Subject: Environmental Studies

Questions and answers related to 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th Units.

1. Multidisciplinary nature of Environmental studies(5)

Keeping in view the complex nature of environment, knowledge inputs from various disciplines
of science, social science, law and engineering are included in Environmental Studies.

Life Sciences Physical Sciences

Biology, Biochemistry, Physics, Chemistry, Earth Sciences, Atmospheric
1. Science, Oceanography, Geography etc.
Microbiology, Biotechnology, etc.

Basic and Applied studies

Mathematics, Environmental Civil engineering, Chemical
Statistics, Computer Studies Engineering, Hydraulics,
Science etc. Modelling Technology Nanotechnology etc.

Management and Awareness

Economics, Sociology, Law, Education, Management,

Mass Communication etc.

Life Sciences including botany, zoology, microbiology, genetics and

biochemistry help in understanding the biotic components and their interactions. Genetics
and biotechnology are emerging as useful tools for finding solutions to environmental
problems.

For understanding the physical and chemical structure of abiotic components of environment along
with mass and energy transfers we have to make use of the basic concept of physics, chemistry,
geology, atmospheric science, oceanography and geography.

Mathematics, statistics and computer science likewise serve as effective tools in environmental
modeling.

Subjects like economics, management and sociology provide the inputs for dealing with the socio-
economic aspects associated with various development activities.

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A synthesis of civil engineering, hydraulics, chemical engineering and nanotechnology provide the
technical solutions to environmental pollution control and waste treatment that are extremely
important for protection of the environment.

Environmental laws provide the guidelines and legal measures for effective management and
protection of the environment.

Environmental education and mass communication are two important subjects that are instrumental
in disseminating environmental awareness.

Environmental sciences, therefore is a multidisciplinary subject where we deal with different

aspects using a holistic approach.

2. Components of environment(5)

Ecosystem is a part of natural environment consisting of a community of living beings and the
physical environment both constantly interchanging materials and energy between them. It is the
sum total of the environment or a part of nature.

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The environment consists of four segments as follows −

 Atmosphere − The atmosphere refers to the protective blanket of gases, surrounding the
earth. It sustains life on the earth. It saves the Earth from the hostile environment of the
outer space. The atmosphere composed of nitrogen and oxygen in large quantity along with
small percentage of other gases such as argon, carbon dioxide, and trace gases (the gases
which makes up less than 1 percent by volume of the atmosphere.

 Hydrosphere − Hydrosphere comprises all water resources such as ocean, seas, lakes,
rivers, reservoirs, icecaps, glaciers, and ground water.

 Lithosphere − It is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It contains minerals occurring in the
earth’s crust and the soil.

 Biosphere − It constitutes the realm of living organisms and their interactions with the
environment (atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere).

3. Sustainability(2)
“Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.”

4. Sustainable development(5)

According to the United Nations, "Sustainable development is the development that meets
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs."

Concept of Sustainable Development

Sustainable development requires setting limits in terms of population or resource use beyond
which lies ecological disaster. It warns every one of us against surpassing the ultimate limits of the
natural system, or else face dire consequences. It also requires that long before mankind crosses
these limits, the world must ensure equitable access to the constrained resource and use technology
towards it.

Economic growth and development obviously involve changes in the physical ecosystem.
However, it should not cross the limits of regeneration and natural growth. For instance, renewable

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resources such as forests and fish stocks need not be depleted provided the rate of use is within the
limits of regeneration and natural growth.

Sustainable development requires that the rate of depletion of non-renewable resources should
foreclose as few future options as possible. It requires flourishing biodiversity and, hence, it
vouches for the conservation of plant and animal species. It also vouches for a type of development
where the adverse impacts on the quality of air, water, and other natural elements are minimized so
as to sustain the ecosystem’s overall integrity.

Sustainable development is a wholesome process of change in which the use of resources,

investment, the orientation of technological development and institutional changes are all in
harmony with and enhance both the current and future potential to meet human needs and
aspirations.

5. Scope and importance of environmental studies(5)

Scope of Environmental Studies

Environmental studies play an important role in the present day technological world. This subject is
gaining a lot of importance in the field of pollution control, but also to sustain the life and nature.

Many environmental factors like water, air, soil etc., are polluted by various means, the solution of
which needs the knowledge of environmental studies. This branch helps to understand the nature of
environment and its components, nature of disturbing factors, and the factors pressurizing
sustainability and natural living.

It also helps in the management of sewage and Effluent Treatment plants (ETP) in industrial sectors,
municipal waters, recycling of biodegradable wastes also needs the knowledge of Environmental
Studies. It also helps in preventing the Environmental Health Hazards.

