UGANDA CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY

ELEMENTS OF MATHEMATICS-REVISED EDITION (2022)

Foundation Studies Department

Department Of Computing and Technology
Faculty of Engineering, Design and Technology
2

Preface To New Edition

‘Elements of Mathematics’ is a one-semester course unit that we have taught at Uganda Christian
University since 2005. It is part of the curriculum in several departments. The ability range of the
students is wide; some have achieved no more than a low pass in Ordinary Level Mathematics
whilst others have reached Advanced Level.

Mathematics is one of the great intellectual achievements of humankind, and an area of study and
research that plays an ever increasing role in modern life. Many students arrive at the university
with painful memories of their school mathematics lessons, low self-esteem, and little idea of
what the subject is really about. The course is an attempt to explain the nature and importance of
mathematics, and to build up students’ confidence and ability in the subject. We do this through the
study of three topics which have applications in the contemporary world.

A single semester is hardly enough time to achieve these objectives, but we have been encou-
raged by the results of our efforts. In the early stages there was resistance to the very idea of the
course, but in time students realized only too well the importance of the subject, and appreciated
how the course helped them to overcome their inadequacies – and that it could be enjoyable.

It is a pleasure to recognize the work of Dr Laurie Wells in pioneering the course and writing the
first edition of the book. In the later editions we have used our experience of teaching students over
several semesters to make various changes of structure, style and content, but the broad outline
remains the same. The Course Coordinator Robert Munyagwa and his team have been an invaluable
source of advice during this process.
Forward to the Student
You may be one of many students who leave their secondary schools with a negative attitude towards
mathematics and painful memories of mathematics lessons, often made worse by a disappointing
‘O’ Level result. At school you learnt to perform processes like long multiplication, but might
never have understood why the methods work. It is easy to see how the misconception arises that
mathematics is about ‘learning facts’; nothing, however, could be further from the truth.

The aims of the Elements of Mathematics course are to give you a better understanding of what the
subject is about, and greater confidence when using mathematics. It is a developing subject that has
evolved over thousands of years. We shall explain everything that we do, since mathematical results
and methods are the result of human reasoning. You will study three topics which are important
both for their own sake and for their applications in the modern world. We shall also encourage
you to improve your basic numerical and algebraic skills so that you can, for example, work out
without reaching for a calculator.

You have the opportunity to become a better educated and more useful person in your work-
place, as well as in your home when you work out your domestic finances, or help your children
with their mathematics homework. How much you achieve will depend on how well you apply
yourself to these goals.
I
Topics

1 Numbers and Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.1 Place Systems of Counting

2 Exponential Growth and Financial Mathe-

matics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1 Percentages And Inverse Percentages

3 Multivariable Equations and Linear Pro-

gramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1 Simple Linear Equations in Two Variables
3.2 Linear Inequality
3.3 The Profit Line Method
3.4 Linear Programming

4 Applied Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.1 Descriptive Statistics

5 Mathematical Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.1 The construction of propositional formulas
 1. Numbers and Sets

1.1 Place Systems of Counting

We still occasionally use the ancient way of recording a number (for example the number of people
entering a building) by a ’tally’ or set of marks on a piece of wood or paper, but for large numbers
this is wholly impractical. The much more economical way of describing a number as, for example,
’two hundered and forty-five’ evolved independently all over the world from counting on our fingers
up to ten (which is a tally system). Eventually it developed into the ’decimal place system’ that we
use. We can describe it as follows. Imagine a pile of straws
Use your finger to count the straws into ’bundle’ of ten, and put a band around each bundle.
Suppose that four straws remain.
Now count the bundles into ’bundles of bundles’, each of ten bundles. Suppose that seven
remain.
When you count the bundles of bundles into tens you find that there are only five of them.
Each bundle contains ’ten’ straws and each bundle of bundles ’ten times ten’ straws.The
sequence five, seven, four is the number of bundles, bundles, and separate straws. Altogether
there are five lots of ’ten times ten’, seven lots of ’ten’ and four ’singles’
In another case suppose you count the straws into bundles of ten and three straws remain;
you count the bundles into bundles of bundles and six bundles’ remain;
you count the bundles of bundles into ’bundles of bundles of bundles’ and two bundles of
bundles remain;
you count the bundles of bundles of bundles into ten but there are only four of them.
The sequence four, two, six, there is the number of bundles of bundle of bundles, bundles of
bundles, bundles and separate straws. altogether there are therefore four lots of ’ten times ten
times ten’, two lots of ’ten times ten’, six lots of ten’, and three ’singles’.
These examples illustrate the highly efficient way of recording a number by a sequence of the
number ’zero’. ’one’, ’two’, ’three’,..., ’nine’. It is only necessary to be able to count up to ten for
the procedure to work! The Latin word ’digitus’ means a finger or toe; and we call these numbers
’digits’ because people have always counted on their fingers.
When we give symbols to the digits zero, one, two, ..., nine we obtain the ’decimal place system’
8

that was in use around 700 AD by Hindu mathematicians in the Indus valley, though it has a much
longer history. The system was brought to Europe by the Arabs and we call it the Hindu - Arabic
system. The way of writing the digits has changed somewhat from their original form to the familiar
forms 0,1,2,3,4.5,6,7,8,9.
The decimal system is efficient that six digits suffice to record any number less than a million, for
example 5921 or 187403; and even huge numbers up to a million million never require more twelve
digits. It has the great advantage that it does not require separate words or symbols for ten, hundred,
thousand, million, ... since these can be written 10, 100, 1000, 10001000, 000, etc.
We call it a ’place system’ because the place of each digit is fundamental: 451 and 145 are quite
different numbers.
The reason that we count in ’base ten’ is that we have ten fingers; if we had four fingers on each
hand we would surely be counting in base 8! In the ancient Mayan civilization of South America
they counted in base twenty (fingers and toes). In Europe the use of expressions like ’three score and
ten’ might have similar origin, and this is also suggested by, for example, the French for ninety-six:
’quatre-vingts seize’ (that is, four twenties and sixteen). There are, as well, examples of counting in
fives (with one hand only).
Many centuries before the Hindu of the Indus Valley a different place system had been invented
by the Babylonians about 2000 BC (they lived where Iraq is now). Amazingly, they used the base
sixty and had sixty ’digits’ in their system. In this ’hexadecimal’ system a number might be written
PQR where P, Q, R are ’digits’ less than sixty in value. This number is equal to P lots of ’sixty times
sixty’, Q lots of ’sixty’ and R.
It is a legacy of these remarkable people that we still divide each angle of an equilateral triangle
into 60 degrees, and divide a degree (as well as an hour) into 60 minutes, and each minute
into 60 seconds. The Babylonians probably chose sixty as the base because of its many factors
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60). As a consequence, when we divide a circle into 1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9
or 360 equal parts the angle at the centre measures a whole number of degrees!
The Indian improved on the Babylonians in one important respect. If a number PQR in base 60
contains no sixties, the Babylonians did not give Q the value zero since they did not recognize
such a digit. In stead they left a space and wrote PR; this could and dis lead to confusion, since it
might be understood as the number PR. The Indians, however, used a small circle to show that no
number was present and in time this came to be regarded as a digit in its own right (corresponding
to no fingers raised). The complete set of digits in base ten is thus 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; in the
Babylonian system there are sixty digits provided you count the space as a digit.
From childhood we learn to recite the numbers from 1 on-wards. Counting is easy in English
because the words are very similar to the numerical form, as, for example, 472 is ’four hundred
and seventy two’. Thus when finding the number of straws in a pile we do not usually divide the
pile into bundles, bundles of bundles, etc., as we describe above. In effect we count the straws by
starting with one straw and adding the others one at a time.
Suppose that you have counted up to 179 straws. when you go from 179 to 180 a new bundle
is created, and another new bundle when you go from 189 to 190; however, when you go from
199 to 200 not only is a new bundle created, but this, together with the other nine bundles that
you already have, makes a new bundle created, but this, together with the other nine bundles that
you already have, makes a new bundle of bundles; and when you go from 999 to 1000 you create
(simultaneously) a new bundle, a new bundle of bundles, and a new bundle of bundles of bundles.
Almost every person masters this quite complicated procedure which keeps account of the separate
straws, bundles, bundles of bundles, etc. Even if someone gives you an extra 34 straws it is not
difficult to include them in the total by mental addition.
1.1 Place Systems of Counting 9

Arithmetic in Base Ten

If mankind had twelve fingers rather than ten we would be counting in base twelve, which apparently
makes arithmetic easier to perform; however, for everyday use we are most unlikely to change to a
different base. Computers perform calculations in base 2, where there are only two digits 0 and
1. We call this ’binary’. In computing we also use base 8 (’octary’) and base 16 (’hexadecimal’)
because they are closely related to binary.
We shall first look at addition and multiplication in base 10 and then turn to other bases.
A fundamental rule is that to multiply a number by 10 in base 10 we place a zero on the right
of the number.
Why does this rule work?
Consider the number 359 = 3 × 10 × 10 + 5 × 10 + 9
On multiplying everything by 10 we obtain

359 × 10 = 3 × 10 × 10 × 10 + 5 × 10 × 10 + 9 × 10,
= 3 × 10 × 10 × 10 + 5 × 10 × 10 + 9 × 10.

Therefore the decimal digits of 359 × 10 are 3,5,9,0.

Examples
(i)
879
47 +
91 21 6
In the units columns we have 7 + 9 = 10 + 9. We leave 6 in the units column and place the 10 in
the tens column as a suffix 1. With this the tens column sums to 1 + 4 + 7 = 10 + 2.
This means (10+2) lots of 10, 0r 10 × 10 + 2 × 10: thus 2 remains in the tens column and we place
the (10 × 10) in the hundreds column as a suffix 1; with the 8 hundreds we obtain 9 hundreds in the
answer.
Why do we write the units, tens, hundreds, ... from right to left rather than left to right?
Recall that the decimal system was brought to Europe by Arabs. In which direction do they
write their script?
(ii)
83
7 +
55 82 1
This is the same as (8 ×ten) × 7 + 3 × 7. Since 3 × 7 = 2 × 10 + 1 we leave the 1 in the units column
and place the 2 × 10 in the tens column as a suffix 2. For the (8 × 7) tens we (5 × 10 + 6) × 10, or 5
hundreds and 6 tens. With the other 2 tens we thus have 5 hundreds and 8 tens. (iii)
83
47 +
55 82 1
33 31 20 ×
391 01
Since 47 = 4 × 10 + 7 we first work out 83 × 7, as in (ii).
Now we find 83 × (4 × 10) or (83 × 4) × 10. We thus work out 83 × 4 but starting with a zero on
the right: this multiplies it by 10.
We then sum the two contributions.
The use of the decimal point extends the same notation.
3
Thus 5,327 = 5 + 10 + 1022 + 1073 .
3
Hence 10 × 5,327 = 10 × (5 + 10 + 1022 + 1073 ) = 5 × 10 + 3 + 10
2
+ 1072 = 53,27.
Quite generally, multiplying by 10 moves the decimal place to the right by one place.
 10

Examples
(i) 2,1 × 0,03 = 21 3 63
10 × 102 = 103 = 0,063
(ii) 24000 × 0,03 = (24 × 103 ) × (3 ÷ 102 ) = 72 × 10 = 720
Alternatively, divide the first factor by 100 and multiply the second by 100 to give 240 × 3 = 720.
(iii) 16,1 × 1,28 = (161 ÷ 10) × (128 ÷ 102 ) = (161 × 128) ÷ 103 .
On performing multiplication we thus obtain 20508 ÷ 103 = 20,508.
Alternatively, ignore the decimal points, perform the multiplication, and then determine where the
decimal point is by approximating the answer as 16 × 1.
The methods for performing the inverse processes of subtraction and division can be explained in
similar ways; try to understand them for yourself. If necessary, ask your tutor for help.
The abacus is an ancient tool for performing decimal calculations and is still used in shops and
businesses in the East. Digits are represented by the positions of beads threaded on rods rather than
symbols written on paper.
EXERCISE 1A
1. Perform the calculations in base 10 without a calculator:
789
(i) 634 +

74
(ii). 23 ×

257
(iii). 163 +

306
(iv). 58 -

1.1.1 Arithmetic In Bases Other Than Ten

We know instantly the form of 5 × 3 and 4 × 6 in base 10 because we learnt our multiplication
tables in childhood. Our problem with doing arithmetic in base 7, for example,is that we don’t know
the base 7 tables! To perform base 7 arithmetic we could construct the addition and multiplication
tables in base 7 and refer to them. Alternatively we usually do these little calculations in base 10
and then convert the answers to base 7 in our heads:
57 × 37 = 217 (15 = 2 × 7 + 1) and 47 × 67 = 337 (24 = 3 × 7 + 3).
When we calculate in another base we denote the base by a suffix (in base 10.)
Observe that the base itself always has the digits 10. Thus 107 denotes seven, 103 denotes three.
It is a general rule (not only for base ten) that to multiply a number by the base you pace a
zero on the right of the number.
Thus, 527 × 107 = 5207 , 457 × 10007 = 450007 , etc.
Examples
(i).
467
537 +
11 31 27
(ii).
1.1 Place Systems of Counting 11

467
537 ×
22 02 47
34 34 207 ×
35247
(iii).
213
223 +
11 21 03
(iv).
213
223 ×
11 123
11 1203 ×
21 01 023
Binary (base 2)
To use the decimal system we only need to be able to count up to ten; but in binary it is sufficient to
count up to two! The addition and multiplication tables are trivial (which is why computers operate
in binary). We need only remember that 12 + 12 = 102 .
Examples
(i).

10112
10012 +
101 121 03
(ii).

11012
112 ×
11012
110102 ×
101 01 1112
Changing from one base to another

(a). It is straight forward to convert to base 10 from a different base.

Example

27348 = 2 × (8 × 8 × 8) + 7 × (8 × 8) + 3 × 8 + 4
= 2 × 83 + 7 × 82 + 3 × 8 + 4
= 1500

(b). To convert a number from base 10 to a different base we divide the number into bundles,
bundles, etc.
Example
Convert 299 to base 8
We first divide 299 into ’bundles of 8’: 299 = 37 × 8 + 3.
We thus have 37 bundles and 3 remaining.
Now divide the 37 bundles into bundles of bundles: 37 = 4 × 8 + 5.
There are 4 bundles of bundles by 8 there are 0 bundles of bundles and 4 bundles of bundles
remaining. (We include the last step for uniformity.)
 12

In base 8 the number is thus 4538 . Note that we indicate the base, except when it is ten.
EXERCISE 1B
1. Perform the calculations in the given bases:
(i).

23
345 +

(ii).

1011
11012 +

(iii).

422
2536 -

(iv)

243
235 ×

(v)

1101
1112 ×

2. Express the following numbers in base 10:

(i) 3648 (ii) 11011102 (iii) 7349
3. By repeated division by the new base (that is, by dividing the number into bundles,bundles of
bundles, etc.) convert the following numbers in base 10 to the new base.
(i) 25 to base 3 (ii) 100 to base 6 (iii)57 to
base 2 (iv) 250 to base 9 (v)345 to base 8.
4. Situation of Integration
A community is hit by famine and the government decides to give each member in the household a
potato to solve their problem of hunger.
Support: Each package contains an equal number of potatoes of five.
There are 10 households in the community with 3, 5, 7, 4, 6, 5,8,12, 13 members respectively.
Resources: Knowledge of Bases, knowledge of mathematical operations
Task: Determine the number of packages of potatoes the government will take to that community.
In case there are remaining potatoes, discuss what the government should do with them.

1.1.2 PRIME FACTORIZATION, HCF AND LCM

The ‘counting’ numbers 1,2,3, ... are called the ‘natural numbers’ or the ‘positive integers’.
The word ‘integer’ means ‘whole’.
An integer a is a ‘factor’ of an integer n if n is exactly divisible by a. This means that there is
1.1 Place Systems of Counting 13

another integer b such that n = a × b.

