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Image Segmentation
Image Segmentation

Principles, Techniques, and Applications

Tao Lei
Shaanxi University of Science and Technology
Xi’an, China

Asoke K. Nandi
Brunel University London
Uxbridge, UK
This edition first published 2023
© 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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with law.

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John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data applied for

ISBN: 9781119859000

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: © d3sign/Getty Images

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

 To
My parents, my wife Yan Lu, and our daughter—Lu Lei.
Tao Lei

My wife, Marion, and our children—Robin, David, and Anita Nandi.

Asoke K. Nandi
 vii

Brief Contents

About the Authors xv

Preface xvii
Acknowledgment xix
List of Symbols and Abbreviations xxi
List of Acronyms xxxi

Part I Principles 1

1 Introduction 3

2 Clustering 21

3 Mathematical Morphology 37

4 Neural Networks 63

Part II Methods 97

5 Fast and Robust Image Segmentation Using Clustering 99

6 Fast Image Segmentation Using Watershed Transform 125

7 Superpixel-Based Fast Image Segmentation 151

Part III Applications 179

8 Image Segmentation for Traffic Scene Analysis 181

9 Image Segmentation for Medical Analysis 199

10 Image Segmentation for Remote Sensing Analysis 229

11 Image Segmentation for Material Analysis 263

Index 289
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 ix

Contents

About the Authors xv

Preface xvii
Acknowledgment xix
List of Symbols and Abbreviations xxi
List of Acronyms xxxi

Part I Principles 1

1 Introduction 3
1.1 Preliminary Concepts 3
1.2 Foundations of Image Segmentation 5
1.2.1 Pixel-Based Image Segmentation 5
1.2.2 Contour-Based Image Segmentation 6
1.2.3 Region-Based Image Segmentation 7
1.2.4 Neural Network–Based Image Segmentation 8
1.3 Examples: Image Segmentation 9
1.3.1 Automatic Drive 9
1.3.2 Medical Image Analysis 10
1.3.3 Remote Sensing 10
1.3.4 Industrial Inspection 11
1.4 Assessment of Image Segmentation 13
1.5 Discussion and Summary 15
References 17

2 Clustering 21
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 K-Means 22
2.3 Fuzzy C-means Clustering 24
2.4 Hierarchical Clustering 27
2.5 Spectral Clustering 29
2.6 Gaussian Mixed Model 30
2.7 Discussion and Summary 33
References 34
x Contents

3 Mathematical Morphology 37
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Morphological Filtering 37
3.2.1 Erosion and Dilation 37
3.2.2 Opening and Closing 40
3.2.3 Basic Morphological Operation for Grayscale Images 41
3.2.4 Composed Morphological Filters 42
3.3 Morphological Reconstruction 43
3.3.1 Geodesic Dilation and Erosion 43
3.3.2 Reconstruction of Opening Operations and Closing Operations 45
3.4 Watershed Transform 47
3.4.1 Basic Concepts 47
3.4.2 Watershed Segmentation Algorithms 48
3.5 Multivariate Mathematical Morphology 51
3.5.1 Related Concepts 51
3.5.2 Duality of Grayscale Mathematical Morphology 51
3.5.3 Ordering Relations 52
3.5.4 Multivariate Dual Morphological Operators 57
3.6 Discussion and Summary 60
References 60

4 Neural Networks 63
4.1 Artificial Neural Networks 63
4.1.1 Overview 63
4.1.2 Neuron Model 65
4.1.3 Single-Layer Perceptron and Linear Network 72
4.1.3.1 Single Layer Perceptron 72
4.1.3.2 Perceptron Learning Algorithm 73
4.1.3.3 Linear Neural Network 75
4.2 Convolutional Neural Network 76
4.2.1 Convolution and its Application in Images 76
4.2.1.1 Definition 76
4.2.1.2 One-Dimensional Convolution in Discrete Domain 77
4.2.1.3 Two-Dimensional Convolution in Discrete Domain 78
4.2.1.4 Extended Convolution Operation 81
4.2.2 Convolutional Network Architecture and Parameter Learning 83
4.2.2.1 Convolutional Network Architecture 83
4.2.2.2 Convolution Layer 85
4.2.2.3 Pooling Layer 86
4.2.2.4 Full Connection Layer 87
4.2.2.5 Parameter Learning 88
4.2.2.6 Back-Propagation Algorithm 89
4.3 Graph Convolutional Network 90
4.3.1 Overview 90
4.3.2 Convolutional Network over Spectral Domains 91
4.3.3 Chebyshev Network 92
4.3.4 Graph Convolutional Network 93
 Contents xi