Importance of Environmental Studies

Environmental Studies helps us to understand various factors of the environment. In the view of
many scientists pollution rate is increasing day by day. If this pollution rate continuous at the same
rate then there will be damage to ecological cycles and ecological balances in nature upon which all
life depends.

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Earth does not have infinite resources. The sources are limited. The limited resources should be
conserved and should be utilized properly wherever required. Several Environmental problems have
been solved by the knowledge of this subject.

 Greenhouse effect
The effect produced in the environment by the increased level of carbon-dioxide is
called greenhouse effect or global warming. By reducing the consumption of fossil
fuels like coal, oil and natural gas this global warming can be reduced.

 Depletion of the ozone layer

Ozone layer, a thin band in the stratosphere (layer above the upper atmosphere)
protects the earth from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. Chlorofluorocarbons destroy
the ozone layer. This increased ultraviolet radiation leads to skin cancer and cataracts
and also reduce the ability of immune systems to respond to infection.
 Ground water depletion and contamination
A water body that occurs below the ground surface is called groundwater. The upper
surface of the ground water level is called water table. Due to various activities of
humans ground water level is decreasing. Industrial wastes which let on the ground
infiltrate into it and contaminates.

6. Ecosystem(2)
By Tansley (1935)
“An ecosystem is a self –regulating group of biotic communities of species interacting with
one another and with their non-living environment, exchanging energy and matter.”

7. Ecosystem structure and function (5)

The structure of an ecosystem comprises two basic components

i) Abiotic components (non-living)
ii) Biotic components (living)

Abiotic factors are classified broadly under three categories:

1. Climatic factors-such as light, atmospheric temperature, wind, humidity, etc

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 2. Edaphic factors- relate to the composition and structure of the soil (soil type, soil profile,
organic matter, minerals, soil water, and soil organisms).
3. Inorganic and Organic substances
Inorganic substances- water, carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus etc.Organic substances-
Proteins, lipids, carbohydrates,etc.

Biotic component

The Plants, animals and microorganisms present in an ecosystem forms the biotic component.

Based on how they get their food biotic components are named as; Producers, Consumers and
Decomposers.

Producers (autotrophs) are organisms that make their own food by a chemical process called
photosynthesis. Most producers are green plants. However a few bacteriaand fungi are also
producers (Chemo-autotrophs).

Consumers (heterotroph) are organisms that cannot make its own food. It depends on other
organisms for energy. All animals are consumers.

Based on the type of food they consume the consumers are categorized into following:

 Herbivore (primary consumer) - eats only plants; includes cows, zebras, horses, deer,
some insects
 Carnivores (secondary consumer) - eats only other consumers (meat); includes cats,
owls, seals, spiders, wolves, hawks
 Omnivore (tertiary consumer) - eats both plants and animals; includes raccoons,
monkeys, bears, skunks, turtles

Decomposers: are organisms that get energy by decaying the remains of dead organisms. They are
nature’s recyclers (bacteria and fungi). When an organism dies, decomposers decay the body
extracting the last bit of energy from it.

Functions of Ecosystem

The functional attributes of the ecosystem keep the components running together. Ecosystem
functions are natural processes or exchange of energy that take place in various plant and animal
communities of different biomes of the world.
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For instance, green leaves prepare food and roots absorb nutrients from the soil, herbivores feed on
the leaves and the roots and in turn serve as food for the carnivores.

Decomposers execute the functions of breaking down complex organic materials into simple
inorganic products, which are used by the producers.

Fundamentally, ecosystem functions are exchange of energy and nutrients in the food chain. These
exchanges sustain plant and animal life on the planet as well as the decomposition of organic
matter and the production of biomass.

All these functions of the ecosystem take place through delicately balanced and controlled
processes.

8. Energy flow in the ecosystem(5)

Energy moves life. The cycle of energy is based on the flow of energy through different trophic
levels in an ecosystem. Our ecosystem is maintained by the cycling energy and nutrients obtained
from different external sources. At the first trophic level, primary producers use solar energy to
produce organic material through photosynthesis.

The herbivores at the second trophic level use the plants as food which gives them energy. A large
part of this energy is used up for the metabolic functions of these animals such as breathing,
digesting food, supporting growth of tissues, maintaining blood circulation and body temperature.

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The carnivores at the next trophic level feed on the herbivores and derive energy for their
sustenance and growth. If large predators are present, they represent still higher trophic level and
they feed on carnivores to get energy. Thus, the different plants and animal species are linked to
one another through food chains.