Since 28 = 4 × 7, 4 and 7 are both factors of 28. The factors of 12 are 1,2,3,4,6.12. The factors of
16 are 1,2,4,8,16. The factors of 11 are 1 and 11.
An integer is ‘prime’ if it is greater than 1 and it has no factors apart from 1 and itself.
The first few primes are 2,3,5,7,11,13,...
A number is ‘composite’ if is greater than 1 and is the product of two factors both greater
than 1. (This is equivalent to saying that it is greater than 1 and not prime.)
The first few composite numbers are 4,6,8,9,10,12,14,15,... . Notice that the number 1 is neither
prime nor composite. Prime Factorization
The composite number 120 factors into12 × 10. These two
factors can themselves be further factorized, and so on until all
the factors are prime. We call this ‘prime factorization’.
Thus

120 = 12 × 10
= (2 × 2 × 3) × (2 × 5)
= 23 × 3 × 5

As here, we always write the prime factors in numerical order, and gather repeated primes together
as a power.
It is usually best to consider large factors first, and then factorize in parallel. Students frequently do
the exact opposite and look for the smallest factors first!
Examples
(i)

72 = 8 × 9
= 23 × 32

(ii)

126 = 6 × 21
= (2 × 3) × (3 × 7)
= 2 × 32 × 7

(iii)

6000 = 6 × 103
= (2 × 3) × (2 × 5)3
= 2 × 3 × 23 × 53
= 24 × 3 × 53

The Highest Common Factor (HCF)

The integer 4 is a factor of both 84 and 360. We say that is a common factor of 84 and 360. The list
of all their common factors is 1,2,3,4,6,12. Clearly 12 is the highest common factor.
A common factor of two numbers cannot be bigger than either of them. If you have two numbers
and one number is a factor of the other, the smaller number is the HCF. Thus
the HCF of 22 and 23 is 22 ;
the HCF of 73 and 75 is 73 ;
14

the HCF of 117 and 1112 is 117 , etc.

The prime factorization of 84 and 360 are 84 = 22 × 3 × 7 and 360 = 23 × 32 × 5. Now 22 and 3
are common factors of both 84 and 360; furthermore, 22 × 3 is a factor of both 84 and 210. This
common factor 22 × 3 is in fact the highest common factor 12 that we found above, and this method
always gives the HCF of two numbers.
If a = 23 × 32 × 5 × 73 and b = 22 × 53 × 74 × 132 , the primes 2,5,7 are the ones that appear in both
factorization. They occur with lowest powers 22 , 5, 73 . From the product of these lowest powers we
obtain HCF = 22 × 5 × 73 .
The method can also be described as follows: In each factorization we include all the primes
2,3,5,7,13 that appear in either or both of the factorization, by writing, where necessary 20 , 30 , ...
etc. (which are all 1).
Thus a = 23 × 32 × 51 × 73 and b = 22 × 30 × 53 × 74 × 130 .
By taking every lowest power we obtain

HCF = 22 × 30 × 51 × 73 × 130 (1.1.1)

.
The Lowest Common Multiple (LCM)
For any two numbers, say 24 and 30, it is clear that the product 24 × 30 = 720 is a multiple of both
numbers. In this case, however, there are smaller common multiples 120, 240 and 360. The lowest
common multiple of 24 and 30 (that is, the smallest number into which they both go) is 120.
The LCM of two numbers can be found in a very similar way to the HCF:
The LCM of two numbers cannot be smaller than either of them. If one number is a multiple of the
other then the greater number is their LCM (and the smaller is the HCF). Thus
the LCM of 22 and 23 is 23 ;
the LCM of 73 and 75 is 75 ;
the LCM of 117 and 1112 is 1112 , etc.
We return to the case of 84 = 22 × 3 × 7 and 360 = 23 × 32 × 5. If we take the highest power of any
prime that appears in the two factorizations we obtain 23 × 32 × 5 × 7 = 2520. This is clearly both
a multiple of 84 and a multiple of 360. This method always gives the LCM of two numbers.
Thus if a = 23 × 32 × 51 × 73 and b = 22 × 53 × 74 × 132 , we raise each prime 2,3,5,7,13 that appears
in one or both factorizations to its highest power: 23 , 32 , 53 , 74 , 132 .
From the product of these higest powers we obtain

LCM = 23 × 32 × 53 × 74 × 132 (1.1.2)

From the two expressions (1.1.1) and (1.1.2) above we see that the product HCF × LCM is equal to
the product of all the primes raised both to the lowest and the highest powers:
HCF × LCM = (22 × 30 × 51 × 73 × 130 ) × (23 × 32 × 53 × 74 × 132 )
By redistributing the powers we obtain
HCF × LCM = (23 × 32 × 52 × 73 × 130 ) × (22 × 30 × 53 × 74 × 132 ).
We have thus discovered the interesting result that the product of the HCF and the LCM of two
numbers is always equal to the product of the two numbers.
In the case of 84 and 360 we obtained HCF = 12 and LCM = 2520 and you can verify that
12 × 2520 = 84 × 360.
Example
Find in factorized form the HCF and LCM of 42000 and 660.
We fist find the prime factorizations.
 1.1 Place Systems of Counting 15

42000 = 6 × 7 × 103
= 2 × 3 × 7 × (2 × 5)3
= 24 × 3 × 7 × 53

660 = 66 × 10
= (2 × 3 × 11) × (2 × 5)
= 22 × 3 × 5 × 11

On expressing the numbers in terms of all the primes that appear:

42000 = 24 × 31 × 53 × 71 × 110
660 = 2 × 31 × 51 × 70 × 11

By taking the lowest and highest powers for each prime we obtain

HCF = 22 × 31 × 51 × 70 × 110
LCM = 24 × 31 × 53 × 71 × 111 .

Exercise 1C
1. Without using a calculator factorize each number into a product of powers of prime numbers
(like 3 × 52 × 11)

840
484
108
288
9900
2. When factorized into powers of primes two numbers are equal to 24 × 3 × 52 × 113 and 23 ×
32 × 7 × 133 . Write down their HCF and the LCM in similar factorized forms.
Repeat for 34 × 52 × 72 × 17 and 22 × 3 × 54 × 113 × 17.
3. By first factorizing into powers of prime numbers find the HCF and LCM of:

98 and 192
364 and 385
540000 and 375 720 and 264
Leave the answers in similar factorized form.
4. A rectangular field measures 616m by 456m. Fencing posts are placed along its sides at equal
distances. What will be the distance between the posts if they are placed as far apart as possible?
How many posts are required?
5. Determine the smallest sum of money out of which a number of men, women and children may
receive UGX. 75, Ush.90 and Ush.120 each.

1.1.3 Tests For Divisibility

As is well known, a number is divisible by 2 if the last digit (in base 10) is divisible by 2. There are
several rules for divisibility which avoid direct division. We explain these in special cases but the
arguments apply generally.
Divisibility by 2 and 5
16

The number 2430 is equal to 2430 + 6 = 243 × 10 + 6.

Since 10 is divisible by 2, it follows that 243 × 10 is divisible by 2.
Therefore 2436 is divisible by 2 if the last digit 6 is divisible by 2 (it is).
Moreover, since 10 is divisible by 5, a similar argument tells us that 2436 is divisible by 5 provided
the last digit 6 is divisible by 5 (it is not).
A number is divisible by 2 or 5 provided the last digit is divisible by 2 or 5.
(You can extend this result, and show that a number is divisible by 22 and 52 provided the number
given by the last two digits is divisible by 22 and 52 , and so on.)
Divisibility by 3 and 9
The number 2436 is equal to 2 × 1000+ 4 × 100+ 3 × 10+6.
Now 1000=999+1, 100=99+1, 10=9+1. Therefore
2436 = (2 × 999 + 2) + (4 × 99 + 4) + (3 × 9 + 3) + 6.
The numbers...,999,99,9 are all divisible by both 3 and 9. Therefore 2436 is divisible by 3 or 9
provided the sum of the digits 2+4+3+6 is divisible by 3 or 9. Since here the sum of the digits is 15,
the number is divisible by 3 but not by 9.
A number is divisible by 3 or 9 provided the sum of the digits is divisible by 3 or 9.
Divisibility by 11
The number, 82675 = 8 × 10000 + 2 × 1000 + 6 × 100 + 7 × 10 + 5 can be written
82675 = 8 × (9999 + 1) + 2 × (1001 − 1) + 6 × (99 + 1) + 7 × (11 − 1) + 5
The numbers...,100001, 9999,1001,99,11 are all divisible by 11 (why?). We deduce that 82675 is
divisible by 11 provided the ’alternating sum’ 8-2+6-7+5 is divisible by 11 (here it is not).
A number is divisible by 11 provided the alternating sum of the digits is divisible by 11.
When applying the above rules remember that zero is exactly divisible by any non-zero number:
0 ÷ 3 = 0, 0 ÷ 11 = 0, etc.
Misunderstanding this is a cause of many mistakes.
Examples
(i) Apply the test for divisibility by 2,3,5,9,11 to 25320075.

Does 2 divide the last digit 5? No.

Does 3 divide the sum of the digits 2+5+3+2+0+0+7+5=24? Yes
Does 5 divide the last digit 5? Yes.
Does 9 divide the sum of the digits = 24? No.
Does 11 divide the alternating sum 2-5+3-2+0-0+7+5=0? Yes.
(ii) Apply the tests for divisibility by 2,3,5,9,11 to 9521730.

Does 2 divide the last digit 0? Yes

Does 3 divide the sum of the digits 9+5+2+1+7+3+0=27? Yes
Does 5 divide the sum of the last digits 5? Yes.
Does 9 divide the sum of the digits =27? Yes
Does 11 divide the alternating sum 9-5+2-1+7-3+0=9? No.
Exercise 1D
1. Apply the tests for divisibility by 2,3,5,9,11 to the following numbers:
(i) 304605 (ii) 145464 (iii) 14433288 (iv) 5080086
(v) 8176510 (vi) 1001200662.
2. Apply the divisibility test to the following numbers, then factorize them into products of powers
of prime numbers. (If you find a number is divisible by 11, for example, you can divide it by 11
and then repeat the test.)
(i) 6072 (ii) 11979 (iii) 14175 (iv) 31185 (v) 4306 (vi) 60984
 1.1 Place Systems of Counting 17

1.1.4 The Rules Of Arithmetic and Algebra

In elementary algebra each letter stands for a number. Thus the rules of arithmetic are also rules of
algebra. We assume (to start with) that all the numbers are positive integers.
If, on a table there is one group of 5 cakes and another group of 3 cakes, then by 5+3 we mean the
number found by first counting the 5 cakes and then going on to count the 3 cakes.
(a). Clearly it does not matter if we change the order and count 5 cakes then 3 cakes, rather than 3
cakes then 5 cakes: thus 5+3=3+5.
In general, a + b = b + a. This is the commutative law of addition. (The Latin word ’muto’ means
’I change’.)
(b) Now suppose that there are groups of 5, 3 and 4 cakes on the table. If we add the 5 cakes to the
sum of 3 cakes and 4 cakes we obtain 5+(3+4). If we add 5 cakes to 3 cakes and then add the 4
cakes we obtain (5+4)+4. Since in both cases we count the 5 then the 4 then the 3, the processes are
identical and (5+4)+3=5+(4+3).
Thus in a sum it is necessary to insert brackets.
In general, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c. This is the associative law of addition.
(c) A rectangular array of cakes on a table consists of 3 rows each of 5 cakes. If we count the first
row of cakes, then the second row, then the third row we obtain 3 × 5. By counting them differently,
as 5 rows each of 3 cakes we obtain 5 × 3. Thus 5 × 3 = 3 × 5.
In general, a × b = b × a. This is the commutative law of multiplication.

(d) Now suppose that on each of 4 horizontal shelves there is a 5 × 3 array of cakes (as above), one
array vertically above another. There are 4 horizontal sections and thus 4 × (5 × 3) = (5 × 3) × 4
cakes altogether.
On looking at the cakes from the left we see a 3 × 4 array (3 across and 4 down). There are 5 of
these vertical arrays and thus 5 × (3 × 4) cakes altogether.
Therefore (5 × 3) × 4 = 5 × (3 × 4). Thus brackets are also unnecessary in any product of numbers.
In general, (a × b) × c = a × (b × c). This is the associative law of multiplication.
(e). The figure shows a 6 × 3 array of cakes divided into a 2 × 3 array and a 4 × 3 array.

Clearly 3 × (2 + 4) = (3 × 2) + (3 × 4).
In general, a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c). From commutativity we also have (a + b) × c =
(a × c) + (b × c).
These are the distributive laws. We say that multiplication is distributive over addition.
You might think that the rules (a)-(e) are all too obvious. But would you think that (a) and (b) are
true if addition is replaced by subtraction? For example, is it true that 5-2=2-5 or (8-6)-1=8-(6-1)?
In both cases the answer is no!
18

If we interchange addition and multiplication then (a) and (b) are interchanged with (c) and (d). But
what about (e)? Is it true that
3 + (2 × 4) = (3 + 2) × (3 + 4)? The answer is again no: thus ’addition is not distributive over
multiplication.
Summary
(a). Commutative law of addition: a+b=b+a
(b). Associative law of addition: a+(b+c)=(a+b)+c
(c). Commutative law of multiplication: a × b = b × a
(d). Associative law of multiplication: (a × b) × c = a × (b × a)
(e). Distributive law:a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c) and (a + b) × c = (a × c) + (b × c)
Examples
In these algebraic examples the letters represent positive integers. We are chiefly interested in the
application of the distributive law, but try to see where we also use the other laws.
Expand (that is, remove the brackets) by using the distributive law:
(i). 5x(x+7)

= (5x)(x) + (5x)(7)
= 5x2 + 35x.

(ii). 2xy(3x+2y)

= (2xy)(3x) + (2xy)(2y)
= 6x2 y + 4xy2 .

(iii). (x+3)(x+4)

= (x + 3)(x) + (x + 3)(4)
= (x)(x) + (3)(x) + (x)(4) + (3)(4)
= x2 + 3x + 4x + 12
= x2 + 7x + 12.

(iv) (x+2)(2x+3)

= (x + 2)(2x) + (x + 2)(3)
= (x)(2x) + (2)(2x) + (x)(3) + (2)(3)
= 2x2 + 4x + 3x + 6
= 2x2 + 7x + 6.

Exercise
1. By using the distributive law expand (remove the brackets), and then simplify:
(i) 5a(2a+7)
(ii). 3ab(4a+3b)
(iii). 2a(3a+5b)+3(3a+5b)
(iv). a(5a+2b)+2b(5a+2b)
(v). (a+1)(a+3)
(vi). (2b+1)(b+5)
(vii). (a + 2b)2
 1.1 Place Systems of Counting 19

1.1.5 Fractions
Activity
Create a park of different cards and label them with different types of fractions, decimals and
percentages.
From the park of the cards, you pick a card and place it in the most appropriate play area.
Observe the fractions in each play area by looking at the denominators and numerators.
In your groups explore and explain the common of the classification made in the different play
areas.
Exercise 1F
(i). Sarah shades 37 of a shape. What fraction of the shape is left unshaded.
3 1
(ii). A cake is divided into 12 equal parts.John eats 12 of the cake and Kate eats another 12 . What
fraction of the cake is left.
(iii). Draw a square with its four lines of symmetry.