4.4 Discussion and Summary 95

References 96

Part II Methods 97

5 Fast and Robust Image Segmentation Using Clustering 99

5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 Related Work 101
5.2.1 Objective Function of FCM Based on Neighborhood Information 102
5.2.2 Membership Correction Based on Local Distance 103
5.3 Local Spatial Information Integration to FCM 103
5.3.1 Fast and Robust FCM Based on Histogram 104
5.3.2 Morphological Reconstruction 105
5.4 Membership Filtering for FCM 107
5.5 Discussion and Summary 111
5.5.1 Results on Synthetic Images 111
5.5.2 Results on Real Images 113
5.5.3 Results on Color Images 116
5.5.4 Running Time 119
5.5.5 Summary 121
References 121

6 Fast Image Segmentation Using Watershed Transform 125

6.1 Introduction 125
6.2 Related Work 127
6.2.1 Morphological Opening and Closing Reconstructions 127
6.2.2 Multiscale and Adaptive Mathematical Morphology 128
6.2.3 Seeded Segmentation 129
6.2.4 Spectral Segmentation 132
6.3 Adaptive Morphological Reconstruction (AMR) 132
6.3.1 The Presented AMR 132
6.3.2 The Monotonic Increasing-ness Property of AMR 133
6.3.3 The Convergence Property of AMR 136
6.3.4 The Algorithm of AMR 138
6.4 AMR for Seeded Image Segmentation 140
6.4.1 Seeded Image Segmentation 140
6.4.2 Seed-Based Spectral Segmentation 144
6.5 Discussion and Summary 147
6.5.1 Discussion 147
6.5.2 Summary 148
References 149

7 Superpixel-Based Fast Image Segmentation 151

7.1 Introduction 151
7.2 Related Work 153
7.2.1 Fuzzy Clustering with Adaptive Local Information 153
xii Contents

7.2.2 FCM Based on Histogram of Gray Images 154

7.3 Superpixel Integration to FCM 155
7.3.1 Superpixel Based on Local Feature 157
7.3.2 Superpixel-Based Fast FCM 159
7.4 Discussion and Summary 164
7.4.1 Comparison with Other Algorithms 164
7.4.2 Parameter Setting 165
7.4.3 Results on Synthetic Image 165
7.4.4 Results on Real Images 167
7.4.5 Execution Time 174
7.4.6 Conclusions 174
References 176

Part III Applications 179

8 Image Segmentation for Traffic Scene Analysis 181

8.1 Introduction 181
8.2 Related Work 182
8.2.1 Convolutional Neural Networks for Image Classification 182
8.2.2 Traffic Scene Semantic Segmentation Using Convolutional Neural Networks 183
8.3 Multi-Scale Feature Fusion Network for Scene Segmentation 185
8.3.1 Multi-Scale Feature Fusion Using Dilated Convolution 186
8.3.2 Encoder-Decoder Architecture 186
8.3.3 Experiments 187
8.4 Self-Attention Network for Scene Segmentation 188
8.4.1 Non-local attention Module 189
8.4.2 Dual Attention Module 190
8.4.3 Criss-Cross Attention 191
8.4.4 Multi-scale Non-local Module 193
8.4.5 Experiments 193
8.5 Discussion and Summary 194
8.5.1 Network Architecture Search 194
8.5.2 Compact Networks 195
8.5.3 Vision Transformer 195
References 196

