system

 Replaces human interference hence loss of jobs.
 Lacks the 'human touch', therefore no room for manipulation/modification by users.

Advantages of Using an Expert System

1. Providing consistent solutions – It can provide consistent answers for repetitive decisions,
processes and tasks. As long as the rule base in the system remains the same, regardless of
how many times similar problems are being tested, the final conclusions drawn will remain
the same.
2. Provides reasonable explanations – It has the ability to clarify the reasons why the
conclusion was drawn and be why it is considered as the most logical choice among other
alternatives. If there are any doubts in concluding a certain problem, it will prompt some
questions for users to answer in order to process the logical conclusion.
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 3. Overcome human limitations – It does not have human limitations and can work around the
clock continuously. Users will be able to frequently use it in seeking solutions. The
knowledge of experts is an invaluable asset for the company. It can store the knowledge and
use it as long as the organization needs.
4. Easy to adapt to new conditions – Unlike humans who often have troubles in adapting in
new environments, an expert system has high adaptability and can meet new requirements in a
short period of time. It also can capture new knowledge from an expert and use it as inference
rules to solve new problems.

Disadvantages of Using an Expert System

1. Lacks common sense – It lacks common sense needed in some decision making since all the
decisions made are based on the inference rules set in the system. It also cannot make creative
and innovative responses as human experts would in unusual circumstances.
2. High implementation and maintenance cost – The implementation of an expert system in
business will be a financial burden for smaller organizations since it has high development
cost as well as the subsequent recurring costs to upgrade the system to adapt in new
environment.
3. Difficulty in creating inference rules – Domain experts will not be able to always explain
their logic and reasoning needed for the knowledge engineering process. Hence, the task of
codifying out the knowledge is highly complex and may require high skills, experience and
knowledge.
4. May provide wrong solutions – It is not error-free. There may be errors occurred in the
processing due to some logic mistakes made in the knowledge base, which it will then provide
the wrong solutions.

Examples of expert systems

Patient Monitoring systems

Patient monitoring systems is the term for all the various devices that are used to supervise patients.
One category of such devices is devices that alerts if the patient gets into a critical state. Example of
one such device is a heart monitor.

The need for patient monitoring is apparent in situations where the patient is:
 In unstable physiological regulatory systems, for example in the case of a drug overdose or
anesthesia.
 In a life threatening condition, for example where there are indications of a heart attack.
 In risk of developing a life threatening condition.
 In a critical physiological state.

A medical diagnosis expert system (eg MYCIN) would have information about diseases and their
symptoms, the drugs used in treatments etc.
A patient is asked by a doctor about symptoms and the replies are input to the expert system. The
computer searches its database, uses its rules and makes suggestions about the disease and its
treatments. Sometimes probabilities are assigned to diagnoses.
The computer does not take the place of the doctor but can be used to help the doctor make decisions.

Air traffic control (ATC) system

This is a service provided by ground-based controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and in the
air. The primary purpose of ATC systems worldwide is to separate aircraft to prevent collisions, to
organize and expedite the flow of traffic, and to provide information and other support for pilots
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when able.[1] In some countries, ATC may also play a security or defense role (as in the United
States), or be run entirely by the military (as in Brazil).
Preventing collisions is referred to as separation, which is a term used to prevent aircraft from coming
too close to each other by use of lateral, vertical and longitudinal separation minima; many aircraft
now have collision avoidance systems installed to act as a backup to ATC observation and
instructions.

PROCESS CONTROL

This is the control of machinery or industrial processes by means of a computer. Sensors

continuously monitor data such as temperature, pressure, composition of substance and so on and
the computer reacts accordingly. Thousands of tasks including the operation of nuclear power
station, controlling processes in chemical engineering, monitoring and controlling medical
equipment in hospitals and wide range of goods.

ADVANTAGES
 Computers are able to respond instantly to change in conditions.
 Fewer staff is needed, so costs are reduced, making the final product cheaper to run.
 The system can keep working 24hrs per day, 365 days a year.
 Some processes are dangerous. Keeping people away from these processes can help
prevent accidents
 It is easy for a manufacturer to change a product by reprogramming a computer

DISADVANTAGES
 Fewer people are needed to do a job, so this leads to unemployment.
 Computers tend to be expensive to introduce initially.

Examples of process control

Data logging :Is the collection of data automatically, from sensors, over a period of time known as
the data logging period which is then processed at a later date. There are two types of data loggers
one with a permanent computer connections and the other with a temporary computer connection.
Examples of application: Weather monitoring stations, Pollution monitoring systems and grabbing
data with great speed from the results of scientific experiments.

Green House : A glass building used for growing plants that need warmth, light and protection. An
artificial correct environment is provided such as keeping the temperature and humidity constant.
There are humidity sensors that are used to detect the amount of moisture available in the house and
if the moisture is low they send the signals to the microprocessor that in turn will activate the valves
to spray water on the plants and once it reaches the required level they detect that the moisture is
enough hence send the signal to the microprocessor to be able to activate the water valves again to
close.

Abattoir
Common abattoirs, or slaughter houses, are used to process meat for human consumption as well as
animal by-products. Meat for human consumption accounts for 45 to 50% of all products that comes
out of abattoirs. Slaughterhouses with products unfit for human consumption are referred to as
"knackeries."