Shade 38 of the shape

Shade 28 of the shape
What is the total fraction now shaded
How much is left unshaded
Mixed Numbers and improper Fractions
So far you have worked with fractions of the form ba where a < b, e.g. 34 , 27 , 56 ...
You also need to work with what are sometimes called improper fractions, e.g. 54 , 72 , which are of
the form ab where a and b are whole numbers and a > b
Examples
Convert 13 4 into an improper fraction.
13 ÷ 4 = 3remainder 1
This is written as 3 14 .
Exercise
1. Draw diagrams to show these improper fractions
(a) 72
(b). 38
(c). 18 5.
Write each improper fraction as a mixed number.
2. Convert these mixed numbers to improper fractions.
(a). 1 53
(b). 7 13
(c). 3 45
(d). 6 19
3. Write these fractions in order of increasing size.
6 21 , 18 1 1 17
5 ,34,53, 3
4. A young child is 44 months old. Find the age of the baby in years as a mixed number in the
simplest form.
Work out problems from real-life situations
Operations on Fractions
In the previous sub-topic, you studied how to find equivalent fractions.In this sub-topic you are
going to use the knowledge of equivalent fractions to add and subtract fractions.
Examples
1. Find 15 of Ugx. 10000.
1 1
5 o f 10000 = 5 × 10000 = 2000
4
2. Find 5 of Ugx. 100,000.
20
4
5 o f 100000 = 45 × 100000 = 400000
5 = 80, 000
Exercise
1. Find:
(a). 12 of 12 (b) 18 of 40 (c) 14 of 32.
2. In a test, there are 30 marks. Nasim gets 35 of the marks. How many marks does she get?
3
3. In a certain school there are 550 pupils. If 50 of the pupils are left handed, how many left-handed
pupils are there in the school?
Addition of Fractions
(i). What is 12 + 14 as a single fraction? It is not difficult to obtain the answer by replacing 12 by 24 to
give 24 + 14 = 34 .
(ii). In the case of 12 + 16 we replace 12 by 36 : 12 + 61 = 36 + 16 = 46 . We can, however, further simplify
since 4 and 6 share a common factor. On dividing the top and bottom by 2 we obtain 12 + 16 = 32 .
(iii). Now consider 12 + 31 . In the previous examples we expressed both parts as fractions with the
same denominator.This was easy because one denominator was a multiple of the other. But here 2
is not a multiple of 3, nor is 3 a multiple of 2. Any suitable denominator must be a multiple of both
2 and 3. It is not hard to see that 6 is the least ‘common denominator’. Thus 12 + 13 = 63 + 26 = 56 .
This answer cannot be simplified further.
(iv). We now try 16 + 10 3
. In the previous example the common denominator 6 was one denominator
multiplied by the other. This is a valid method, but it might not be the quickest since it does not
necessarily give the lowest common denominator. In fact here the lowest common denominator is
not 60 but 30. Thus 16 + 10 3 5
= 30 9
+ 30 14
= 30 . We can further simplify by dividing the top and bottom
1 3 7
by 2 to give 6 + 10 = 15 . (If you use 60 as the common denominator the numbers are bigger and
you obtain 16 + 10 3
= 28 7
60 . Finally you divide by 4 and arrive at 15 again.)
To add or subtract two fractions perform the following steps:
(S1) find a common denominator (preferably the lowest common denominator);
(S2) re-express each fraction with this common denominator;
(S3) do the addition;
(S4) simplify where possible by dividing the numerator and denominator by their highest common
factor.
Multiplication and Division of fractions
(a). Multiplication
When we find 51 of 27 of a cake we turn each seventh into a thirty-fifth. Thus 15 × 27 = 5×7 2
.
3 2 3 2 3×2
For 5 of 7 of a cake we shall have three times as much, so 5 × 7 = 5×7 .
In a product of fractions we can therefore divide any numerator and any denominator by the same
number without altering the value.
(b). Division of Fractions
When we find 12 4 we are asking how many 3s are there in 12. We know that the answer is 4 because
12 = 3 × 4.
This gives a clue to the meaning of 11 : how many halves are there in 1? The answer is 2. Equivalently,
2
1 = 2 × 21 . Also 1
1 = 3, etc.
3
Hence dividing by the fraction 35 is equivalent to multiplying by the ’inverted’ fraction 53
Examples
9 6 9
(i). 10 ÷ 25 = 10 × 25 15
6 = 4
(ii). 12 33 12 14 8
49 ÷ 14 = 49 × 33 = 77
The rules of arithmetic for fraction
By using the rules of fractions it is straightforward (but tedious) to verify that all the rules of
arithmetic continue to hold when the numbers are fractions.
Convert Fractions to Decimals and Vice Versa
1.1 Place Systems of Counting 21

A fraction like 34 means three quarters or three parts out of four or three divided by four.
3 divided by 4 equals 0.75. So, the fraction 34 is equal to 0.75 in decimal.
Activity
In pairs, convert the following fractions into decimals
(a). 52
(b). (i) 21 (ii) 58 (iii) 29 (iv) 11
1

(c). What do you notice about (iii) and (iv).

Identify and Classify Decimals as Terminating, Non-terminating and Recurring Decimals
Fractions like 35 , 12 , 38 can be converted into decimals and they end or terminate: 35 = 0 · 6, 12 =
0 · 5, 83 = 0 · 375
Fractions like 23 , 15 2
, 111 2
do not end or terminate when converted into decimals, 23 = 0·6666..., 15 =
1
0 · 1333... and 11 = 0 · 090909...
These decimals are referred to as recurring decimals.
Convert Recurring Decimals into Fractions
Recurring decimals can be converted into fractions.
Example
Convert this recurring decimal into a fraction: 0.333. . . Note that the decimal repeats itself after
one decimal place.
Let r = 0,333. . . (1)
Multiply both sides of the equation by 10 i.e. 10 × r = 10 × 0,333
10r = 3 · 333
Subtract equation (1) from equation (2):
That is, 10r = 3,333 − (r = 0,333)
9r = 3
r = 39 = 31 .
Exercise
(1). Convert the following recurring decimals into fractions
a) 0.77—, b) 0.133— , c)1.25656 —, d) 0.2727 —, e) 0.01313
(2). Convert the following numbers into recurring decimals
a). 13 b). 19 c). 26
Convert Fractions and Decimals into Percentages and Vice Versa
Activity

From the fraction percentage game, identify the equivalent percentage for each fraction.
In your groups, use percentage to identify the smallest and largest fractions from the fraction
percentage game.
 22

1.1.6 Sequence and Patterns

Introduction
In this subtopic you will learn how to identify and describe general rules for patterns. You will be
able to determine a term in the sequence and find the missing numbers in the sequence.
Draw and Identify the Patterns
In groups, work in pairs. Look at the following sequences, how can you get the next number?
Compare your answers with other members.
(i). 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, . . .
(ii). 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, . . .
In (i), in order to get the next number, you add 2 to the previous number. The numbers in this
sequence are multiples of 3.
Sequence (ii), represents the multiples of 2.
Exercise
(1). State the multiples of 3 found in this table:

This square shows multiples of a number. What is this number?

Write down the numbers that should go in each of these boxes. The number square will help you
with some of them.
(a). The fifth multiple of . . . is . . .
(b). The . . . th multiple of . . . is 36
(c). The 12th multiple of . . . is . . .
(d). The 20th multiple of . . . is . . .
(e). The . . . th multiple of . . . is 96.
(f). The 100th multiple of . . . is . . .
(2). On a number square like this one, shade all the multiples of 6. Then answer the questions after
the table.

(a). What is the 4th multiple of 6?

(b). What is the 10th multiple of 6?
(c). What is the 12th multiple of 6?
1.1 Place Systems of Counting 23

(d). What is the 100th multiple of 6?

Describing the General Rule
In your, groups work in pairs. Can you use the given numbers of the sequence to deduce the pattern
and hence find the next term?
What are the next 3 numbers in the sequence:
(a). 12, 17, 22 . . . ?
(b). 50, 47, 44, 41, 38, . . . ?
Compare your answers with other group members.
Solution
(a). To find the pattern, it is usually helpful to first find the differences between each term i.e. the
difference between 12 and 17 is 5; the difference between 17 and 22 is 5.
So the next term is found by adding 5 to the previous term. This gives you 27, 32, 37.
(b). Again you find the difference between:
(i). 50 and 47 is -3.
(ii). 47 and 44 is -3.
(iii). 44 and 41 is -3.
(iv). 41 and 38 is -3.
So, the next term is found by taking away 3 from the previous term, giving you 35, 32, 29.
Exercise
(1). Copy the following exercise and find the sequence in each case, giving the next three numbers.
(i). 18, 30, 42, 54, 66, . . .
(ii). 4.1, 4.7, 5.3, 5.9, 6.5, . . .
(iii). 8, 14, 20,. . . , 32, . . . (iv). 3.42, 3.56, 3.70, 3.84, 3.98, . . .
(2). Copy each sequence and fill in the missing numbers.
(a). 2, 4, . . . , 16, 32, . . .
(b). 100, 81, 64, . . . , 36, . . .
(c). 6, 9, . . . , 21, 30, 30, . . .
(d). 0, 1.5, 4, . . . , 12, . . .
Generating Number Sequence
In your groups work in pairs. You can use formulae to generate sequences. For example, the formula
5n, with n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . generates the sequence 5x1, 5x2, 5x3, 5x4, . . .
The sequence generated is 5, 10, 15, 20, . . .
Example:
What sequence do you generate by using the following formula?
(a). 5n – 1 (b). 6n + 2
Solution
(a). putting n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . gives 4, 9, 14, 19, . . .
(b). putting n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . gives 8, 14, 20, 26, . . .
You can find the formula for this sequence, 11, 21, 31, 41, 51, 61, . . .
How you can find the sequence. The sequence begins with 11, and 11 = 10 + 1. Continue to add 10
each time the formula is 10n + 1.
Compare your answers with other members in the group.
Exercise
(1). What number comes out of each of these number machines?
 24

(2)
(a). What is the 10th term of the sequence 2n + 1?
(b). What is the 8th term of the sequence 3n + 6?
(c). What is the 5th term of the sequence 4n + 1?
(d). What is the 7th term of the sequence 5n – 1 ?
(3). Situation of Integration
There is a family in the neighbourhood of your school. The family has a rectangular compound
on which they want to put up a hedge around. The hedge shall be made up of plants of different
colours.
Support: Physical instruments like hoes, machetes, tape measure
Resources: Knowledge of construction of figures like rectangles, patterns, sequences
Task: The family requests you to plant the hedge around their rectangular compound so that it
looks beautiful.
Explain how you will plant the hedge, making sure that the plants at the corners of the compound
are the same in terms of colour.
Discuss whether there are other ways of planting the hedge.

1.1.7 Sets
A survey of 100 students showed that 46 eat at Alfred’s restaurant, 60 eat at Benedict’s restaurant
and 18 eat at neither. How many students eat at both Alfred’s and Benedict’s restaurants?
There is a helpful way to visualize this problem. In the diagram below the interior of the rectangle
represents all the students in the survey.

The region A (shaded horizontally) represents the set of students who eat at Alfred’s, and the region
B (shaded vertically) represents the set of students who eat at Benedict’s.
The rectangle is thus divided into four separate regions:

the intersection of A and B (shaded both horizontally and vertically) represents the set of
students who eat at both Alfred’s and Benedict’s restaurants
the region inside A but outside B (shaded only once) represents the set of students who eat at
Alfred’s but not at Benedict’s
the region inside B but outside A (shaded only once) represents the set of students who eat at
Benedict’s but not at Alfred’s
the region outside both A and B (not shaded at all) represents the set of students who eat at
neither Alfred’s nor Benedict’s restaurant.
We are interested in the number of students in the intersection region.

The simplest way to solve the problem is not by algebra!

Refer to the information at the beginning. The number of students who go to Alfred’s or Be-
1.1 Place Systems of Counting 25

nedict’s or both is. If we add the number of students who go to Alfred’s and the number of students
who go to Benedict’s we obtain. This is 24 more than 82 because we have counted twice those who
go to both restaurants: therefore the number who go to both is 24.

For an even simpler solution observe that 60 go to Benedict’s and 18 go to neither restaurant:
these make 78 altogether. The remaining 22 go to Alfred’s but not to Benedict’s. Since the number
who go to Alfred’s is 46, there are 24 who go to both Alfred’s and Benedict’s.

This way of solving problems belongs to a branch of mathematics called ‘Set Theory’.

The figure that we have drawn is called a ‘Venn diagram’, named after the English mathema-
tician John Venn (1834-1923). As a way of visualizing problems it has many uses, for example in
logic and probability theory.

Another way to solve the above problem is by algebra. Suppose that the number of elements
in the intersection is x. From the given information we can then fill in the numbers of elements for
the four separate sets.

Since there are 100 students altogether we have

x+(46-x)+(60-x)+18=100

The left-hand side sums to 24 − x : therefore must be 24.

In set theory we define a set to be a collection of ‘objects’ which may be people, countries, numbers,
computers, trees or (in the above case) students. The objects which make up a set are called its
elements or members.
The symbol ∈ denotes membership. Thus if a is a member of a set A we write a ∈ A.
S S
In any situation the ‘universal set’ – often written – contains all the sets under discussion.
corresponds to the region inside the rectangle.
The symbol ∩ denotes the ‘intersection’ of two sets. The set of elements in both A and B is A ∩ B:

The symbol ∪ denotes the ‘union’ of sets. The set of elements belonging to A or B (or both) is
A ∪ B:

The elements that are not in A form another set called the ‘complement’ of A, which we denote by
′
A:
′
The set of elements that are in B but not in A is therefore A ∩ B, etc.
26

Thus the four sets that we defined at the beginning of the section are labeled as follows:

We have used the example of Alfred’s and Benedict’s restaurants for illustration, but the above
S
definitions apply to any universal set and sets A and B
If all elements of a set S are also elements of a set T we say that S is a subset of T and write S ⊂ T
If two sets S and T have no elements in common, you might think that S ∩ T cannot exist as a set.
In fact, when this happens, we define S ∩ T = Φ , where Φ is the empty set. The empty set has no
elements!
1.1 Place Systems of Counting 27

It is often convenient to define a set by listing its elements. We write the elements of the set between
two curly brackets.
The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
As we saw with Alfred’s and Benedict’s restaurants, the expression n(A) + n(B) does not count the
number of elements in the union of two sets A and B because the elements of A ∩ B are counted
twice. The correct expression is
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∪ B).
This is the very useful ‘inclusion-exclusion principle’, which has the alternative form
n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∪ B)
Example
Out of 600 people questioned, 167 had read today’s Monitor, 173 had read New Vision and 41 had
read both. How many had read neither?

It is easy enough to solve this by inserting the numbers into the Venn diagram. We will, however,
use the inclusion-exclusion principle.

n(N ∪ NY ) = n(M) + n(V ) − n(M ∩ NY )

= 167 + 173 − 41 = 299.

Therefore the number who read neither is 600-299=301.

Exercise
(1). Out of 60 people, 26 had been to a secondary school, 15 had been to a vocational school and
6 had been to both a secondary school and a vocational school. How many had been to neither a
secondary school nor a vocational school?
(2).(a) Use Venn diagrams to show that the union of sets is both commutative and associative: that
is, A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∪ (B ∪C) = (A ∪ B) ∪C..
(b). Determine whether the intersection of sets is commutative and associative.
(3). Among 100 people in a restaurant, 72 did not eat Cassava, 60 ate Matooke and 70 ate Cassava
or Matooke (or both).
(i). How many ate Cassava?
(ii). How many ate Casava and matooke?
(iii). How many ate Cassava but not Matooke?
Problems involving three sets
Suppose a Venn diagram shows three sets A,B,C, and we wish to shade the union A ∪ (B ∪C). In
the figure below the sets A and B ∪C are shaded in separate diagrams.

The union A ∪ (B ∪C) consists of elements that are in at least one of these shaded sets. Therefore it
includes all points that are shaded in at least one of the above diagrams. This set is shown in the
first diagram below.
On the other hand, the intersection A ∪ (B ∪C) consists of the points that are in both of the above
sets. This intersection is shown in the second diagram below.
28

We thus obtain the following:

′
As another example, considered the sets B and A ∪C

′
For B ∪ (A ∪C) we shade all points that are shaded in at least one of the above figures. For the
′
intersection B ∩ (A ∪C) we shaded the points that are shaded in both of the figures. We thus obtain:

Further examples
(a). In a group of 60 Ugandans,10 have visited Kenya, 12 have visited Tanzania and 14 have visited
Rwanda. Also, 7 have visited both Kenya and Tanzania and 28 have visited none of these countries.
(i). How many have visited Kenya or Tanzania (or both)
(ii). How many have visited Rwanda but not Kenya or Tanzania

(i) n(K ∪ T ) = n(K) + n(T ) − n(K ∩ T ) = 10 + 12 − 7 = 15 (shaded)

1.1 Place Systems of Counting 29

Thus 15 have visited Kenya or Tanzania or both.

(ii). n(K ∪ T ∪ R) = 60 − 28 = 32 (these have visited one or more countries)
The unshaded part of R therefore contains 32-15=17 people who have visited Rwanda only.
(b). A survey of 150 adults showed that in the previous week 20 had eaten neither beef nor chicken
nor pork. Of those who had eaten at least one meat,
n(B) = 100, n(C) = 65, n(P) = 40
Of those who had eaten at least two meats,
n(B ∩C) = 50, n(B ∩ P) = 20, n(C ∩ P) = 15
How many had eaten all three meats?
If n(B ∩ C ∩ P) = x it is straightforward to express the number of elements in each of the eight
subsets in terms of x, and then solve the problem by algebra as we did for Alfred’s and Benedict’s
restaurants.
For a different solution we use the inclusion- exclusion principle three times:
(i).

n(B ∪C) = n(B) + n(C) − n(B ∩C)

= 100 + 65 − 50
= 115.