Decomposers which include bacteria, fungi, molds, worms, and insects break down wastes and
dead organisms, and return the nutrients to the soil, which is then taken up by the producers. Energy
is not recycled during decomposition, but it is released.

9. Food chain(2)

“The transfer of food energy from the producers, through a series of organisms (herbivores to
carnivores to decomposers) with repeated eating and being eaten, is known as food chain.”

In nature, basically two types of food chains are recognized –

1. Grazing food chain

2. Detritus food chain.

This type of food chain starts from the living green plants goes to grazing herbivores, and on to
carnivores. Ecosystems with such type of food chain are directly dependent on an influx of solar
radiation.

This type of chain thus depends on autotrophic energy capture and the movement of this captured
energy to herbivores. Most of the ecosystems in nature follow this type of food chain.

The phyto-planktons →zooplanktons →Fish sequence

grasses →rabbit →Fox sequences are the examples, of grazing food chain.

2. Detritus food chain:

This type of food chain goes from dead organic matter into micro-organisms and then to organisms
feeding on detritus (detrivores) and their predators.

Such ecosystems are thus less dependent on direct solar energy. These depend chiefly on the influx
of organic matter produced in another system.

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10. Food web(2)

Food Web: Is a network of food chains where different types of organisms are connected at
different trophic levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten at each
trophic level.

11. Significance of Food chain (5)

 Food chains and food webs paly very significant roles in the ecosystem because the most
important functions of energy flow and nutrient cycling take place through them.
 The food chains also help in maintaining and regulating the population size of different
animals and thus help maintaining the ecological balance.
 Food chains show unique property of biological magnification of some chemicals. There are
several pesticides, heavy metals and other chemicals which are non-biodegradable in nature.
Such chemicals are not decomposed by microorganisms and they keep on passing from one
trophic level to another. And, at each successive trophic level, they keep on increasing in
concentration. This phenomenon is known as bio-magnification or biological magnification.
12. Ecological Succession (5)
is defined as an orderly process of changes in the community structure and function with
time mediated through modifications in the physical environment and ultimately culminating
in a stabilized ecosystem known as climax.

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 Ecological succession starting on different types of areas of substrata is named differently as
follows:
i. Hydrarch or Hydrosere: Starting in watery area like pond, swamp, bog
ii. Mesarch: starting in an area of adequate moisture
iii. Xerarch of Xerosere: Starting in a dry area with little moisture.
They can be of the following types:
Lithosere: Starting on a bare rock
Psammosere: Starting on sand
Halosere: Starting on saline soil
Process of succession
Takes place in a systematic order of sequential steps as follows:
i. Nudation
ii. Invasion
iii. Competition and coaction
iv. Reaction
v. Stabalization
a. Nudation: It is the development of a bare area without any life form. The bare area may
be caused due to landslides, volcanic eruption etc. (topographic factor), or due to drought,
glaciers, frost etc (Climatic factor), or due to overgrazing, disease outbreak,
agricultural/industrial activities (biotic factors).
b. Invasion: It is the successful establishment of one or more species on a bare area through
dispersal or migration, followed by ecesisor establishment. Dispersal of the seeds,
spores etc is brought about by wind, water, insects or birds. Then the seeds germinate and
grow on the land.
As growth and reproduction start, these pioneer species increase in number and form groups
or aggregations.
c. Competition and coaction: As the number of individuals grows there is competition,
both inter-specific (between different species) and intra-specific (within the same
species), for space, water and nutrition. They influence each other in a number of ways,
known as COACTION.
d. Reaction: The living organisms grow, use water and nutrients from the substratum, and
in turn, they have a strong influence on the environment which is modified to a large

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 extent and this is known as reaction. The modifications are very often such that they
become unsuitable for the existing species and favor some new species which replace
them. Thus, reaction leads to several seral communities.
e. Stabilization: The succession ultimately culminates in a more or less stable community
called climax which is in equilibrium with the environment. The climax community is
characterized by maximum biomass and symbiotic (mutually beneficial) linkages
between organisms and is maintained quite efficiently per unit of available energy.