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Sensors are used to detect some physical environment e.g. record the levels of humidity and
temperature.
Signals from these sensors are sent to a computer which will open or close windows, switch
on or off the pump to spray water depending on the level humidity. Windows are also opened
or closed; a heater is switched on or off depending on the level of temperature

Examples are:
 Light sensor – this detects the amount of light
 Pressure sensor: gets activated when a pressure is applied on it
 Temperature sensor: detects whether the environment is hot or cold
 Sound sensor: detects if the environment is noisy or not or if there is any sound or not
 Proximity sensor: detects the availability of nearby objects without physical contact
 PH sensor: detects the acidity or alkalinity of the environment
 Humidity sensor: detects the moisture in the environment
 Water level sensor: detects if the water level is low or high

Application of Sensors

 Using different types of sensor, Robots can see, hear, smell, touch and taste their environment.
For a robot to see, for example, cameras can be attached to its processor, enabling it to
perform such tasks as recognizing and sorting components on an assembly line. Microphones,
in conjunction with speech recognition software, can enable a robot to respond to spoken
instructions. One robotic system, endorsed by the American Spice Trade Association,
measures the 'heat' of hot peppers, based on the amount of capsaicin that the peppers contain.

 a microprocessor to process the information

Use of microprocessor in domestic appliances Microprocessor based controllers are available in
home appliances, such as microwave oven, washing machine etc., microprocessors are being used
in controlling various parameters like speed, pressure, temperature etc. These are used with the
help of suitable transduction.

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  Actuators to produce movement or alter the environment in some way, for example by turning
an electronic switch on or off.

ROBOTICS

Robotics is when computer-controlled machines are used in industry. It is where machines are
programmed to imitate a human.
Robot, self-governing, programmable electromechanical device used in industry and in
scientific research to perform a task or a limited range of tasks.
 Robots may be used for spray painting, spot welding and assembling cars.
 They are also used as security devices inside homes and office buildings, as vehicles in
space exploration,
 as intelligent wheelchairs for disabled people
 as underwater maintenance workers for oil rigs.

Robots operate in one of the two different modes: Open loop mode and closed loop mode.

Open loop
Here, there is no feedback and the robot simply goes through preprogrammed motion or actions. If it
were programmed to spray a car, it would go through the motions, regardless of whether the car was
correctly positioned or whether it had run out of paint.
Closed loop mode
Here, a system of feedback is used so that sensors send back signals to the computer, which can take
appropriate action. For example, a robot may have to line up one component with another before
inserting a bolt. A camera may capture the necessary image, and the processor then has to transform
this data into information so that the robot knows what action to take.

Advantages of using Robots

 Robots can work in environments hazardous to humans, or perform dangerous tasks such as
disarming live bombs, working in a radioactive environment or sending information back from the
surface of Mars.
 They can tirelessly perform repetitive and monotonous tasks, lift heavy loads and reach long
distances. They are used, for example, by the US Navy to scrape and repaint ships.
 Labour costs can be substantially reduced, and robots are now widely employed in car
manufacturing as well as many other industries, including printing and publishing. Robots can
carry tons of paper coming off presses, bind and trim books and apply book covers. It has been
estimated that each industrial robot will replace an average of six workers.
 Quality of work is consistent because robots are never distracted or bored, never loses
concentration or makes a mistake.
e.g. In welding work, for example, a robot quickly puts the right size weld in the right place at the
right time with predictable accuracy and consistency.

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 Increased productivity as robots will work for 24 hours a day, work faster than humans and do not
go on strike or demand higher wages.

SIMULATION

Simulations aim to mimic (copy) real life systems in order to see the outcomes of different scenarios.
A computer simulation is an attempt to model a real-life or hypothetical situation on a computer so
that it can be studied to see how the system works.

Uses of Simulation

Simulation is used in many contexts, including

 modeling of natural systems or human systems in order to gain insight into their
functioning
 performance optimization in technology
 safety engineering
 testing
 training and education

Examples where Simulation is used

1. Flight simulation

These mimic the skills needed to pilot a real aircraft. The simulator allows the pilot to practice
the following flight skills: At first trainee pilots will make mistakes and maybe even crash the
plane. This doesn't matter because they can simply reset the simulation and try again. Nobody
gets hurt. When the trainee gains enough experience in the simulator, they will be allowed to fly
a real plane.

2. Driving simulation or Car crashing simulation

These mimic the skills required to control vehicles such as cars, trucks, buses and trains.
Trainee drivers can build up a high level of confidence using the driving simulation before they
actually begin to drive for real. Any mistakes or crashes are just 'virtual' and vehicles are not
damaged or any people hurt. Data taken from the simulation allows engineers to design
and build safer cars. This is known as 'Computer Aided Engineering' (CAE).

3. 3D Models (buildings, rooms, mobile phones etc.)

3D (Three dimensional) models are created using special software called 'Computer Aided
Design' (CAD). CAD software can be used to create computer generated prototypes for a wide
range of models including: Buildings, Room, Products and gadgets (phones, mp3 players etc)

3D models are created on the computer and then shown to the customer so they can give the
designer feedback. The designer then applies changes directly to the model.

Advantages of creating and viewing 3D models on the computer;

 Images can be zoomed into so that fine detail can be seen clearly.

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  Allows images to be rotated through many different angles so that every aspect of the model
can be seen.
 Creating and modifying prototypes on software does not require expensive, physical materials
to buy (eg metals, plastic, wood, bricks etc).
 CAD software are much quicker to design than having to assemble & change plastic/wood
based prototypes. They allow prototypes to be created and modified by manipulating elements
on a screen.

4. Military Simulation

Informally known as war games, are models in which theories of warfare can be tested and
refined without the need for actual hostilities/conflicts.

5. Marine simulators

Marine simulators used for training ships’ personnel.

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