(ii). Now consider the sets B ∪C and P

Their union (B ∪C) ∪ P consists of everyone who ate at least one of the meats last week. It has 150
– 20 = 130 elements.
The intersection (B ∪C) ∩ P is double-shaded. By inclusion-exclusion, the number of elements in it
is

= n(B ∪C) + n(P) − n((B ∪C) ∪ P)

= 115 + 40 − 130
= 25.
(iii). The double-shaded region is the union of B ∩ P and C ∩ P.
The set of people who ate all three meats are the intersection of these two sets.
By inclusion-exclusion again,

= n((B ∩ P) ∩ (C ∩ P))
= n(B ∩ P) + n(C ∩ P) − 25
= 20 + 15 − 25
= 10

Thus 10 people ate all three meats.

30

Below is the Venn diagram showing the above information

.
 2. Exponential Growth and Financial Mathematics

2.1 Percentages And Inverse Percentages

2.1.1 Calculate a Percentage of a Given Quantity
The percentage of a quantity can always be calculated in terms of percentage increase or percentage
decrease.
Example 1:
Find the 10 of 50,000
Solution:
10
100 × 50000 = 5, 000
Example 2:
Opio had 60 goats. Now he has 63 goats. What is the percentage increase?
Solution
The increase in the number of goats is 63 – 60 = 3.
3
Percentage increase is 60 × 100 = 5
Activity
The table below shows students’ marks in two mathematics tests. For each one, calculate the
percentage difference. Say if it is an increase or a decrease.
.

2.1.2 Work out Real-life Problems Involving Percentages

Exercise
(i). In a closing-down sale, a shop offers 50 % cut of the original prices. What fraction is taken off
the prices?
(ii). In a survey one in five people said they preferred a particular brand of Coca Cola. What is this
32

figure as a percentage?
(iii). Peter pays tax at the rate of 25 % of his income. What fraction of Peter’s income is this?
1
(iv). When Carol was buying a house, she had to make a deposit of 10 of the value of the house.
What percentage was this?
(v). Adikinyi bought some fabric that was 1.75 metres long. How could this be written as a fraction?

These examples show how percentage calculations can be done with just one step of working
by using the growth factor. It is important to acquire the habit. It is not only economical but
(more importantly) makes ‘inverse percentage’ problems easy to perform and is essential for
calculations on compound interest.
A man bought a trailer and sold it for 175 000 shillings, which is 25 % more than he paid. What did
he pay for the trailer?
.

The growth factor (GF) is 1.25. We turn the buying price into the selling price by multiplying by
the GF. The above diagram illustrates both this and the inverse process: we turn the selling price
into the buying price by dividing by the GF.
Thus the selling price is 175,000 shillings. ÷ = 140, 000
A frequent error is to say that the buying price is the selling price minus 25 % of the selling price.
This is ALWAYS WRONG!
The CORRECT statement is that the buying price is the selling price minus 25 % of the buying
price. This implies (correctly) that 125 % of the buying price is equal to the selling price, and brings
us back to the method that we have already described, of finding the buying price by dividing the
selling price by 1.25.
Examples
(a). A man sells his car at auction and raises 3.24 m shillings, which is 20 % less than the sum that
he paid. How much did he pay for the car?
The selling price is the buying price times 0.80, which is the growth factor. The buying price is the
selling price divided by the growth factor, or
3,24mshillings
0,80 = 4,05mshillings
(b). The price of a bicycle rose by 15 % last year. Now it is 253 000 shillings. What was the price
last year?
This year’s price is 1.15 times last year’s price. Therefore last year’s price is
253,000
1,15 = 220 shillings
Growth factors are especially helpful in repeated percentage problems.
Example
The price of a commodity increased by 12 % during 2002 and then decreased by 4 % during 2003.
By how many percent did it increase over the two years?
A ‘flow diagram’ illustrates the method.
.
The GF over the two years is1,12 × 0,96 = 1,0752
Thus the price rose by about 7,5 % overall. Note that the answer is not. The price rose by 12 % in
the first year, and during the second year fell by 4 % of this larger value, which is more than 4 % of
the initial value.
 2.1 Percentages And Inverse Percentages 33

Summary
To increase a quantity by 13 % you multiply it by the GF 1.13. To find what the quantity was before
you increased it by 13 % you divide the new quantity by the GF.
To decrease a quantity by 11 % you multiply it by the GF 0.89. To find what the quantity was before
you decreased it by 11 % you divide the new quantity by the growth factor.
Exercise
(1). Use growth factors in the following:
(a). Decrease 820 by 30 % and then increase the answer by 20 %.
(b). The crime-rate in a town increased by 10 % during 2003 and then decreased by 10 % during
2004. By how many percent did it decrease overall during the two years? (The answer is not zero!)
(c). I increased a number by 30 % and then decreased the answer by 20 %. The final answer was 78.
What number did I start with?
Victor’s investment grew by 25 % in January. During the period of January and February it did not
change in value. By how many percent did the investment fall in February?

2.1.3 Growth Curves

A colony of bacteria is doubling in number every hour. At midnight there are 1 million and t hours
later there are x million.
Thus when t = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... and x = 1, 2, 4, 8, .. .

If this doubling in value was also happening before midnight, then at, the values are , since x is
halved for every hour that you go backwards in time
.

The growth factor is thus 2 for any period of one hour.

A curve with the property that the growth factor is the same for any fixed period of time is called a
‘growth curve’.

When the bacteria have sufficient food and space, their growth is accurately described by a growth
 34

curve. If the bacteria have insufficient food or space in which to expand, the growth factors over
consecutive days will decrease and the curve will not be a growth curve.

Growth curves are found throughout the biological and physical sciences, and in finance they
describe the growth of money with compound interest. We now use the above bacteria model to
derive some properties of growth curves. In what we do there is nothing special, of course, about
the growth factor 2; it could be any non-zero number.

Since 2 × 2 × 2 = 23 , etc., we have x = 2t for t = 1, 2, 3, ... It is therefore completely natural

to extend the notation and write 20 = 1 and 2−3 = 213 , etc. Thus whenever t is a whole number,
positive, zero or negative,x = 2t .
Observe that 2t and t 2 are completely different expressions which should never be confused.

1
In the above example, what is the size of the colony when t equals 2 or any fraction?.

Since the population measures 1 million at t = 0 and 2 million at t = 1, we might think that
it measures million when t = 12 . But if the number of bacteria is multiplied by 1.5 in the first
half-hour, it is multiplied by 1.5 in the second half-hour as well. Now 1,5 × 1,5 = 2,25, whereas
we know that the hourly growth factor is in fact 2. The graph also shows that 1.5 is incorrect.

The half-daily growth factor is thus a number which when multiplied by itself equals 2. A more
accurate estimate is 1.4, since 1,42 = 1,96 2
√ and a better one still is 1.41 since 1,41 = 1,9881. We
are of course searching for the number 2 = 1,41421...

We now use the expression 2t to denote the growth-factor for the bacteria over any period of
t hours.
1 √
From what we shown above, 2 2 = 2. Check this is the result that your calculator gives.

2.1.4 Fractional and Negative Powers

Imagine a period of 4 hours followed by another period of 3 hours. This is equivalent to one period
of 7 hours. In the first period the population grows by the factor 24 . and in the second period by the
factor 23 . The population is therefore multiplied by the growth factor 24 × 23 over the 7 hours, and
therefore 24 × 23 = 27 . This is doubtless familiar to you. What is probably new is that it applies to
intervals which are fractional or negative.
1 √
We have seen already that 2 2 means 2, and we now investigate other powers.
1
(i). In 13 hour the population is multiplied by the growth-factor 2 3 . Since 3 of these periods equal 1
1 1 1 1 1 √
hour, during which the population doubles,2 3 × 2 3 × 2 3 = (2 3 )3 Thus 2 3 = 3 2
2 1 √
(ii). Since 2 periods of 31 hour equal 32 hour 2 3 = (2 3 )2 = ( 3 2)2 .
2
Also, in 23 the population is multiplied by 2 3 . Since 3 of these periods equal hours, and the popula-
2 2 √3
tion is multiplied by 22 in this time, (2 3 )3 = 22 . Hence 2 3 = 22
2
From (ii) we see that 2 3 equals both the cube root of the square of 2 and the square of the cube root
2
of 2. Both sequences of operations give the same answer. You can verify that this in the case of 8 3 ,
when they are both equal to 4.
3
(iii). Thus 16 4 is found to be 8 whether you calculate it as the cube of the fourth root of 16 or (with
 2.1 Percentages And Inverse Percentages 35

greater difficulty) as the fourth root of the cube of 16.

(iv). 2−0,7 is the growth factor when you go back in time 0.7 hours and this must have the same
effect as dividing by the growth factor for going forward in time 0.7 hours. Hence 2−0,7 = 20,7 1
. This
−t 1
is completely general: 2 = 2t . for any value of t.
−2
To calculate 8 3 we:
(i). take the cube root of 8;
(ii). square the answer;
(iii). take the reciprocal.
−2
This gives 8 3 = 14 . You can perform the operations in any order, but the order that we have used is
the easiest for this case.
Exercise
Answer these questions without using a calculator.
(1). Express as a whole number or a fraction. Show working (briefly).
1 −1 3 −3 3 −2
(i). 9 2 (ii). 27 3 (iii). 25 2 (iv). 16 4 (v). 64 2 (vi). 125 3 .
(2). Solve the following equations:
1 1 −1
(i). 25x = 25 (ii). 4x = 8 (iii). 9x = 31 (iv). x 2 = 5 (v). x 3 = 4 (vi). x 2 = 2.

2.1.5 Exponential Growth

(i). For the bacteria model, the population begins at 1 million and is multiplied by 2 every hour.
Thus t hours later the population is x = 2t .
(ii). If the population begins at 5 million and is multiplied by 4 every hour then x = 5 × 4t
(iii). If the population is dying and begins at 10 million and decreases by 20 % every hour, the
hourly GF is 0.8. Thus x = 10 × 0,8−t .
(iv). If the population begins at 5 million and is multiplied by 3 every half-hour then x = 5 × 32t
Each of these expressions is of the form a × bct where a, b, c are constants.

Because ct is the exponent (or power) we say that the growth is ‘exponential’. It is just another way
of saying that the curve is a growth curve. The following are therefore equivalent:
(i). a curve is a growth curve;
(ii). the growth factor over any fixed period of time is always the same;
(iii). the growth is exponential
When the growth factor is less than 1 and the quantity is decreasing we often speak about ‘exponen-
tial decay’.
Examples
(1). A time t years the population of a country is 20 × 1,05t million.
(a). What is the population at t = 0 ?
(b). What is the population when t = 10 ?
(c). What is the population when t = −2,5
(d). At what percentage rate is the population increasing each year?
Solutions
(a). 20 × 1,0050 millions=20 millions
(b). 20,01515 million = 25 millions
(c). 20 × 1,015−2,5 million = 19.27 million.
(d). From the formula, the growth factor over a year is 1.015, which represents a constant annual
increase of 1,5 %.
(2). There are now 8000 houses in a new town. The number is set to rise by 6 % every year. Estimate
the number of houses that there will be after
(i). 4 years (ii). 5.5 years.
36

Solution
We first compute the growth factor as 1.06
(i). 8000 × 1,064 = 10100.
(ii). 8000 × 1,065,5
Exercise
(1). The number of motorcycles in Ruritania grows exponentially. In t years’ time it is expected to
be 217000 × 1,07t
(a). What is the annual percentage increase?
(b). To the nearest thousand find:
(i).‘ the number of motorcycles now;
(ii). the number in 1 year’s time;
(iii). the number 2 years ago;
(iv). the number in 6 months’ time.
(2). Throughout Monday the bacteria in a patient’s intestine increased at a constant rate of 8,5 %
per hour. At 10 am there were 200 000 bacteria.
(a). Write down a formula for the number of bacteria t hours later.
(b). Calculate to the nearest thousand the number of bacteria present at the following times of the
day:
(i). 3 pm (ii). 7.15 pm (iii). 6.30 am
(3). A rumour is spreading through a town and the number who have heard it is increasing exponen-
tially. At 10am 100 people have heard the rumour, and one hour later 250 people have heard it.
(a). What is the growth factor over a period of one hour?
(b).‘ How many people will have heard the rumour by:
(i). 1pm (ii). 2.30pm (iii). 3.15 pm
(4). The number of illiterates in a country decreased by approximately 2 % per year from 1960 to
2000, when the number was 2.4 million.
(a). How many illiterates are there t years after 2000?
(b). How many were illiterate in 1990?
(c). Estimate the number of illerates today.
 2.1 Percentages And Inverse Percentages 37

2.1.6 Compound Interest - Yearly Interest

A deposit account gives you interest of 4 % at the end of every year.
At the beginning you have your original investment P:
.

At the end of one year you have your original investment plus the interest payment:
.

At the end of two years a bank will normally give you interest not only on your original investment
but also on the interest that you received after the first year. This results in one more interest
payment and also an ‘interest on interest’ payment. This is what we mean by ‘compound interest’:
.
At the end of three years you have everything that you had at the end of the second year plus interest
on every part of it; this now includes a tiny payment for ‘interest on interest on interest’:
.
In subsequent years these pictures becomes increasingly complicated. Fortunately we know an
easier way to perform the calculations!
If you think of your money as a pile of shilling coins (they did exist!), the pile grows repeatedly
38

with an annual GF of 1.04; thus P → 1 · 04P.

At the end of two years you multiply by 1.04 again and obtain 1 · 04 × 1 · 04P = 1 · 042 P.
At the end of three years you multiply by 1.04 again and obtain 1,04 × 1 · 042 P = 1 · 043 P, and so
on. The increase in the value of the account year by year is thus
P → 1 · 04P → 1 · 042 P → 1 · 043 P → ...
Over the first two years the growth factor on your money is 1,042 . In fact

1,042 = 1,0816
= 1 + 0,08 + 0,0016
= 1 + 2 × 0,04 + 0,042

This growth factor includes 1 for the original investment, 2 lots of 0.04 for the two interest payments
and 0,042 (4 % o f 4 %) for the interest on interest payment, in agreement with the diagram above.
In a similar way

1 · 043 = 1 · 124864
= 1 + 0 · 12 + 0,0048 + 0 · 000064
= 1 + 3 × 0 · 04 + 3 × 0,042 + 0 · 043

This growth factor includes 1 for the original investment, 3 lots of for the interest payments, 3 lots
of 0 · 042 for the interest on interest payments and 0,043 (4 % o f 4 % o f 4 %) for the interest on
interest on interest payment, as we have already seen.
From 1 · 042 = 1 · 0816 we see that over 2 years the interest is 8 · 16 % altogether. From 1 · 043 =
1 · 124864 the interest over 3 years is 12,4864 % altogether: this is nearly 12 % more than the ‘simple’
interest of 12 % that excludes interest on interest.

After t whole years your investment is worth P × 1,04t Note that this formula does not hold
if t is a fraction since interest is not credited to the account until the end of each year.
The graph below shows how 2 million/= grows over ten years when interest of 15 % (rather than
4 %) is added each year. .
The ‘step-graph’ rises at the end of each year and gives the future value of your account at any time.
Each rise is 15 % of the value of the account a year before, which is why the steps become steeper.
The continuous dashed line has the equation F = 2 × 1 · 15t . This growth curve could describe a
 2.1 Percentages And Inverse Percentages 39

colony of bacteria that starts at 2 million and increases by 15 % each hour.

Examples
(a). A bank pays 6 % at the end of each year. What does 230 dollars become after 9 years?
230 × 1,069 = 388,58 dollars.
(b). A bank pays 2,5 % at the end of each year. What does a deposit of 500 000 shillings become
after 4 years?
500000 × 1,0254 = 551906 shillings.
(c). An account pays 5 % at the end of each year. How much do you need to invest to have 200 000
dollars after 4 years?
The GF is 1,054 = 1,2155.... You need to invest 200000 dollars ÷1,2155... = 164540 dollars
Alternatively you can go back in time 4 years and find 200000 × 1,05− 4.
Compounding effects becomes increasingly important as time goes on. If the rate is 8 % then over
10 years the growth factor is1 · 0810 = 2 · 189... = 1 + 1 · 1589... the total gain is about 116 %. Over
20 years we have 1 · 0820 = 4 · 6609... = 1 + 3 · 6609...: the gain is about 366 %.
The renowned physicist Albert Einstein claimed (it is said) that compound interest is the greatest
force in the universe!

2.1.7 Compound Interest - Any interest period

A year is a long time to wait for interest to be credited to an account. Many accounts pay in-
terest every month or quarter (3 months) or half year (6 months). In business we count a month
1
as exactly 12 th of a year and disregard the exact number of days, and count a quarter as 14 th of a year.