9 Image Segmentation for Medical Analysis 199

9.1 Introduction 199
9.2 Related Work 200
9.2.1 Traditional Approaches for Medical Image Segmentation 200
9.2.2 Deep Learning for Medical Image Segmentation 200
9.3 Lightweight Network for Liver Segmentation 203
9.3.1 Network Compression 203
9.3.2 3D Deep Supervision 205
9.3.3 Experiment 206
 Contents xiii

9.3.3.1 Data Set Preprocessing 206

9.3.3.2 Training 207
9.3.3.3 Evaluation and Results 207
9.4 Deformable Encoder–Decoder Network for Liver and Liver-Tumor Segmentation 208
9.4.1 Deformable Encoding 209
9.4.2 Ladder-ASPP 212
9.4.3 Loss Function 214
9.4.4 Postprocessing 215
9.4.5 Experiment 216
9.4.5.1 Data Set and Preprocessing 216
9.4.5.2 Experimental Setup and Evaluation Metrics 216
9.4.5.3 Ablation Study 217
9.4.5.4 Experimental Comparison on Test Data Sets 219
9.4.5.5 Model-Size Comparison 223
9.5 Discussion and Summary 224
References 224

10 Image Segmentation for Remote Sensing Analysis 229

10.1 Introduction 229
10.2 Related Work 230
10.2.1 Threshold Segmentation Methods 230
10.2.2 Clustering Segmentation Methods 230
10.2.3 Region Segmentation Methods 231
10.2.4 Segmentation Methods Using Deep Learning 231
10.3 Unsupervised Change Detection for Remote Sensing Images 232
10.3.1 Image Segmentation Using Image Structuring Information 232
10.3.2 Image Segmentation Using Gaussian Pyramid 234
10.3.3 Fast Fuzzy C-Means for Change Detection 236
10.3.4 Postprocessing for Change Detection 237
10.3.5 The Proposed Methodology 241
10.3.6 Experiments 242
10.3.6.1 Data Description 242
10.3.6.2 Experimental Setup 243
10.3.6.3 Experimental Results 245
10.3.6.4 Experimental Analysis 247
10.4 End-to-End Change Detection for VHR Remote Sensing Images 252
10.4.1 MMR for Image Preprocessing 252
10.4.2 Pyramid Pooling 253
10.4.3 The Network Structure of FCN-PP 254
10.4.4 Experiments 255
10.4.4.1 Data Description 255
10.4.4.2 Experimental Setup 256
10.4.4.3 Experimental Results 256
10.4.4.4 Experimental Analysis 257
10.5 Discussion and Summary 259
References 259
xiv Contents

11 Image Segmentation for Material Analysis 263

11.1 Introduction 263
11.2 Related Work 264
11.2.1 Metal Materials 264
11.2.2 Foam Materials 265
11.2.3 Ceramics Materials 265
11.3 Image Segmentation for Metal Material Analysis 266
11.3.1 Segmentation of Porous Metal Materials 267
11.3.2 Classification of Holes 268
11.3.3 Experiment Analysis 269
11.4 Image Segmentation for Foam Material Analysis 272
11.4.1 Eigenvalue Gradient Clustering 272
11.4.2 The Algorithm 274
11.4.3 Experiment Analysis 276
11.5 Image Segmentation for Ceramics Material Analysis 278
11.5.1 Preprocessing 279
11.5.2 Robust Watershed Transform 279
11.5.3 Contour Optimization 282
11.5.4 Experiment Analysis 284
11.6 Discussion and Summary 285
References 286

Index 289
 xv

About the Authors

Tao Lei received a PhD in information and communi-

cation engineering from Northwestern Polytechnical
University, Xi’an, China, in 2011. From 2012 to 2014,
he was a postdoctoral research fellow with the School
of Electronics and Information, Northwestern Polytech-
nical University, Xi’an, China. From 2015 to 2016, he
was a visiting scholar with the Quantum Computation
and Intelligent Systems group at University of Technol-
ogy Sydney, Sydney, Australia. From 2016 to 2019, he
was a postdoctoral research fellow with the School of
Computer Science, Northwestern Polytechnical Uni-
versity, Xi’an, China. He has authored and coauthored
80+ research papers published in IEEE TIP, TFS, TGRS,
TGRSL, ICASSP, ICIP, and FG.
He is currently a professor with the School of Elec-
tronic Information and Artificial Intelligence, Shaanxi University of Science and Technology.
His current research interests include image processing, pattern recognition, and machine learning.
Professor Lei is an associate editor of Frontiers in Signal Processing; he is also a guest editor of
Remote Sensing and IEEE JESTAR. He is a senior member of IEEE and CCF.