13. Explain forest ecosystem in detail(5)

These are the ecosystems having predominance of trees that are interspersed with a large
number of herbs, shrubs, climbers, lichens, algae and a wide variety of wild animals and
birds.
Depending upon the prevailing climatic conditions forests can be of various types:
a. Tropical rain forests: They are evergreen broadleaf forests found near the equator. They
are characterized by high temperature high humidity and high rainfall, all of which favor
the growth of trees. All through the year the climate remains more or less uniform. They
are the richest biodiversity. Different forms of life occupy specialized areas within
different layers and spaces of the ecosystem depending upon their needs foe food,
sunlight, water, nutrient etc.

b. Tropical deciduous forests: they are found a little away from the equator and are
characterized by a warm climate the year round. Rain occurs only during monsoon. A
large part of the year remains dry and therefore different types of deciduous trees are
found here which lose their leaves during dry season.
c. Tropical scrub forests: They are found in areas where the dry season is even longer. Here
there are small deciduous trees and shrubs.
d. Temperate rain forests: they are found in temperate areas with adequate rainfall. These
are dominated by coniferous trees like pines, firs, redwoods etc.
e. Temperate deciduous forests: They are found in areas with moderate temperatures. There
is a marked seasonality with long summers, cold but not too severe winter and abundant
rainfall throughout the year. The major trees include broad leaf deciduous trees like oak,
hickory, poplar etc.

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 f. Evergreen coniferous forests (Tundra forests): They are found just south of arctic tundra.
Here winters are long, cold and dry. Sunlight is available for a few hours only. In summer
the temperature is mild, sun-shines for long hours but the season is quite short. The major
trees include pines, spruce, fir, cedar etc.

14. Grassland ecosystem(5)

Grassland ecosystems are generally grass dominated ecosystems associated with large rivers
on alluvial soils and its soil conditions do not, permit the growth of trees. In the grassland
ecosystem the abiotic components are the organic or nutrients present both in the soil and
also in the atmosphere. Elements like carbon-di-oxide, water, nitrates, phosphates, sulphates
are present both in the air and soil of that area.
Producers are mainly grasses, shrubs, and small trees. Here primary consumers include
domestic animals like goat, sheep, cow, deer, rabbits, etc.
Secondary consumers include animals like foxes, snakes, frog etc. Decomposers are found on
the decaying and dead organic matter of different forms.

15. Desert ecosystem(5)

Deserts are developed in the region where rainfall is less than 25 cms, high evaporation and
also by erosion of soil.
In deserts humidity is very low. Nights are cooler than days. Temperature is very high in the
deserts which may go up to 550C. Soils contain very little organic matter and lacks nitrogen.
Soil is fertile and usually not suitable for agriculture.
There are three life forms of plants in deserts they are:
a. The annuals: It can be grown only where adequate moisture is present.
b. The Succulents: The succulents have high capacity of storing water. Example Cacti
c. The Deserts shrubs: It consists of thick leaves with numerous branches and a special root
system which helps them to adopt to the condition.
Consumers
Desert animals are drought resistors; they include camel, grasshoppers, ants, bees,
butterflies, and beetles etc., birds nest during rainy season. Desert fox possess large ears.
Kangaroo can live for a year without drinking water. Some of the animals feed on dry
seeds and dry plant material. Camel is a large desert mammal.

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 Due to the poor vegetation, dead organic matter is less and some fungi and bacterial are
present which acts as decomposers.

16. Lake ecosystem(5)

Lakes are usually big fresh water bodies with standing water. They have shallow water zone
called Littoral zone, an open – water zone where effective penetration of solar light takes
place, called Limnetic zone and a deep bottom area where light penetration is negligible
known as Benthic zone.
Organisms: The lakes have several types of organisms
a. Planktonsthat float on the surface of waters
e.g. phytoplanktons like algae and Zooplanktons like rotifers
b. Nektons that swim e.g. fishes.
c. Neustons that rest or swim on the surface
d. Benthos that are attached or clinging to other plants or any other surface e.g. crustaceans

Zonation in a Lake ecosystem

17. Natural resources (5)

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Resources obtained from nature, i.e. from the earth are called natural resources. These
resources occur naturally, and humans cannot make them. The raw materials used in
artificial or man-made resources are natural resources.

Classification of Natural Resources

Classification of natural resources can be done in several ways based on their origin, level of
development and uses, stock or deposits, and their distribution.

On the basis of their origin, natural resources can be classified into living or biotic and
non-living or abiotic resources.

Living or Biotic Resources

If natural resources come from living things or organic materials, they are termed as living
or biotic resources. Biotic resources include plants, animals and fossil fuels. Fossil fuels such
as coal, oil and natural gas are classified as biotic resources as they are formed from the
decay of organic matter over millions of years.

Non-living or Abiotic Resources

On the other hand, if the resources are derived from nonliving or inorganic materials, they
are termed as abiotic resources. For instance, air, sunlight, and water are abiotic natural
resources. Minerals are also considered abiotic.

On the basis of deposit or stock, natural resources can be classified as renewable and non-
renewable.