It is straightforward to adapt the calculations of the previous section and replace a period of
a year by any period that we like.
Examples
(i). A bank account pays 2 % per quarter. How much does 250 000/= shillings become after 2 years?
There are 8 periods of one quarter in 2 years, and the growth factor for each period is 1.02. In two
years the sum becomes 250,000 shs×1 · 028 = 292915 shs.
(ii). A bank account pays 0,3 % per month. How much does 900 dollars become in 18 months? The
growth factor for each month is 1.003 and after 18 months the sum becomes 900×1,00318 = 949,86
(iii). A bank account pays 2,5 % every 6 months. How much does 6800 dollars become in 10 years?
The growth factor for each period of 6 months is 1.025 and in 10 years there are 20 periods. The
sum thus becomes 6800 × 1,02520 = 11142,59
The graph below shows the value of an account that begins at 1 000 dollars.and pays 6 % every
half-year.
.
 40

The value of the account after n periods is 1000 × 1 · 06n .

The annual growth factor is 1 · 062 = 1 · 1236. The ‘compound annual rate’ is 12,36 %: this tells
you the true rate at which the account grows each year.
Examples
(a). A bank pays 0 · 7 % interest per month compound. What is the compound annual rate?
The annual growth factor is 1 · 00712 = 1 · 0873.... The compound annual rate is 8,73 %.
(b). One account offers 1,2 % per quarter compound. Another account pays 0,4 % per month com-
pound.
What are the annual growth factors? Which account is better for long-term investment?
The annual growth factors are 1 · 0124 = 1 · 04887... and 1 · 00412 = 1 · 04907.... The second is
marginally better.
(c). An account pays interest quarterly. What is the quarterly rate if the compound annual rate is
7% ?
annual GF = (quarterly GF)4
1 1
So quarterly GF = (annual GF) 4 = 1 · 07 4 = 1 · 017058
The quarterly rate is 1 · 71 %
Summary
At compound interest the value of an initial sum P after n interest periods is F = P(1 + i)n where i
is the periodic interest rate.
If there are interest periods in a year, the annual growth factor is (1 + i)k and the ‘compound annual
rate’ is (1 + i)k − 1.
Exercise
(1). Jack will receive a legacy of 100 million shillings in exactly five years’ time. He intends to
borrow money now at 16 % per year to buy a house, and pay off the loan when he receives the
legacy. How much money can he borrow?
(2). A bank account pays 1 · 50 % compound interest per quarter.
Another account offers 0 · 49 % compound interest per month.
(a). Calculate the compound annual rates to 2 decimal places.
(b). Which of the two accounts gives a better return over a year?

2.1.8 Continuous Interest

Many bank accounts pay daily interest. In this case the steps on the graph are tiny and the step-graph
is almost indistinguishable from the dashed exponential curve.
If the compound annual rate is 5 % the dashed curve is the growth curve with equation F = P×1·05t .
1
The daily scale factor is (1 · 05) 365 = 1 · 000133681. and the daily rate is 0 · 0133681... %. If you
deposit 1 million /= and ask for your balance the next day, you will find that it has increased by 134
/=!

If the bank paid hourly interest your money would increase by 5 or 6 shillings per hour, and
the step-curve would be even closer to the exponential curve. The extreme case of this process,
 2.1 Percentages And Inverse Percentages 41

where F = P × 1,05t is called ‘continuous interest’ but daily interest is practically the same thing.
Summary
If an account pays continuous (or daily) interest and the compound annual rate is , a sum P becomes
F = P(1 + c)t after t years.
Exercise
(1). A bank account was opened exactly 3 years ago with a single deposit. There have been no other
transactions. Interest is added daily and the money grows at a constant rate of 6 % per year. Today
the account is worth 10 242.74 dollars.
(a). What will the balance be in 4 years?
(b). What will the balance be in 6 months’ time?
(c). What was the balance 1 month ago?
(d). What was the original deposit?
(e). What will the balance be tomorrow?
Give answers to the nearest cent.
(2). At continuous interest with a compound annual rate of 6 %, how much should you invest in
order to have 3000 dollars in 18 months’ time. Give the answer to the nearest cent

2.1.9 Types of Bank Account: How Banks Advertise Rates

Banks offer ‘savings’ and ‘investment’ accounts to encourage long-term saving. You receive a
higher rate of interest but in return the bank can limit the number of withdrawals that you make and
also charge you for them.

A ‘current account’ is for making frequent deposits, withdrawals and payments (usually you
have a cheque book). The bank is unlikely to pay interest and there can be a charge for each
transaction. If the bank allows you to overdraw it will charge interest (usually at a high rate). You
should never overdraw your account without the bank’s permission.

When you invest money in a bank, the bank is borrowing money from you. The customers’
positive balances enable the bank to lend to businesses and other individuals.

If you borrow money to buy a house or car you take out a ‘loan account’, which can have other
names like ‘mortgage’. A loan account operates in a similar way to a savings account, except it
measures the sum that you owe the bank; this increases at the borrowing rate of interest, which
always exceeds the savings rate. For a short-term loan you might repay the entire sum at the end of
the period. For a long-term loan the bank will probably expect you to make regular payments from
the beginning so that the loan is gradually reduced to zero, or ‘amortized’. Later we shall find a
way to calculate the repayment sums.

If a bank lends money at 2 % interest per month it often advertises this as an ‘annual rate’ of
24 % per year. This does not represent the true growth rate and it can be confusing and deceptive. To
protect the public many governments insist that banks also show the compound annual rate. Since
the compound annual rate is 26,8 %. It is variously called the ‘Annual Percentage Rate’ (APR)
or ‘Equivalent Annual Rate’ (EAR). It must also include any other costs charged to the customer
(which we ignore here).

For savings accounts the compound annual rate that the banks must advertise is called the ‘Annual
Equivalent Rate’ (AER).
 42

For simplicity we use the expression ‘compound annual rate’ for both savings and loan accounts to
describe the actual growth rate over a year. The ‘annual rate’ that the banks confusingly advertise is
based on a simple interest calculation that leaves out ‘interest on interest’; a more appropriate name
for it would be ‘simple annual rate’.

2.1.10 Savings Plan and ’Sinking Funds’

Disciplined regular saving is a good way to accumulate money for a future need, whether it is a
specific project like buying a car, provision for retirement, or a cushion against unpredictable events
like unemployment or illness. Many banks offer attractive interest rates to clients who are willing
to commit themselves to regular savings.

Similarly, governments, clubs, organizations and businesses often make regular savings and put
money into a ‘sinking fund’, for example for the renovation of their premises at some future time,
or to pay off a debt.

On January 1st 2000 and every year afterwards you deposit a sum P in an account that pays
5 % annually. What is the value of the account just after you make the 6th deposit?

.
 2.1 Percentages And Inverse Percentages 43

The 1st deposit is in the account for 5 years and becomes m × 1 · 055
The 2nd deposit is in the account for 4 years and becomes m × 1 · 054
...
The 5th deposit is in the account for one year only and becomes m × 1 · 05
The 6th deposit gains no interest and is still m.
Starting with the last deposit the total is
P6 = m + m × 1 · 05 + m × 1 · 052 + m × 1 · 053 + m × 1 · 054 + m × 1 · 055
A clever device allows us to find a simple formula for this sum.
On multiplying it by 1.05 all the terms move along one place:
1,05P6 = m × 1 · 05 + m × 1 · 052 + m × 1 · 053 + m × 1 · 054 + m × 1 · 055 + m × 1,056
The two sums share most of their terms and we now subtract the first sum from the second to obtain
056 − m
0 · 05P6 = m × 1 ·  = m(1 · 056 − 1)
1·05−1
Therefore P6 = m 0,05
This method works for any saving scheme with a fixed periodic payment.
Thus if a sum m is invested periodically in a savings plan and
 the interest
 rate is i perperiod, the

(1+i)n −1 i
value of the plan immediately after the nth payment is Pn = m i . Also m = Pn (1+i)n −1
Examples
(a). You invest 350 dollars per month in a 10-year savings plan. The monthly interest rate is 0,5 %.
What is the value of the plan immediately after the last payment?
Solution
 dollars,i = 0 · 005, n = 10 × 12 = 120
Here m = 350
1·005120 −1
P120 = 350 0·005 = 57357 · 77
(b). An organization will need 50 million shillings in 5 years’ time to extend its premises. To raise
this sum it intends to save a fixed amount every quarter. How much should it save if the interest rate
is 1 · 5 % per quarter?
Solution
P20 = 50million
 shillings,
 i = 0,015, n = 5 × 4 = 20
0·015
m = 50m 1,01520 −1
= 2162000 shillings.
Summary
If a sum m is invested periodically in an account and 
i is the periodic
 interest rate, the value of the
(1+i)n −1
account immediately after the nth payment is Pn = m i
 
i
Also m = Pn (1+i)n −1
Exercise
(1). Find the values of the following savings plans or sinking funds immediately after the last
payment: (a). 24 payments of 200 dollar each quarter at a quarterly rate of 1,2 %.
(b). 60 payments of 150 000/= each month at a monthly rate of 1,1 %.
(c). 10 payments of 2 million/= each half-year at a half-yearly rate of 4 %.

2.1.11 Loan Repayment

Suppose that you borrow a sum P from a bank for 6 months and the interest rate is 2 % per month.

If you make a single repayment at the end, you will repay P × 1 · 026 after 6 months.

However, the most usual way to repay a loan on a house, for example, is to make regular re-
44

payments from the beginning. Suppose, in the above case, that the bank asks you to repay a fixed
sum R at the end of each month, so that after the 6 payments the loan is exactly paid off, or
‘amortized’ (the word means ‘killed off’).

The graph below shows in an exaggerated way how the debt increases each month but the monthly
repayments steadily reduce the debt until it is finally zero.

Imagine that the initial loan consists of six separate loans which all grow at 2 % per month. At
the end of each month one of these loans reaches the value R and you pay it off.. The first loan is
R
multiplied by the factor 1.02 and was therefore initially 1,02
R
The second loan is multiplied by the factor and was initially 1·02 2
... ... ...
The last loan is multiplied by is multiplied by the factor 1 · 026 . and was initially 1·05R1·026
Therefore the total initial loan is
R R R R R R R
P = 1·02 + 1·02 2 + 1·023 + 1·024 + 1·024 + 1·025 + 1·026
We now use the same trick that we used for the savings plan.
On multiplying the sum by 1.02 the terms move backwards one place:
R R R R R
1,02P = R + 1·02 + 1·02 2 + 1·023 + 1·024 + 1·025
The two sums again share most of their terms and on subtracting the first sum from the second we
obtain
0 · 02P = R − 1·02 R −6 )
6 = R(1 − 1 · 02
   
1−1·02−6 0·02
Thus P = R 0·02 or R = P 1−1·02−6
 
i
The general result is R = P 1−(1+i)−n , where n is the number of payments and i is the periodic
interest rate
Examples
(1). You borrow 500 000 dollar from a bank. What is the monthly repayment if the interest rate is
0,8 % per month and the loan is amortized after 15 years?
Solution
Here, P = 500000,i = 0 · 008 %,
 n = 15 × 12 = 180
0·008
Thus R = 500000 1−1·008−180
= 5251 · 34
(2). A corporation borrows 20 million dollars from an investment bank and repays a fixed sum
every 6 months. What is the repayment if interest is charged at 7 % per half- year and the loan is
amortized after 10 years?
Solution
Here, P = 20 million
  i = 0 · 07, n = 10 × 2 = 20
dollars,
0·07
Thus R = 20 m 1−1·07−20
= 1887859

With a savings plan you give a series of payments to the bank in return for a sum of money
that the bank gives you at the end. In the case of a loan you make a regular series of repayments in
 2.1 Percentages And Inverse Percentages 45

return for a sum of money that the bank gives you at the beginning. The two situations are therefore
similar, which is why the calculations are also similar.

Summary  
i
If a loan P is amortized after n periodic repayments then each repayment is R = P 1−(1+i)−n ,
 
1−(1+i)−n
Also P = R i
Exercise
(1). You borrow 400 000 dollars and then make fixed repayments at the end of each month. If the
loan is amortized after 10 years, how many payments will have been made? What is each repayment
if the monthly rate is fixed at 2 %?
(2). You borrow 20 million/= and then make repayments every six-months. If the loan is amortized
after 5 years, what is each repayment if the six-monthly rate is fixed at 8 %?
(3). What is the greatest sum that you can borrow if you are able to make monthly repayments of
500 000/= for 3 years and the rate is 1,5 % per month?
(4). A business obtains a loan of UGX 200 million and repays a fixed sum every quarter. If the
quarterly interest rate is 4 % and the loan is paid off after 5 years, how much is each repayment?
(5). What sum can you borrow now if you can pay back 100 000 shillings at the end of every quarter
for 5 years and the interest rate is 3,1 % per quarter?
(6). A woman borrows 15 000 dollar to buy a car. The bank charges 1,4 % compound interest each
month.
(a). If she clears the loan by making a single repayment at the end of two years, how much does she
pay?
(b). If, instead, she clears the loan by repaying a fixed amount at the end of every month for two
years, how much is each repayment?

2.1.12 Money, The Two - Edged Sword

Money is the ultimate ‘liquid commodity’: it is universally acceptable in exchange for any goods
or services. Money enables a person to work in one sector of the economy and obtain goods or
services that are produced in any other sector of the economy. For a country to enjoy a reasonable
standard of living it must have sound money which passes in and out of the pockets of its citizens.
If money is short, life is hard.

Money can therefore make life better and more satisfying. Unfortunately it also offers temptations to
greed and envy which lead to crime on a massive scale, and untold misery and unhappiness. People
often misquote scripture and say ‘money is the root of all evil’; in fact St Paul wrote ‘the love of mo-
ney is the root of all evil’. A preoccupation with money for its own sake can never bring happiness.
Apart from the necessities of life, probably the greatest pleasure that money can give is the op-
portunity to improve the lives of other people, especially your own family and those in greatest need.

In Leviticus 25:37 we read ‘You shall not lend money to your brother at interest.’ The context is
personal: when a brother comes to you in need, you must treat him with mercy, and not use his
need as an opportunity to make a profit: you should only expect to receive back what you lent. How
does this apply to loans over long periods of time? In an economy where there is no price inflation,
a repayment at zero interest will return money with the same buying power as the money that you
lent. But if there is price inflation, it will return money with less buying power. You could therefore
argue that charging interest at or below the rate of inflation is in accordance with the spirit of the
46

commandment.

The story of the unmerciful servant in Matthew 18:23-35 commands us to be merciful in any
situation where a person is in debt to us.

How does the message of the gospel apply to lending by banks, loan companies and ‘doors-
tep lenders’? Such arrangements are not personal, but governments should and do act to protect
the poor and vulnerable from exploitation. To charge extortionate rates of interest is universally
condemned and is a criminal offence in many countries. In 2009 a ‘loan shark’ John Kiely was
convicted in Manchester, England and imprisoned for five years after demanding interest rates as
high as 2, 437 % and issuing threats to his terrified clients.

Judaism, Christianity and Islam all include commandments against charging interest. As regards
banking, the commandments have generally been interpreted as forbidding unreasonable rates of
interest. However, some Islamic banks now operate in a way that is believed to be consistent with
the strictest interpretation of Sharia (Islamic law) so that no interest is charged. The way that it can
work is as follows. If a client wishes to buy a house, initially the bank itself buys the house and the
client lives in it whilst making regular payments to the bank. When the payments are finished, the
house is transferred to the client as the new owner.
Exercise
If you purchase a house through an Islamic bank by the method described above, in what way is the
procedure similar to a repayment mortgage? In what way is it different?