Asoke K. Nandi received the degree of PhD in physics

from the University of Cambridge (Trinity College),
Cambridge. He held academic positions in several uni-
versities, including Oxford, Imperial College London,
Strathclyde, and Liverpool, as well as Finland Distin-
guished Professorship in Jyvaskyla (Finland). In 2013
he moved to Brunel University London, to become
the Chair and Head of Electronic and Computer
Engineering.
In 1983 Professor Nandi jointly discovered the three
fundamental particles known as W+, W−, and Z0, pro-
viding the evidence for the unification of the electro-
magnetic and weak forces, for which the Nobel
Committee for Physics in 1984 awarded the prize to
his two team leaders for their decisive contributions.
xvi About the Authors

His current research interests lie in the areas of signal processing and machine learning, with appli-
cations to communications, gene expression data, functional magnetic resonance data, machine
condition monitoring, and biomedical data. He has made many fundamental theoretical and algo-
rithmic contributions to many aspects of signal processing and machine learning. He has much
expertise in big data, dealing with heterogeneous data and extracting information from multiple
data sets obtained in different laboratories and different times. Professor Nandi has authored over
600 technical publications, including 260 journal papers as well as five books, entitled Condition
Monitoring with Vibration Signals (Wiley, 2020), Automatic Modulation Classification: Principles,
Algorithms and Applications (Wiley, 2015), Integrative Cluster Analysis in Bioinformatics (Wiley,
2015), Blind Estimation Using Higher-Order Statistics (Springer, 1999), and Automatic Modulation
Recognition of Communications Signals (Springer, 1996). The h-index of his publications is 80 (Goo-
gle Scholar) and his Erdös number is 2.
Professor Nandi is a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (UK) and of seven other
institutions. Among the many awards he received are the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (USA) Heinrich Hertz Award in 2012, the Glory of Bengal Award for his outstanding
achievements in scientific research in 2010, from the Society for Machinery Failure Prevention
Technology, a division of the Vibration Institute (USA) in 2000, the Water Arbitration Prize of
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (UK) in 1999, and the Mountbatten Premium of the Insti-
tution of Electrical Engineers (UK) in 1998. Professor Nandi is an IEEE Distinguished Lecturer
(2018–2019). Professor Nandi is the Field Chief Editor of Frontiers in Signal Processing journal.
 xvii

Preface

Image segmentation is one of the most challenging frontier topics in computer vision. It provides an
important foundation for image analysis and image description, as well as image understanding.
The basic task of image segmentation is to segment an image into several regions that are nono-
verlapping, with these regions having accurate boundaries. The current task of image segmentation
not only requires accurate region division but also requires a label output on different regions, that
is, semantic segmentation. With the development of computer vision and artificial intelligence
techniques, the roles and importance of image segmentation have grown significantly. Image seg-
mentation has been applied widely in various fields, such as industry of detection, intelligent trans-
portation, biological medicine, agriculture, defense, and remote sensing. At present, a large number
of image segmentation techniques have been reported, and many of them have been successfully
applied to actual product development. However, the fast development of imaging and artificial
intelligence techniques requires image segmentation to deal with increasingly more complex tasks.
These complex tasks require more effective and efficient image segmentation techniques. For that
reason, there is a growing body of literature resulting from efforts in research and development by
many research groups around the world. Although there are many publications on image segmen-
tation, there is only a few collections of recent techniques and methods devoted to the field of com-
puter vision.
This book attempts to summarize and improve principles, techniques, and applications of current
image segmentation. It can help researchers, postgraduate students, and practicing engineers from
colleges, research institutes, and enterprises to understand the field quickly. Firstly, based on this
book, researchers can quickly understand the basic principles of image segmentation and related
mathematical methods such as clustering, mathematical morphology, and convolutional neural
networks. Secondly, based on classic image processing and machine learning theory, the book
introduces a serious of recent methods to achieve fast and accurate image segmentation. Finally,
the book introduces the effect of image segmentation in various application scenarios such as traf-
fic, medicine, remote sensing, and materials. In brief, the book aims to inform, enthuse, and attract
more researchers to enter the field and thus develop further image segmentation theory and
applications.
Chapter 1 is a brief introduction to image segmentation and its applications in various fields
including industry, medicine, defense, and environment. Besides, an example is presented to help
readers understand image segmentation quickly.
Chapter 2 is concerned with principles of clustering. Three clustering approaches that are con-
cerned closely with image segmentation, are presented, i.e. k-means clustering, fuzzy c-means clus-
tering, spectral clustering, and gaussian mixed model.
xviii Preface