Renewable Natural Resources

Resources that can be used without any risk of its ending up are called renewable resources.
They exist in unlimited quantity. Sun, water, wind, biomass, tides, geothermal energy, etc.
are renewable resources. These are infinite sources of energy.

Non-renewable Natural Resources

Those natural resources, on the other hand, that cannot be replenished after their depletion is
called non-renewable resources. Most fossil fuels, such as coal, petroleum and natural gas
are considered nonrenewable resources. Nonrenewable resources take billions of years for
their formation, hence, their cautious and economic use is the only option left for mankind.

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18. Land degradation (5)
Land degradation is defined as the reduction of the fertility of the soil, which thereby reduced
the productivity capacity of the soil.
Factors for land degradation
a. Intensive agriculture removal of minerals particularly nitrates and phosphates from the
top layer.
b. Growing the same crop year after year deprives the soil of particular minerals used by the
crop. It also causes some soil borne plant diseases.
c. Flowing water wastes away the minerals of the top soil.
d. Improper irrigation can lead to salinization of the top soil making it less productive.
e. Addition of industrial wastes change the chemical nature of the soil and reduces its
fertility.

19. Soil erosion(5)

“The removal of the fertile top soil is called soil erosion. Water and wind are most
important agents of soil erosion.”
Water induced soil erosion types:
Sheet erosion: when there is uniform removal of a thin layer of soil from a large surface area
it is called sheet erosion.
Rill erosion: Where there is rainfall and rapidly running water produces finger shaped
grooves or rills over the area it is called rill erosion.
Gully erosion: When the rainfall is very heavy deeper cavities or gullies are formed which
may be U or V shaped.
Slip erosion: This occurs due to heavy rainfall on slopes of hills and mountains.
Wind induced soil erosion types:
Saltation: This occurs under the influence of direct pressure of stormy wind and the soil
particles of 1-1.5mm diameter move up in vertical direction.

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 Suspension: Here fine soil particles which are suspended in the air are kicked up and taken
away to distant places.
Surface Creep: Here larger particles (5-10 mm diameter) creep over the soil surface along
with wind.
20. Desertification(5)
“Desertification is process whereby the productive potential of arid and semi-arid lands falls
by ten percent or more.”
Causes for desertification
Deforestation: Degrading a forested land initiates desertification. Due to absence of
vegetation water drains of quickly before it can soak into the soil to nourish the plants or to
replenish the groundwater. This increases soil erosion, loss of fertility and loss of water.
Overgrazing: Increased cattle population heavily grazes in grasslands or forests and as a
result denudes the land area. The dry barren land becomes loose and more prone to soil
erosion resulting in desertification.
Mining and quarrying: These activities are also responsible for loss of vegetal cover and
denudation of extensive land areas leading to desertification.

21. Deforestation(5)
“Simply refers to cutting down of trees and the destruction of natural vegetation in an
aggressive way.”
Causes for deforestation
Shifting cultivation: Practice of slash and burning agriculture by shifting cultivators are
supposed to clear more than 5 lakh ha of forests annually.
Fuel requirements: Increasing demands for fuel wood by growing population is leading
forest destruction.
Raw materials for industrial use
Development projects: Hydroelectric projects, big dams, road construction, mining activities
destroy forest.

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 Growing food needs: To meet the demands of rapidly growing population, agricultural lands
and settlements are created permanently by clearing forests.
Overgrazing: overgrazing by the cattle leads to further degradation of forests.
Forest fires: Natural or man-made forest fires cause forest loss.

22. Floods and droughts(5)

Floods and droughts are two well-known natural hazards in the world. The former is due to
excess in water flow and the latter is due to scarcity of water.
The amount of rainfall received by an area varies from one place to another depending on
the location of the place. In some places it rains almost throughout the year whereas in other
places it might rain for only few days. India records most of its rainfall in the monsoon
season.
Heavy rains lead to rise in the water level of rivers, seas, and oceans. Water gets
accumulated in the coastal areas, which results in floods. Floods bring in extensive damage
to crops, domestic animals, property and human life. During floods, many animals get
carried away by the force of water and eventually die.
Droughts
On the other hand, droughts set in when a particular region goes without rain for a long
period of time. In the meantime, the soil will continuously lose groundwater by the process
of evaporation and transpiration. Since this water is not brought back to earth in the form of
rains, the soil becomes very dry.
The level of water in the ponds and rivers goes down and in some cases water bodies get
dried up completely. Ground water becomes scarce and this leads to droughts. In drought
conditions, it is very difficult to get food and fodder for the survival. Life gets difficult and
many animals perish in such conditions.
Frequent floods and droughts are mostly due to climate change and global warming. Various
environmental organizations world over are of the view that climate change is a long-term
change in weather patterns, either in average weather conditions or in the distribution of
extreme weather events.