—————————–
 3. Multivariable Equations and Linear Programming

3.1 Simple Linear Equations in Two Variables

A market trader has space for 11 radios on his stall. The radios are either medium or large size. He
wishes to display 3 more medium-size radios than large radios. How many of each size should he
put on his stall?
Suppose that there are x medium size radios and y large ones.
From the given information

x + y = 11 .......................(1)
x − y = 3 .........................(2)

Neither equation on its own can tell us the value of x or y. However, if we add the left-hand sides of
the equations we obtain 2x. Since this is equal to 14, the sum of the right-hand sides, we deduce
that x = 7.
On substituting this value in (1) we obtain y = 4
The solution is thus x = 7, y = 4.
We have solved a pair of simultaneous equations. The expression means equations that hold ‘at the
same time’.
An equation like 2x + 7 = 15 in a single variable has just one solution (in this case ).
Equation (1) on its own has as many solutions as you like, since for any value of x there is a
corresponding value of y.
For example, if x = 8 then y = 3. Similarly equation (2) has a solution for any value of x; if x = 8
then y = 5. We required a value of x for which these two value of y are the same. In other words we
want the two equations to hold simultaneously. Our working shows that there is just one solution to
this problem.
A Chinese proverb says ‘A picture is worth a thousand words’, and there is a helpful way to visualize
this problem.
48

In the figure below we have plotted every solution (x, y) of the equation x + y = 11 as a point. The
set of all points forms a line. It is easy to see why. If you start with any solution (4,7) and repeatedly
increase x by 1, then in order for x + y to remain at 11 you must repeatedly decrease y by 1, etc.
The set of solutions therefore slopes down on a line at 45◦ to the horizontal.

On the other hand, if you start at some solution (4,1) on x − y = 3 and repeatedly increase x
by 1 then in order for x − y to remain 3 you must repeatedly increase y by 1, etc. The set of solutions
therefore slopes up on a line at 45◦ to the horizontal.

It is because equations of this type have straight line graphs that we call them ‘linear’ equa-
tions.

If a point represents a solution of both equations it must lie on both lines. Clearly there is only one
solution and it is (7,4): this is the solution that we found by algebra.

The point where a line meets the x-axis is called the x- intercept and the point where it meets the
y-axis is called the y-intercept.
It is easy to find these points, since a point lies on the x-axis if the y-coordinate is zero and a point
lies on the y-axis if the x-coordinate is zero.

For x + y = 11: when y = 0 the x-intercept is (11, 0); when x = 0 the y-intercept is (0, 11).
Forx − y = 11: when y = 0 the x-intercept (3,0) , and when x = 0 the y-intercept is (0, −3).
We often say, more simply, that the x-intercept is 3 and the y-intercept is.

Since a line is determined by two of its points, it is often convenient to draw a line through
them, especially if the intercepts are easy numbers.

This works well for the first line because the intercepts are far apart. However, in the case of
the second line the points are fairly close together and any error in plotting the intercepts or drawing
the line can result in large errors at points far away from the origin. In this case you should also
plot a point (or two) somewhere near the edge of the diagram, for example . Even if the intercepts
are not close together a third point is useful as a check.
 3.1 Simple Linear Equations in Two Variables 49

Exercise
(1). For each equation of the pair

x−y = 5
x+y = 3

find the coordinates of

(a). the x-intercept, where y = 0, and
(b). the y-intercept, where x = 0 Then plot the graphs. Deduce the solution of the simultaneous
equations.
(2). Repeat for
(i).

x+y = 8
x−y = 1

(ii).

3x + y = 6
x + y = −2

(3). By adding or subtracting the equations in Questions 1 and 2, solve the simultaneous equations
by algebra.

3.1.1 Algebraic Solution Of Simultaneous Equation

In this section we develop the algebraic method further.
(a). You wish to buy 12 pens and pencils altogether. A pen costs 200/= and a pencil costs 400/=.
You have 3200/= to spend. How many do you buy of each?
Suppose that you buy x pens and y pencils. Then from the given information:

x + y = 12 .........................(1)
200x + 400y = 3200 .........................(2)

On dividing each term of (2) by 200 we have

x + 2y = 16 .........................(3)

In the ‘radios’ example we added equations to eliminate y, but here we subtract to eliminate x
(3) – (1): y = 4
On substituting this in (1) we obtain x = 8
. The solution is x = 8, y = 4.
We now check in (2): 200 × 8 + 400 × 4 = 3200
(2). Solve:

2x + 3y = 7 .........................(4)
5x − 2y = 27 .........................(5)

No advantage comes from adding or subtracting the equations since neither makes one of the
50

variables disappear. However, we can make the method work by multiplying the equations by
constants which make the coefficients of x equal. Thus multiply equation (4) by 5 and multiply
equation (5) by 2.

10x + 15y = 35 .........................(6)

10x − 4y = 54 .........................(7)

We now subtract:
(6) – (7): 19x = −19
Hence y = −1.
Substitute in (4): 2x − 3 = 7, therefore x = 5.
Check in (5): 5 × 5 − 2 × (−1) = 27
It is rather easier if two coefficients are negatives of each other and we add.
We could thus proceed as follows: that is by multiplying equation (4) by 2 and equation (5) by 3

4x + 6y = 14
15x − 6y = 81.

On adding we obtain 19x = 95, so x = 5 etc.

To solve simultaneous equations by this method:

take suitable multiples of the given equations to make the coefficients of x either equal to
each other or negatives of each other
subtract or add the equations to eliminate x
solve the resulting equation for y
substitute the value of y in one of the given equations to find x (or solve again for x )
check that your solution satisfies the other equation
It might, of course, be more convenient to eliminate y instead of x.
Examples
(1). In a supermarket pineapples cost 1500 shillings and melons cost 1000 shillings. I buy 12 of
them altogether and the total cost is 14000 shillings. How many do I buy of each?
(2). In a party traveling by train there are eight more adults than children. Adults pay 10 dollars and
children 4 dollars. The total cost is 500 dollar. How many adults are there and how many children?
(3). A trader bought some calculators at 2000 shillings and others at 5000 shillings. He sold them at
3000 shillings and 8000 shillings. He paid 130 000 shillings for them altogether and sold them for
205 000 shillings. How many did he buy of each?
(4). Between December and January some students leave a secondary school class and other students
arrive in it. The total number of changes is 23 and the class increases in size by 11. How many
students arrive and how many leave?
(5). Two Grade A computers and five Grade B computers cost 9.2 million shillings, and three Grade
A computers and two Grade B computers cost UGX 6.1 million shillings. How much does each
model cost?
(6). Alex and Ben each choose a number. Three times Alex’s number plus twice Ben’s number
is 86; twice Alex’s number is 1 more than three times Ben’s number. What numbers did they choose?

Graphs of linear equations in other forms

Any linear equation can be expressed in a form like ax + by = c , but it is often more convenient
to rearrange the equation in other ways. Furthermore, the use of intercepts is not always the best
way to plot a graph, for example when there is only one intercept, or the intercepts are too close
 3.2 Linear Inequality 51

together.
(i). The equation x = 4 is the set of all points (x, y) with x-coordinate equal to 4. These points make
a vertical line at 4 units to the right of the y-axis.
(ii). Similarly the equation y = −3 describes a horizontal line at 3 units below the x-axis.
(iii).The equation y = x describes the set of points where the coordinates are equal. Since the line
passes through the origin the intercepts are both (0,0).
(iv). The equation y = −x orx + y = 0 describes the set of points where the coordinates are negatives
of each other. It also passes through the origin.
(v). The equation y = 2x + 3 has a of (0,3). The x- intercept is (0, − 1 12 ) and it is better to plot
other points such as and (1,6).
.

Exercise
(1). Draw a separate graph for each part. By substituting and then find the intercepts of the following
pairs of lines. Then plot the lines on the same graph and label them.
(i). 4x + 5y = 20, 3x − y = 9
(ii). 2x − 5y = 10, −2x + y = 8
(iii). 4x − 3y = 24, 3x − 5y = 15

3.2 Linear Inequality

An inequality is a relation of the form x > 3, x + y ≤ 2, etc.
We shall now use graphical methods to solve simultaneous inequalities.
Example (a)
Graph the region that satisfies the following inequalities:
(i). x ≥ 1
(ii). y ≥ −1
(iii). y ≤ x
(iv). 3x + 2y ≤ 12
We first plot the lines x = 1, y = −1, 3x + 2y = 12 on a graph.

Points satisfying (i) lie on or to the right of x = 1.

Points satisfying (ii) lie on or above y = −1.
Points satisfying (iii) lie on or below y = x.
In each of these cases it is obvious that the points on one side of the line satisfy the inequality and
points on the other side do not. This is a general feature of inequalities of this type. To determine
the correct side of the line you need only try one point that is off the line. Usually we take the
origin, unless the line happens to pass through that point.
52

In (iv) (0,0) satisfies the inequality, therefore all points on that side of the line satisfy the inequality.
Hence:

Points satisfying (iv) lie on or below the line 3x + 2y =

We shade out the points that are not required. Shade at right-angles to the line. It is only necessary
to shade a strip one or two centimeters wide, but do it carefully.
.

The set of possible points forms a quadrilateral R, including its boundary. As a final check choose a
point inside the region, say (2,0), and verify that it does indeed satisfy all of the inequalities.
Example (b)
You plan to start a car rental business which offers customers a choice of medium or large size cars.

You will need (i) more than 6 medium cars, (ii) more than 5 large cars, and (iii) more than
13 cars altogether. However, (iv) only 360 million shillings is available for purchasing them. The
medium cars cost 20 million shillings and the large cars cost 30 million shillings. What possibilities
are open to you? What choices give you the greatest number of cars?

If you have a stock of x medium size cars and y large cars then:
(i). x > 6 (ii). y > 5 (iii). x + y > 13 (iv). 20x + 30y ≤ 360
Notice that the first three are ‘strict’ inequalities. This means that values on the boundary lines are
excluded. When an inequality is strict we draw the boundary line dashed.

The set of possible points forms a quadrilateral again, but the boundary is excluded except on one
side. The graph shows that there are just three solutions: (8,6), (9,6), (7,7). For the greatest number
 3.3 The Profit Line Method 53

of cars you choose the solution (9,6).

General methods for graphing linear inequalities

(a). For an inequality like −x + 2y < 6, first substitute y = 0 and x = 0 to find the x-and y-
intercepts(6, 0) and (0, −3). Find a third point if the intercepts are too close together.
For an inequality like y ≤ 2x there is only one intercept since the line passes through the origin.
Therefore find a second point like (3,6) or (-3,-6).
Draw the line dashed for <, and full for ≤. Use another point on the line as a check.

(b). Shade the side of the line that does not satisfy the inequality. If you do not know which
side to shade, pick a point off the line, usually the origin. In the case of −x + 2y < 6, since (0,0)
satisfies the inequality you shade the side that does not include the origin. With y ≤ 2x, the origin is
on the line; therefore you pick a point like (0,1) which is off the line. Since (0,1) does not satisfy
the inequality you shade the side that does include (0,1). Neatly shade at right-angles to the line up
to 1 or 2 cm away from it.

(c). After drawing all the inequalities pick a point inside the region of possible points and check
that it satisfies every inequality.

(d). Draw in pencil until you are satisfied that everything is correct.

3.3 The Profit Line Method

A property-developer has up to UGX 10 000 million to invest in small and medium-size apartments.
The small 2-room apartments cost UGX 250 million to build and the medium-size 3-room apart-
ments cost UGX 400 million to build. There will be fewer than 30 small apartments but at least as
many small apartments as medium, and at least 10 apartments altogether.

He expects to sell all the apartments that he builds and to make a clear profit of UGX 50 mi-
llion on each small apartment and UGX 100 million on each medium-size apartment.

How many of each would he build to produce

(i). the largest profit and the smallest profit?
(ii). the largest number of apartments?
If he builds x small and y medium-size apartments then
(i). 250x + 400y ≤ 5000
On dividing by 50 this simplifies to 5x + 8y ≤ 100
(ii). x ≤ 15
(iii). x ≥ y
(iv). x + y ≥ 10
For clarity we include
(v). y ≥ 0
.
Any point on or inside the pentagon R is a possible choice for the developer.
(a). The profit on any choice is, in UGX million,50x + 100y. To find when this is greatest and least
we can of course calculate it for all possible choices. This would not only be tedious, but also totally
unfeasible in a complicated problem with many points.
Let us look at the problem the other way round. Suppose the profit is UGX 1 000 million. What are
the possible values of x and y ? In this case 50x + 100y = 1000, or x + 2y = 20.
.
 54

This ‘profit line’ for UGX 1 000m is the middle dotted line. All other profit lines are parallel to this
one!.

Therefore to find the greatest profit we slide the profit line parallel to itself until it is furthest
from the origin, whilst making sure that it passes through at least one point with integer coordinates.
This is the upper dotted line, and it passes through the points (8,7), (10,6), (12,5). The greatest net
profit is UGX 1100 million at these three points.

The least net profit occurs on the lower dotted line, at just one point (10,0), and the profit is
UGX 500 million.

We call this the ‘profit line method’ because it is often used to find the greatest and least va-
lues of the profit, but it can be used to maximize or minimize any linear expression.

For example, the question in part (b) is about the expression x + y. We have already drawn one
‘profit line’ for this: x + y = 10 . It is in fact the line for the least total number of apartments, which
occurs at (5,5), (6,4), (7,3), (8,2), (9,1) and (10,0). In contrast, slide a ruler parallel to this line and
verify that the greatest value occurs at only one point (15,3), which is just inside the allowable
region, when the total net profit is UGX 1050 million. This profit is just below the greatest possible
value.

In some problems the allowable points must have integer coordinates, as here, but in other cases
any points in the region are acceptable.

3.4 Linear Programming

In the previous sections we solved some practical problems in two and three dimensions where there
are conditions both on the available resources and on the form of the solution. In two dimensions
the possible points lie inside a shape bounded by lines, such as a quadrilateral or pentagon; in three
dimensions the shape is a solid bounded by planes, such as a pyramid or cube.
3.4 Linear Programming 55

These problems are elementary examples of a method called Linear Programming, which is
a powerful technique used widely in business and industry. As its name implies, the conditions are
expressed as linear inequalities. Usually the aim is to find a best solution to a problem. The method
originated in the Second World War where it was used to find the most effective deployment of
human and physical resources.

A problem with four or more variables takes us into spaces of higher dimension where we must use
our imagination, but it is still possible to talk meaningfully about a ‘four-dimensional solid’. As
the number of variables increases the time used by any computer program increases rapidly; for
example, the profit line method quickly becomes unfeasible. There is always a need to invent more
efficient methods.

A problem involving a chemical factory might involve sixty variables. A best solution lies at
or near to a vertex (corner) of the solid in the 60-dimensional space. Older methods of finding a
best solution depended on ranging over the surface of the solid, but many efficient methods now
‘bore through’ the solid. To date, linear programming problems are being solved in spaces of half a
million (500 000) dimensions!
 4. Applied Statistics

4.1 Descriptive Statistics

Introduction to Statistics
Statistics is that branch of mathematics which is concerned with the collection, organization, inter-
pretation, presentation and analysis of numerical data. To a statistician, any information collected is
called data.

Statistics is therefore a set of concepts, rules, and procedures that help us to:

organize numerical information in the form of tables, graphs, and charts;

understand statistical techniques underlying decisions that affect our lives and well-being;
and
make informed decisions basing on information generated from processed data.
Statistics plays a vital role in every field of human activity. For example it has an important role
in determining the existing position of per capita income, unemployment, population growth rate,
housing etc. . . in a country.

Statistics is a vital tool in fields like industry, commerce, trade, Physics, Chemistry, Economics,
Mathematics, Biology, Botany, Psychology, and Astronomy.

Statistical methods are used in research to collect, analyse, and formulate research findings in every
field at higher institutions of learning.

Raw Data:
This is the data which is not organized numerically. Thus when data has not been ordered in any
specific way after collection, it is called raw data.
Discrete Raw Data:
This is the data that takes only exact values. This data is normally collected by counting and usually
takes integral values. For example; the number of students in class, the number of books each
 58

students reports to school with at the beginning of the term, the number of cars passing a certain
trading centre in 1 hour, the number of students served in the dinning hall in five minutes.
The numbers of students doing Subsidiary mathematics in 20 randomly chosen schools are as
shown below;

63 50 49 62 89 152 180 90 21 29
55 89 60 49 65 72 79 81 68 47.

This is an example of discrete raw data. The data is raw because it has not been ordered in any way.
Continuous Raw data
This is the data that cannot take exact values, but can be given only within certain range or measured
to a certain degree of accuracy. Continuous data can therefore take on any value; for example; the
speeds of cars passing a certain trading centre, the heights of students in class, the time taken by
each student in Elements of mathematics class to solve a problem.
The heights of 20 children in a school measured correct to the nearest cm are shown below;

133 136 120 138 133 131 127 141 127 143
130 131 125 144 128 134 135 137 133 129.

This is an example of continuous raw data.

4.1.1 Types of data

Data can be defined as groups of information that represent the qualitative or quantitative attributes
of a variable or set of variables. A variable is a quantity, which is counted or measured. Thus data
can be any set of information that describes a given entity. Data in statistics can be classified into
grouped data and ungrouped data.