Chapter 3 is concerned with principles of mathematical morphology since it is important in

image processing, especially watershed transform, which is popular for image segmentation. In this
chapter, morphological filtering, morphological reconstruction, and the watershed transform are
presented. Besides, multivariate mathematical morphology is presented since it is important for
multichannel image processing, which can help image segmentation for multichannel images.
Chapter 4 is concerned with principles of neural networks since they are important in image
processing, especially convolutional neural networks, which are popular for image segmentation.
In this chapter, artificial neural networks, convolutional neural networks, and graph convolutional
networks are presented.
Chapter 5 introduces a fast image segmentation approach based on fuzzy clustering. This chap-
ter illustrates related works with improved FCM and presents two strategies: local spatial informa-
tion integration and membership filtering, which achieves better segmentation results.
Chapter 6 introduces a fast and robust image segmentation approach based on the watershed
transform. This chapter illustrates related works with seeded image segmentation and presents
an adaptive morphological reconstruction method that can help the watershed transform to
achieve better segmentation results.
Chapter 7 introduces a fast image segmentation approach based on superpixel and the Gaussian
mixed model (GMM). This chapter illustrates related works with superpixel algorithms and pre-
sents the idea of combing superpixel and GMM for image segmentation.
Chapter 8 introduces the application of image segmentation for traffic scene segmentation. This
chapter illustrates related works with traffic scene semantic segmentation and presents the idea of
multi-scale information fusion combing nonlocal network for traffic scene semantic segmentation.
Chapter 9 introduces the application of image segmentation for medical images. This chapter
illustrates related works with liver and liver-tumor segmentation and presents two approaches
for liver and liver-tumor segmentation including lightweight V-net and deformable context encod-
ing network.
Chapter 10 introduces the application of image segmentation for remote sensing. This chapter
illustrates related works with change detection and presents two approaches for change detection
including unsupervised change detection and end-to-end change detection for very high resolution
(VHR) remote sensing images.
Chapter 11 introduces the application of image segmentation for material analysis. This chapter
presents three applications for different material analysis including metallic materials, foam mate-
rials, and ceramics materials.
This book is up-to-date and covers a lot of the advanced techniques used for image segmentation,
including recently developed methods. In addition, this book provides new methods, including
unsupervised clustering, watershed transform, and deep learning for image segmentation, which
covers various topics of current research interest. Additionally, the book will provide several pop-
ular image segmentation applications including traffic scene, medical images, remote sensing
images, and scanning electron microscope images. A work of this magnitude will, unfortunately,
contain errors and omissions. We would like to take this opportunity to apologize unreservedly for
all such indiscretions in advance. We welcome comments and corrections; please send them by
email to [email protected] or by any other means.
Visit https://ebookmass.com today to explore
a vast collection of ebooks across various
genres, available in popular formats like
PDF, EPUB, and MOBI, fully compatible with
all devices. Enjoy a seamless reading
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quality materials in just a few simple steps.
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