23. Growing energy needs(5)

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 Energy has always been closely linked to man’s economic growth and development. Present
strategies for development that have focused on rapid economic growth have used energy
utilization as an index of economic development. This index, however, does not take into
account the long-term ill effects on society of excessive energy utilization.
For almost 200 years, coal was the primary energy source fueling the industrial revolution in
the 19th century. At the close of the 20th century, oil accounted for 39% of the world’s
commercial energy consumption, followed by coal (24%) and natural gas (24%), while
nuclear (7%) and hydro/renewable (6%) accounted for the rest.
Industrialization, urbanization, and unbelievable rise in human settlements have multiplied
the energy requirement by several times. Modern lifestyle and man’s growing dependence
on machines and equipment for his personal and professional work has added to the energy
demand. Global oil demand continues to grow until 2040, mostly because of the lack of easy
alternatives to oil in road freight, aviation and petrochemicals, according to WEO-2016,
published by International Energy Agency.

24. Alternative energy resources/ Renewable energy resources (5)

Renewable energy systems use resources that are constantly replaced and are usually less
polluting. Examples include hydropower, solar, wind, and geothermal (energy from the heat
inside the earth). We also get renewable energy from burning trees and even garbage as fuel
and processing other plants into bio-fuels.
Wind Energy
The moving air or wind has huge amounts of kinetic energy, and it can be transferred into
electrical energy using wind turbines. The wind moves the blades, which spins a shaft, which
is further connected to a generator, which generates electricity. An average wind speed of 14
miles per hour is needed to convert wind energy into electricity. Wind generated electricity
met nearly 4% of global electricity demand in 2015, with nearly 63 GW of new wind power
capacity installed.
Solar Energy
Solar energy is the light and heat procured from the sun. In 2014, global solar generation
was 186 terawatt-hours, slightly less than 1% of the world’s total grid electricity. Italy has
the largest proportion of solar electricity in the world. In the opinion of International Energy

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 Agency, the development of affordable, inexhaustible, and clean solar energy technologies
will have longer-term benefits.
Biomass Energy
When a log is burned we are using biomass energy. As plants and trees depend on sunlight
to grow, biomass energy is a form of stored solar energy. Although wood is the largest
source of biomass energy, agricultural waste, sugarcane wastes, and other farm byproducts
are also used to produce energy.
Hydropower
Energy produced from water is called hydropower. Hydroelectric power stations both big
and small are set up to produce electricity in many parts of the world. Hydropower is
produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global
hydropower in 2010. In 2015, hydropower generated 16.6% of the world’s total electricity
and 70% of all renewable electricity.
Tidal and Wave Power
The earth’s surface is 70% water. By warming the water, the sun creates ocean currents and
the wind that produces waves. It is estimated that the solar energy absorbed by the tropical
oceans in a week could equal the entire oil reserves of the world – 1 trillion barrels of oil.
Geothermal Energy
It is the energy stored within the earth (“geo” for earth and “thermal” for heat). Geothermal
energy starts with hot, molten rock (called magma) deep inside the earth which surfaces at
some parts of the earth’s crust. The heat rising from the magma warms the underground
pools of water known as geothermal reservoirs. If there is an opening, hot underground
water comes to the surface and forms hot springs, or it may boil to form geysers. With
modern technology, wells are drilled deep down the surface of the earth to tap into
geothermal reservoirs. This is called direct use of geothermal energy, and it provides a
steady stream of hot water that is pumped to the earth’s surface.

25. Define biodiversity (2)

Biodiversity, a shortened form of Biological diversity, refers to the existence of number of
different species of plants and animals in an environment.

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 Biodiversity is also defined as “the existence of variability among living organisms on the
earth, including the variability within and between species, and within and between
ecosystems.”
26. Levels of Biodiversity (5)

Genetic Diversity
It is the variation in genes that exists within a species. “Genetic diversity corresponds to the
variety of genes contained in plants, animals, fungi, and micro-organisms. It occurs within a
species as well as between species.”For example, poodles, German shepherds and golden
retrievers are all dogs, but they all are different in look, color, and abilities. Each human
being is different from all others. This genetic variability is essential for a health breeding of
a population of species.

The diversity in wild species make the ‘gene pool’ from which crops and domestic animals
have been developed over thousands of years.