Ungrouped Data
Any data that you first gather is ungrouped data. Ungrouped data is data in the raw. An example of
ungrouped data is any list of numbers that you can think of. Below is an example of ungrouped
data.
The following table shows the data on the length of time (in minutes) it took 80 students in a
Journalism Elements of mathematics Class to complete a certain exercise.
.

This data is ungrouped because it is not organized in any form.

Representation of ungrouped data using frequency tables
Frequency
This refers to the number of times an item occurs. In most cases many items occur more than
once, therefore a frequency distribution table is used to remove repetitions. The frequency is easily
obtained by tallying the data.
Example 1
4.1 Descriptive Statistics 59

The following data gives the number of blind students in 10 randomly chosen classes in a certain
school. 0, 2, 1, 4, 2, 3, 2, 1, 4, 5. Form a frequency table for the data.
.

Example 2
The following temperatures were recorded over a 20-day period in January 2012.
23°, 19°, 15°, 18°, 20°, 18°, 21°, 18°, 20°, 21°,
20°, 22°, 20°, 20°, 15°, 25°, 20°, 21°, 18°, 22°.
Represent this raw data in a suitable frequency distribution table.
Solution
.

Example 3
The following data shows the numbers of children in 30 randomly chosen families in Kampala
District.
.

Represent the above data using a frequency distribution table.

Solution

Grouped Data
Grouped data is data that has been organized into groups known as classes. Grouped data has been
’classified’ and thus some level of data analysis has taken place, which means that the data is no
longer raw.

A data class is group of data which is related by some user defined property. For example, if
60

you were collecting the ages of the people you met during a census, you could group them into
classes as those in their teens, twenties, thirties, forties and so on. Each of those groups is called a
class.

Each of those classes is of a certain width and this is referred to as the Class width, Class In-
terval or Class Size. This class interval is very important when it comes to drawing Histograms
and Frequency diagrams. All the classes may have the same class size or they may have diffe-
rent class sizes depending on how you group your data. The class interval is always a whole number.

Below is an example of grouped data where the classes have the same class interval.
.

Below is an example of grouped data where the classes have different class interval.
.

General rules for grouping data:

Given a set of raw or ungrouped data, how would you group that data into suitable classes that are
easy to work with and at the same time meaningful? The following is followed;
(i). Calculating Class Interval
The first step is to determine how many classes you want to have. Next, you subtract the lowest
value in the data set from the highest value in the data set and then you divide by the number of
classes that you want to have:
classinterval = Highestvalue−Lowestvalue
numbero f classesyouwant
(ii). Finding the class frequencies.
The number of observations falling into each class interval also known as the frequency is best
determined by using tallies.
The results are then displayed in the form of a table called the frequency distribution table.
4.1 Descriptive Statistics 61

Example 1
The following table shows the data on the length of time (in minutes) it took 80 students in a
Journalism Elements of mathematics Class to complete a certain exercise.
.

Group the following raw data into six classes and form a frequency distribution table.
Solution
The first step is to identify the highest and lowest number. Smallest number is 10 and the highest
value is 38.
classinterval = Highestvalue−Lowestvalue
numbero f classesyouwant =
38−10
6 = 4 · 666
The Class interval should always be a whole number and yet in this case we have a decimal number.
The solution to this problem is to round off to the nearest whole number.
In this example, 4.666 gets rounded up to 5. So our class width/class interval will be 5; meaning
that we group the above data into groups of 5 as in the table below.
.

Class Limits and Class Boundaries

Class limits refer to the actual values that you see in the table. Taking an example of the ta-
ble above, 10 and 14 would be the class limits of the first class. Class limits are divided into two
categories: lower class limit and upper class limit. In the table above, for the first class, 10 is the
lower class limit while 14 is the upper class limit. Thus 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35 are called the
lower class limits, and 14, 19, 24, 29, 34 and 39 are called the upper class limits. Note that the class
widths are not given by the differences between the respective class limits.

On the other hand, class boundaries are not always observed in the frequency table. Class boundaries
give the true class interval, and similar to class limits, are also divided into lower and upper class
boundaries.

Class boundaries are related to class limits by the given relationships:

(i). Upper class boundaries = Upper class limits + 0.5
(ii). Lower class boundaries = Lower class limits - 0.5
This is only true when the data values are whole numbers.
As a result of the above, the lower class boundary of one class is equal to the upper class boundary
of the previous class.
For example;
62

(i). For the class 10 – 14, the lower class boundary is 9.5 and the upper is 14.5
(ii). For the class 15 – 19, the lower class boundary is 14.5 and the upper is 19.5
NOTE: It should however be noted that the class boundaries depend on the degree of accuracy.
If the data values are rounded off to one decimal place (1d.p);
(i). Upper class boundaries = Upper class limits + 0.05
(ii). Lower class boundaries = Lower class limits - 0.05
If the data values are rounded off to two decimal places (2d.p);
(i). Upper class boundaries = Upper class limits + 0.005
(ii). Upper class boundaries = Upper class limits + 0.005
For example the class;
(i). 7.0 – 7.4 has a lower class boundary of 6.95 and upper class boundary of 7.45.
(ii). 0.14 – 0.15 has a lower class boundary of 0.135 and upper class boundary of 0.155
The relationship between the class boundaries and the class interval is given as follows:
Class interval = upper class boundary - lower class boundary
(i). For 10 – 14. The class interval = 14.5 – 9.5 = 5
(ii). For 7.0 – 7.4. The class interval = 7.45 – 6.95 = 0.5
(iii). For 0.135 – 0.155. The class interval = 0.155 – 0.135 = 0.002
Note: Class interval, width, size and length are the same.
Class Marks
The class marks are simply the midpoints of the classes. They are the averages of the lower and
upper class limits and they are obtained by the formula:
classmark = lower class limit +2 upper class limit or
classmark = upper class boundary + 2
lower class boundary

For example; for 10 – 14, the class mark is 10+14 2 = 12

Class limits and class boundaries play separate roles when it comes to representing statistical data
diagrammatically.
Example 2
The masses of 50 mangoes brought from Ntinda Market measured in grams (g), were noted and
shown in the table below.
.

Construct a frequency distribution, using equal class intervals of width 5g, and taking the lower
class boundary of the first interval as 84.5g.
Solution
Since the lower class boundary of the first interval should be 84.5, then the lower class limit of the
first class must be 85.
.

NOTE: The classes and class boundaries of Grouped data may be given in different ways. The
4.1 Descriptive Statistics 63

following frequency distributions show some of the ways that data may be grouped.
(i). The frequency distribution shows the length of 30 rods measured to the nearest mm.
.

The interval "27 – 31"means 26 · 5mm ≤ length ≤ 31 · 5mm. Thus if we are given data in the
form 26 · 5 ≤ x ≤ 31 · 5, then 26.5 and 31.5 are the class boundaries.
(ii). The frequency distribution shows the marks of 50 students in Elements of mathematics test
marked out of 20
.

The interval ’3-’means 3 marks ≤ mark ≤ 6 marks, so any mark including 3 marks and up to
(but not including) 6 minutes come into this interval and so on. When the data is given in the form
shown, the class boundaries are obtained directly as shown in the table above.
(iii). The frequency distribution table shows the masses of 40 phones made by different manufactu-
rers.
.

The interval „ -100 ’means 0g <mass ≤ 100g. Similarly „ -200 means 100g < mass ≤ 200g, so any
mass over 100 grams up to and including 200 grams comes into this interval. The class boundaries
are therefore 0, 100, 200, 300 and 400 as shown in the table above.
(iv). On a particular day, the length of stay of each car at a taxi park was recorded as shown in the
table below.
.

The interval t <25 means that the time lies between 0 and 25 exclusive. Thus lengths of stay given
represent the class boundaries. The class boundaries are therefore 0, 25, 50, 75, 100 and 125. These
intervals can be written as ’0-’ and the next is ’25-’ and the next is ’50-’,etc.
 64

4.1.2 Representation of data using frequency diagrams

Histogram

In statistics, a histogram is a graphical representation showing a visual impression of the dis-

tribution of data. A histogram consists of tabular frequencies, shown as adjacent rectangles, erected
over discrete intervals, with an area equal to the frequency of the observations in the interval.

It is therefore a graphical display of data using bars of different heights where the class fre-
quencies are plotted against class boundaries and NO gaps are left between the bars.
Example 1
Draw a histogram for the data given below.
.

Solution
.

We then plot frequency against class boundaries.

.

NOTE:
(i). A suitable uniform scale for each axis should be used and each axis should have a starting value.
(ii). The horizontal axis should start with the lowest class boundary
(iii). Shading of the histogram is not important but once done it should be uniform.
(iv). The width of each rectangle is the difference between upper and lower class boundaries, NOT
the difference between upper and lower class limits.
Example 2
The ages of 120 people who travelled to Fort Portal on Christmas day using two Link Buses were
recorded and are shown in the frequency table. Draw a histogram to illustrate the data.
.
Solution
The notation 10’ means, "0 <age ≤ 10 and similarly "– 20’ means, "10 <age ≤ 20’. Therefore the
class boundaries are 0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50. The histogram is then drawn as shown in the diagram
below;
4.1 Descriptive Statistics 65

Cumulative Frequency

Cumulative frequency is defined as a running total of frequencies. It can also be defined as

the sum of all previous frequencies up to the current point. Therefore the cumulative frequency is
the total frequency up to a particular upper class boundary.

The cumulative frequency is important when analyzing data, where the value of the cumulati-
ve frequency indicates the number of elements in the data set that lie below the current value.
The cumulative frequency is also useful when representing data using diagrams like the Ogive or
cumulative frequency curve.

Example 1
The set of data below shows the length of 30 rods measured to the nearest mm. Draw a cumulative
frequency table for the data.
.

Solution
The cumulative frequency at a certain point is found by adding the frequency at the present point to
the cumulative frequency of the previous point.
The cumulative frequency for the first data point is the same as its frequency since there is no
cumulative frequency before it. The cumulative table is as shown below;
.
66

Cumulative Frequency Graph (Ogive)

A cumulative frequency graph, also known as an Ogive, is a curve showing the cumulative frequency
for a given set of data. The cumulative frequencies are plotted on the y-axis against the upper class
boundaries and the points are joined with a smooth curve.
An Ogive is used to study the growth rate of data as it shows the accumulation of frequency and
hence its growth rate.
Example 2
Thirty pencils were collected from Journalism students offering Elements of mathematics and their
lengths were measured, correct to the nearest cm. The frequency distribution is given below.
.

(i). Construct the cumulative frequency table and draw a cumulative frequency curve for the data.
(ii). Estimate from your curve the number of pencils that were less than 10cm long
(iii). 10 % of the pencils were of length x cm or more. Find x. Solution
(i). .

Cumulative frequency curve to show the length of the 30 Pencils

.

To find how many pencils were less than 10cm long tall, find the length 10cm on the horizontal
axis. Draw a vertical line to meet the curve and then draw a horizontal line to meet the cumulative
frequency axis. Then read off the value.
(ii). From the graph it can be estimated that 8 pencils were less than 10 cm long.
10
(iii). 10 % of the pencils were of length x cm or more 100 × = 3 pencils.
Thus (30 – 3) = 27 pencils were less than × cm long.
Hence find 27 on the cumulative frequency axis and draw a horizontal line to meet the Ogive. Then
draw a vertical line to meet the length axis and read off the value.
From the graph, 27 pencils were less than 16 cm long.
Therefore 10 % of the pencils were of length 16cm or more, so the value of × is 16.
 4.1 Descriptive Statistics 67

4.1.3 Measures of central tendency

The measures of central tendency are the mean, median and mode. These are Values about which
the distribution of a set of data is considered to be roughly balanced.

The Mean, x̄
The mean is the ordinary arithmetical average. It is the value obtained when then the total sum of
the values of the members in a list, set or distribution is divided by the total number or frequency.
The mean can be obtained for grouped or ungrouped data.
sum o f values in set
x̄ = Number o f values in set
Given a set of n values x1 , x2 , x3 , ..., xn then x̄ = x1 +x2 +xn3 +...+xn = ∑nx
NOTE: the symbol ∑ is a Greek letter which means "the sum of.and it is read "sigma".
Example 1
Find the mean of the set of numbers 3, 4, -1, 22, 14, 0, 9, 18, 7, 0, 1.
Solution
The first step is to count how many numbers there are in the set, which we shall call n
n = 10, ∑ x = 3 + 4 + −1 + 22 + 14 + 0 + 9 + 18 + 7 + 0 + 1 = 77
Therefore x̄ = ∑nx = 7710 = 7,7
Example 2
On a certain day, nine students received, respectively, 1, 3, 2, 0, 1, 5, 2, 1and 3 pieces of mail. Find
the mean.
Solution
Mean, x̄ = ∑nx = 132015213
9 = 189 = 2.
Mean can also be found for a frequency distribution. If data is in the form of a frequency distribution,
the mean is calculated using the formula:
Mean, x̄ = ∑∑ffx where ∑ f x is ‘the sum of the products’ i.e. ∑(number × f requency) and ∑ f means
’the sum of the frequencies’.
Example 3
The following frequency distribution shows the temperatures that were recorded over a 20-day
period in January 2012. Calculate the mean daily temperature over this period.
.

Solution
.

Mean daily temperature, x̄ = ∑∑ffx = 396 ◦

20 = 19,8 C
Mean for grouped data.
When the data have been grouped into intervals we do not know the actual values, so we can
estimate the mean. We take the mid – point of an interval to represent that interval. Thus for
grouped data, each class can be represented approximately by its mid-point (class mark).
68

Example 4
The results of 24 students in Elements of mathematics test are given in the table.
.

The Mean mark, x̄ = ∑∑ffx = 1·638

24 = 68,25
Example 5
The length of 40 bean pods were measured to the nearest cm and grouped as shown. Estimate the
mean length, giving the answer to one decimal place.
.

Solution
.

∑ fx 825
The Mean length, x̄ = ∑f
= 40 = 20 · 6 (1d p)

Method of assumed mean

When the number of members in a list is large, the above method of finding the mean is qui-
te difficult and tiring. Assumed mean, like the name suggests, is a guess or an assumption of the
mean. Assumed mean is most commonly denoted by the letter A. It doesn’t need to be correct
or even close to the actual mean and choice of the assumed mean is at your discretion except for
where the question explicitly asks you to use a certain assumed mean value.

From the data we can guess the expected value of the mean. This expected value is called the
assumed or working mean. The assumed mean is approximately in the middle of the data. In
a frequency distribution table, the modal value provides the best assumed value. How ever the
assumed mean does not need to be one of the values given.

Example 6
The table below shows the profit made by a trader in 100 days.
.

Calculate the mean profit using the method of assumed mean.

Solution
To calculate the mean of the above data using an assumed mean, the following steps should be
followed.
4.1 Descriptive Statistics 69

1. Choose an appropriate assumed mean (A) from the range of the values given if the question
has not specified the value.
2. Find by how much each of the values (x) differs from this assumed mean (A). These
differences obtained are called deviations (d). Thus, d = x – A.
3. Multiply each frequency (f) by its corresponding value of deviation (d) to obtain the product
(fd).
4. Find the sum of the products, ∑ f d , and then divide this sum by the sum of the frequencies
to obtain the mean of the deviations, ∑∑ffd
5. Find the mean by using the formula: x̄ = A + ∑∑ffd
The table below is a summary of the calculations where the assumed mean, A is 135 (the modal
value).
.

The actual mean = assumed mean + mean deviations

x̄ = A + ∑∑ffd
135 + 340
100 = 135 + 3 · 4 = 138 · 4
The mean profit is Sh. 138.40 × 1000 = Sh. 138,400

Median

The median is defined as the number in the middle of a given set of numbers arranged in or-
der of increasing magnitude. When given a set of numbers, the median is the number positioned
in the exact middle of the list when you arrange the numbers from the lowest to the highest. The
median is also a measure of average. The median is important because it describes the behavior of
the entire set of numbers.
Example 1
Find the median in the set of numbers given below
15, 16, 15, 7, 21, 18, 19, 20, 11
Solution
From the definition of median, we should be able to tell that the first step is to rearrange the given
set of numbers in order of increasing magnitude, i.e. from the lowest to the highest
7, 11, 15, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21
Then we inspect the set to find that number which lies in the exact middle.
7,11,15,15,16,18,19, 20, 21
Median = 16
Example 2
Find the median of the given data: 13, 0, 5, 8, -8, -5, 10, 7, 1, 0, 0, 4, 6, 16
Solution
We start off by rearranging the data in order from the smallest to the largest.
-8,-5,0,0,0,1,4,5,6,7,8,10,13,16
We inspect the data to find the number that lies in the exact middle
-8,-5, 0, 0, 0,1,4,5, 6, 7, 8,10,13,16
We can see from the above that we end up with two numbers (4 and 5) in the middle. We can solve
for the median by finding the mean of these two numbers as follows:
70

Median = 4+5 2 = 4·5

Therefore the middle position in an array of N data items is the position numbered N+1 2
If N is odd, there is a data item at the middle and we take this item as the median. If N is even, we
take the average of the two middle data items as median.
For grouped data,
 the median
 is given by the following formula:
N
2 −C f b
Median = L1 fm C
Where
(i). L1 is lower class boundary of the median class
(ii). C fb is cumulative frequency of the class before the median class;
(iii). fm is frequency of the median class;
(iv). C is class width of the median class;
(v). N is total frequency
Example 3
The table below shows the weights of 40 poles in kg. Find the median weight.
.

We find the median class first. Since N2 = 40

2 = 20, we look for where 20 is cumulated in the
cumulative frequency column. We note that this lies in the cumulative of 29. And so "145 – 153ïs
the median class.
Thus L1 = 144,5;
 C fb =
 17; fm = 12;  C=9 
N
2 −C f b 20−17
Median = L1 fm C = 144 · 5 + 12 × 9 = 144 · 5 + 2,25 = 146 · 75kg

The mode

Another measure which is sometimes used to describe the “middle” of a set of data is the mode.
The mode is defined as the element that appears most frequently in a given set of elements. Using
the definition of frequency given above, mode can also be defined as the element with the highest
frequency in a given data set.

For a given data set, there can be more than one mode. As long as those elements all have
the same frequency and that frequency is the highest, they are all the modal elements of the data set.
Example 1
Find the mode of the following numbers: 5, 4, 10, 3, 3, 4, 7, 4, 6, 5.
Solution
The mode is 4. (There are more 4’s than any other number).
Example 2
Find the Mode of the following data set.
3, 12, 15, 3, 15, 8, 20, 19, 3, 15, 12, 19, 9
Solution
Mode = 3 and 15
Mode for Grouped Data
For grouped data,
 the mode
 is estimated using the following formula:
d1
Mode = L1 + d1 +d2 ×C
4.1 Descriptive Statistics 71

Where:
(i). L1 is lower class boundary of the modal class (i.e. the class containing the mode);
(ii). d1 is the difference between the frequency of the modal class and the frequency of the class
before it;
(iii). d2 is the difference between the frequency of the modal class and the frequency of the class
after it;
(iv). C is class width of the modal class.
Example 3
Find the mode of the following data.
.

Solution
The modal class is the class with the highest frequency. Thus from the table, the modal class for
this data is ‘26 – 28’.
So L1 = 25,5, d1 = (12− 6) = 6, d2 = (12 −9) = 3, C = 3.
d1 6
Mode = L1 + d1 +d2 ×C = 22 · 5 + 6+3 × 3 = 25 · 5 + 2 = 27,5

Exercise
1. Find the mean of each of the following sets of numbers.

1769, 1771, 1772, 1775, 1778, 1781, 1784

0.85, 0.88, 0.89, 0.93, 0.94, 0.96
2. The mean of 10 numbers is 8. If an eleventh number, c is now included in the results, the mean
becomes 9. What is the value of c.
3. The mean of n numbers is 5. If the number 13 is now included with the n numbers, the new mean
is 6. Find the value of n.
4. If the mean of the following frequency distribution is 3.66, find the value of a.
.

5. The marks below were obtained by students of Elements of Mathematics in Journalism group in
the end of Advent examination.
.

1. Find the average mark for the class

2. Draw an ogive to represent the marks and use it to estimate the median and semi inter-quartile
range
72

3. Using the ogive estimate the probability that a student selected at random scored a mark
between 32.5 and 49.5
6. The table below shows the time (in seconds) taken to solve a certain problem
.

Draw a histogram for the data and use it to estimate the mode.
7. In a competition, 30 children had to pick up as many money notes of 50,000 as possible in one
minute using their hands. The results were as follows:
.

Construct a frequency table using intervals of width 10, starting with 1 – 10. From the frequency
table, estimate the
(i). mean,
(ii). median of the distribution.
(8). Mr Okot starts to make a database for his lesson.
.

(a). What is missing from Mr Okot’s database?

(b). Which columns in the database contain quantitative data?
(c). Which columns in the database contain qualitative data?
(d). Write down what Mr Okot would put in his database if you joined his class.
(8). Situation of Integration
The Games Master at your University wants to buy football boots for the three teams in the
University. The three teams are the under 18 years, under 16 years and the under 14 years. The
Games Master does not know the foot size for each of the players.
Support: pens, paper, tape measure, team members
Resources: Knowledge of tabulation, of tallying, of approximation, of central measures and of
collection of suitable data.
Task: The total number of players for the three teams is 54. The Games Master wants to know the
size of the boots for each player and the number of pairs for each size.
Explain how the Games Master will get the required data and how to determine the total cost for
buying the football boots for the 54 players.
Is there another way of getting the required data other than what you have explained above?
 5. Mathematical Logic

Propositions and Truth Assignments

In this chapter we shall look at statements with a very simple form and arguments about them
which rely only on how we use words like ‘and’, ‘or’, ’not’ and ‘implies’. We shall also look at the
truth or falsity of the statements and the validity of arguments built up from them. It is best to give
one or two examples. For instance, suppose that we are told that:
‘the temperature outside is at most 20◦C or the drains smell’ and believe this statement to be true.
Suppose that the weather forecast for tomorrow predicts a temperature of over 20◦C. Then we
would predict that the drains will smell.
As another example, suppose that we are told about some function f : R → R that ‘f is not differen-
tiable or f is continuous’ and that we have the further piece of information that f is differentiable.
Then from this information we can infer that f is continuous.

These arguments cover entirely different areas of experience, but at a certainlevel they have a
common shape. The statement ‘the temperature outside is at most 20◦C or the drains smell’ in the
first argument is built up from two shorter statements
‘the temperature outside is at most 20◦C’ and ‘the drains smell’

connected by the word ‘or’. The extra information that the statement ‘the Indeed we call the
word ‘or’ a connective as it connects shorter statements to produce a longer one. temperature outsi-
de is over 20◦C’ is true tells us that the statement ‘the temperature outside is at most 20◦C’ is false,
from which we can infer that ‘the drains smell’ will be true, using our understanding of the word ‘or’.

Similarly the statement ‘f is not differentiable or f is continuous’ is built up from the statements ‘f
is not differentiable’ and ‘f is continuous’
NOTE: Indeed we call the word ‘or’ a connective as it connects shorter statements to produce a
longer one.
74

by connecting them with ‘or’. And given the extra information that ‘f is differentiable’, so that the
statement ‘f is not differentiable’ is false, our understanding of the word ‘or’ helps us infer that ‘f is
continuous’. The ‘not’ converts ‘f is differentiable’ into the longer statement ‘f is not differentiable’.
We shall also describe ‘not’ as a connective and consider it in this chapter.

We shall summarize the common feature of these two arguments that will particularly interest us in
this chapter as follows. Using the letters p and q to stand for statements like ‘the drains smell’ and
‘f is not differentiable’, if we believe the more complicated statement ‘p or q’ to be true and the
statement p to be false, we can infer that q is true.

There are other features of the arguments which are of interest. For instance, one might reasonably
question whether the statement ‘the temperature outside is at most 20◦C or the drains smell’ is
actually true – it might be true for one person’s drains but not for somebody else’s – whereas anyone
who has studied real analysis would know that for any function f : R → R, the statement ‘f is not
differentiable or f is continuous’ is always true. We shall refine our description of the common
features of the argument to account for these factors by saying that:
under any set of circumstances for which the statement ‘p or q’ is true and p is false, then q is true.

This is then something to do first with how a statement is built up from its component parts,
here using ‘or’, and second how the truth of the statement depends on the truth of these component
parts. It is nothing to do with the content of the statements for which p and q stand.

‘Proposition’ is often used to mean a statement about which it is sensible to ask whether it is
true or false.

In this we shall discuss a formal language within which we can build up complicated statements
from basic component propositions using symbols like ∨, ∧ → to stand for connecting words.
here respectively ‘or’, ‘and’, ‘implies’. The formal language will have construction rules to ensure
that any such complicated expression is capable of being judged to be either true or false, given
the truth or falsity of the component parts. For instance, we want to avoid the formal equivalent
of expressions like ‘or the drains smell’: without some statement before the ‘or’, we would be
reluctant to describe this as in a fit state to be pronounced true or false. These construction rules are
described as the syntax of the language. The framework within which we give some sort of meaning
to the formal statements and interpret them as true or false in a given set of circumstances is called
the semantics of the language. After we have established the basic rules of the language and its
interpretation, we shall move on to issues like when one statement is a consequence of others. This
will lay the ground for the discussion of a formal proof system for such statements. We shall build on
this later in the book when we discuss this idea of consequence for much richer languages involving
predicates and quantifiers within which we can express some serious mathematical statements.

There might appear to be potential for confusion between the formal language we study and
the language we use to discuss it. The language we use for this discussion is that of everyday mathe-
matical discourse and is often described as the metalanguage. We hope that we won’t confuse the
two sorts of language – usually the context will make it clear when we are talking about the formal
language. However there will be strong links between the two levels of language. For instance, the
formal rules for the use of the symbol ∧ intended to represent the word ‘and’ will inevitably be
based on how we use the word ‘and’ in everyday discourse. Also the desire to represent some part of
everyday language in a formal way can force us to tie down how we use everyday language correctly.
 5.1 The construction of propositional formulas 75

What we are about to describe in this chapter, and indeed in the book as a whole, is a mathe-
matical model of a fragment of natural language and arguments using it, not capturing fully their
richness and variety. The importance of the model resides in the richness of the resulting theory,
its applicability to large tracts of mathematics and, historically, in giving a paradigm for more
refined modern analyses of language and argument – indeed, it is the model used by virtually all
mathematicians and users of logic. Our model will make some hard and fast decisions about how
to use terms like ‘true’, ‘false’ and ‘or’ which could legitimately be challenged in terms of how
well they model natural language. Your attitude as a reader and student should be to run with our
decisions for the purposes of this book, and probably for all the mathematics you will ever do, but
to have an open mind to well-reasoned objections to them!

5.1 The construction of propositional formulas

In this section we shall describe the formal language which we shall use to represent statements.
The language will consist of some basic symbols and we shall give rules for combining these into
more complicated expressions, giving what is called the syntax of the language. We shall describe
the way in which we shall give meaning to the formal language, that is, give its semantics, in the
following section. However, the syntax and semantics are, perhaps not surprisingly, intertwined, so
that considerations of the semantics will influence the specification of the syntax.

We have already indicated that we shall use letters like p and q to stand for basic component
propositions, like ‘the drains smell’ and ‘f is continuous’, and that we shall use symbols to stand for
connectives like ‘or’ and ‘and’ to build more complicated propositions from these basic ones. The
building process involves stringing together these symbols and letters. We need to be clear what is
meant by a string of symbols. A string is a finite sequence of symbols. Furthermore, we normally
specify the set of symbols which can be used to form a string and we shall do this soon. Just as in
everyday language, we have to distinguish which strings of symbols represent anything to which
we can usefully give a meaning. In most normal uses a string like )9X7a)) would normally mean
nothing and signify that some error has occurred, e.g. a cat has danced on a computer keyboard.
For our purposes in this chapter, we will have particular requirements of a statement and this will
have a knock-on effect on the strings of symbols in which we shall be interested. For instance, we
want to represent statements for which it is meaningful to talk in terms of their truth or falsity. So
we would want to exclude from our set of formal statements a string is representing.
‘I’ll go down to the shops and’
on the grounds that there’s something missing after the ‘and’, preventing us from deciding on its
truth on the basis of the truth or falsity of its component parts. Just because we can utter the words
in this string, we are not necessarily stating any idea. More subtly, we want to avoid ambiguity in
our formal statements, as for instance with
‘it is snowing or the bus doesn’t come and I’ll be late for work’.
The truth of this statement depends on whether its component parts are bracketed together as
‘it is snowing or the bus doesn’t come’ and ‘I’ll be late for work’
or
‘it is snowing’ or ‘the bus doesn’t come and I’ll be late for work’.

In the case when ‘it is snowing’ is true, but both ‘the bus doesn’t come’ and ‘I’ll be late for
work’ are false, the first way of bracketing the components gives false while the second gives true.
So without some form of bracketing (perhaps done by pausing or emphasis when speaking, or
extra punctuation in writing) the original ‘statement’ is ambiguous, that is, it admits more than one
76

interpretation. For the precision in mathematical argument which the framework of logic helps to
achieve, such ambiguity has to be avoided and this is one of the features we shall build into our
syntax.

Exercise
Which, if any, of the following statements is ambiguous?
(a). If it is snowing and the bus doesn’t come, then I’ll be late for work.
(b).‘ If it is snowing then the bus doesn’t come and I’ll be late for work.
Solution
We think that (a) is unambiguous, but that (b) is possibly ambiguous. In the context of everyday
life we would normally interpret (b) as saying that ‘the bus doesn’t come’ and ‘I’ll be late for
work’ are both consequences of ‘it is snowing’. But it is also possible as interpreting it as saying
‘if it is snowing then the bus doesn’t come’ and ‘I’ll be late for work’, so that I’ll be late for work
regardless of whether it is snowing! The meaning of (b) could be made clearer by the insertion of
some punctuation, like a comma, in an appropriate place.

With considerations like these in mind, we shall define our formal statements as follows. First we
shall specify the formal language, that is, the symbols from which strings can be formed. We shall
always allow brackets – these will be needed to avoid ambiguity. We shall specify a set P of basic
statements, called propositional variables.From these we can build more complex statements by
joining statements together using brackets and symbols in a set S of connectives, which are going to
represent ways of connecting statements to each other, like ∨ for ‘or’ and other symbols mentioned
earlier. We can take any symbols we like for the propositional variables, so long as these symbols
don’t clash with those used for the brackets and the connectives. To make life easier, we shall adopt
the following convention for the symbols we’ll use.

Convention for variables

We shall normally use individual lower case letters like p, q, r, s, . . . and subscripted letters like
p0 , p1 , p2 , ..., pn , .. . for our propositional propositional variables. Distinct letters or subscripts give
us distinct symbols. When we don’t specify the set P of propositional variables in a precise way, we
shall use p, q, r and so on to represent different members of the set.Our formal version of statements,
which we’ll call formulas, is given by the following definition.

Definition Formula

Let P be a set of propositional variables and let S be the set of connectives {∨, ∧, →, ↔, ¬}.
A formula is a member of the set form (P, S) of strings of symbols involving elements of P, S and
brackets ( and ) formed according to the following rules.
(i). Each propositional variable is a formula.
(ii). If θ and ψ are formulas, then so are
¬θ , (θ ∨ ψ), (θ ∧ ψ), (θ → ψ), (θ ↔ ψ)
(iii). All formulas arise from finitely many applications of (i) and (ii). So all formulas are finitely
long. If we use a different set S of connectives, for instance just {∨, →}, then clause (ii) is amended
accordingly to cover just these symbols.

The intended meanings of the connectives are as follows: ∧ will be interpreted by ‘and’, ∨ by ‘or’,
¬ by ‘not’, → by ‘implies’ and by ‘if and only if’. With these intended meanings, you can see why
clause (ii) of the definition uses ∧, ∨, → and to connect together two formulas, while ¬ connects
with only one. The brackets used in clause (ii) are a very important part of the definition, playing a
5.1 The construction of propositional formulas 77

crucial part in making it possible to interpret formulas in an unambiguous way.

Exercise
1. Explain why each of the following are formulas, taking the set P of propositional variables to
include p, q, r, s.
(a). (r →, ¬s)
(b). ((r → q) ∧ (r ∨ p))
(c). ¬¬p
2. Explain why each of the following is not a formula, taking the set P of propositional variables to
include p, q.
(a). pq
(b). (pq)
(c). ¬(p)
(d). (¬p)
(e). (p ∧ ∨q)
3. Construct a tree for each of the following strings.
(a). ¬(¬pr)
(b). ((p ∧ r) → (¬pq))