Species diversity

“Species diversity refers to the variety of different species of plants, animals, fungi, and
organisms that are present in a region.” It is estimated that there are above 30 million species
on the earth. Species diversity is a part of diversity. Even within a small pond, we can notice
a great variety of species. Species diversity differs from ecosystem to ecosystem. For
example, in a tropical ecosystem more diversity is found than in temperate ecosystem. The
most diverse group of species is invertebrates - animals without backbones.

At present, conservation scientists have been able to identify and categorize about 1.8
million species on earth. Many new species are being identified. Areas that are rich in
species diversity are called ‘hotspots’ of diversity.

Ecosystem Diversity
It is the diversity of ecosystems, natural communities, and habitats. “In other words,
ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of ways that species interact with each other and
their environment”. Tropical or temperate forests, grasslands, hot and cold deserts, wetlands,
rivers, mountains, and coral reefs are instances of ecosystem diversity.

Each ecosystem corresponds to a series of complex relationships between biotic (living) and
abiotic (non-living) components.
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27. Services of biodiversity(5)

Environmental services from species and smooth running cycles of ecosystems are necessary at
global, regional, and local levels.

Biodiversity is essential for maintaining the water cycles, production of oxygen, reduction in
carbon dioxide, protecting the soil, etc. It is also essential for preserving ecological processes, such
as soil formation, circulation of and cleansing of air and water, global life support, fixing and
recycling of nutrients, maintaining hydrological balance within ecosystems, maintaining rivers and
streams throughout the year, etc.

Biodiversity has many values such as consumptive use value, productive use value, social values,
ethical and moral values.

A healthy biodiversity offers many valuable services as follows.

 The more a region is rich in terms of biodiversity, better is the regulation of the different
cycles. For example, forests regulate the amount of carbon dioxide in the air by releasing
oxygen as a by-product during photosynthesis, and control rainfall and soil erosion.

 Protects water resources from being depleted, contaminated, or polluted.

 Helps in soil formation and protection.

 Helps in nutrient storage and recycling.

 Helps check pollution.

 Contributes to climate stability.

 Helps an ecosystem in recovery from unpredictable events.

 Provides biological resources such as food, medicinal resources, and pharmaceutical drugs,
wood products, ornamental plants, breeding stocks, etc.

 Provides recreation and tourism facilities.

 Helps in research, education, and monitoring.

 Preservation of biological resources is essential for the well-being and long-term survival of
mankind.

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28. Hotspots of biodiversity(5)

Hotspots of biodiversity refer to bio-geographic regions where significant levels of biodiversity

with richness and unusual concentration of endemic species are found, however, they are
threatened with mindless exploitation and destruction.

A biodiversity is termed as a hotspot if −

 It has at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemic.

 It must be threatened or under threat of destruction to a considerable extent.

Across the world, about 35 areas are marked as hotspots of biodiversity and they represent 2.3
percent of the Earth’s land surface but they support more than half of the world’s endemic plant
species and almost half of birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians as endemic.

List of Biodiversity Hotspots in the World

North and Central America − California Floristic Province, Madrean pine-oak woodlands,
Mesoamerica

The Caribbean − Caribbean Islands

South America − Atlantic Forest, Cerrado, Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests, Tumbes-
Chocó-Magdalena, Tropical Andes

Europe − Mediterranean Basin

Africa − Cape Floristic Region, Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa, Eastern Afromontane, Guinean
Forests of West Africa; Horn of Africa; Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands; Maputaland-
Pondoland-Albany; Succulent Karoo

Central Asia − Mountains of Central Asia

South Asia − Eastern Himalaya, Nepal; Indo-Burma, India and Myanmar; Western Ghats, India;
Sri Lanka

South East Asia and Asia-Pacific − East Melanesian Islands; New Caledonia; New Zealand;
Philippines; Polynesia-Micronesia; Southwest Australia; Sundaland; Wallacea

East Asia − Japan; Mountains of Southwest China

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West Asia − Caucasus; Irano-Anatolian

About 1.8 million species are known to mankind at present. Scientists, however, have estimated
that the number of species of plants and animals on the earth can go up to 20 billion. It means a
majority of species still remain undiscovered.

World’s most prolific bio-rich nations are in the south. On the other hand, the majority of the
countries capable of exploiting biodiversity are the developed Northern countries. These countries
have very low level of biodiversity.

Convention in the Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) is intended to reduce the utilization of
endangered plants and animals by controlling trade in their products and in pet trade.

29. Endangered species of India (5)

“A species is said to be endangered when its number has been reduced to a critical level or
whose habitats have been drastically reduced and if such a species is not protected and
conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction.”

In India, nearly

 450 plant species (endangered, threatened or rare) - e.g. Orchids, rhododendrons,

medicinal plants like Rouvolfia serpentina, the sandal wood tree Santalum, Cycas
beddonei etc.
 150 mammals (threatened) – e.g. Indian wolf, red fox, Sloth bear, red panda, tiger,
leopard, striped hyena, Indian lion, golden cat, desert cat, dugong
 150 birds (threatened) - e.g. Great Indian Bustard, Peacock, Pelican, Great Indian
Hornbill, Siberian White Crane.
 Unknown numbers of insects are endangered

30. Extinct species (2)

“A species is said to be extinct when it is not seen in the wild for 50 years at a stretch e.g. Dodo,
passenger pigeon.”

31. India as a Mega Diversity Region (5)

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A mega diversity region or country is one that harbors majority of the Earth’s species and is
therefore considered extremely bio-diverse. India is rich in biodiversity from north to south and
from east to west. Geological events in the landmass of India, different climatic regions across the
country and its special geographical position between a couple of distinct biological evolution and
radiation of species are responsible for India’s rich and varied biodiversity.
India is one among the top 10 countries with rich biodiversity and one among the 12 Mega
biodiversity regions in the world. Around 18 biosphere reserves have been set up in India.
India is home to 350 different mammals (rated highest in the world), 1, 200 species of birds, 453
species of reptiles and 45, 000 plant species. India is home to 50, 000 known species of insects, that
include 13, 000 butterflies and moths. It is estimated that the number of unnamed species could be
much higher than the existing number.
More than 18 percent of Indian plants are endemic (native to a particular region) to the country and
found nowhere else in the world.
India has 27 indigenous breeds of cattle, 40 breeds of sheep, 22 breeds of goats and 8 breeds of
buffaloes.
Among the amphibians found in India, 62 percent are unique to this country. High endemism has
also been recorded in various flowering plants, insects, marine worms, centipedes, mayflies, and
fresh water sponges.
Apart of noticeable diversity in Indian wild plants and animals, there is also a great diversity of
cultivated crops and breeds of domestic livestock. The traditional cultivars (a plant variety that has
been produced in cultivation by selective breeding) include about 50,000 varieties of rice and a
number of cereals, vegetables, and fruits. The highest diversity of cultivars is found concentrated in
the high rainfall areas of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Northern Himalayas. and North-Eastern
hills.

32. Biogeography zones of India(5)

India has different types of climate and topography in different parts of the country and these
variations have indeed enormous variability in flora and fauna.
In order to gain insight about the distribution and environmental interactions of flora and
fauna our country has been classified into ten biogeography zones.

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33. Threats to biodiversity(5)

Biodiversity is a paramount factor for the survival of the living world in general and mankind in
particular. The fewer species (animals and plants) we have, the fewer people we will have on the
earth. During the last few decades, loss of biodiversity is on the rise. Following are the major
causes of threat to biodiversity.

Habitat Loss
Today, major loss to biodiversity in the world has been done by man. Man has begun to overuse or
misuse most of these natural ecosystems.

Due to mindless and unsustainable resource use, once productive forest and grasslands have been
turned into deserts, and wastelands have increased all over the world. Rapid industrialization,
urbanization, and growth in population have resulted in massive deforestation and consequential
habitat loss around the world.

For instance, mangroves have been cleared for fuel-wood and prawn farming, which has led to a
decrease in the habitat essential for breeding of marine fish.

Forests all over the world, in particular tropical rainforests such as the Amazon, are under
unforeseen threat largely from conversion to other land-uses.

Scientists have estimated that human activities are likely to eliminate approximately10 million
species by the year 2050. It is also estimated that at the present rate of extinction about 25 percent

25
of the world’s species will undergo extinction fairly rapidly. Rich bio diversities such as tropical
forests, wetlands, and coral reefs world over will constitute the major part of this extinction.

Poaching of Wildlife
Poaching of wildlife for trade and commercial activities has been on the rise for the last many
decades. It has been a significant cause of the extinction of hundreds of species and the
endangerment of many more, such as whales and many African large mammal, Asian tigers, etc.
Most extinction over the past several hundred years is mainly due to overharvesting for food,
fashion, and profit.

Illicit trade in wildlife in current times is driving many species of wild animals and plants to
extinction. Elephants are poached for ivory; tigers and leopards for their skin; pangolins for meat
and scales; and rare timber are targeted for hardwood furniture.

The global illegal wildlife trade is estimated to be between $7 billion and $23 billion in illicit
revenue annually. It is now considered the most lucrative global crime after drugs, humans, and
arms.

In 2015, the United Nations General Assembly unanimously adopted a resolution for tackling illicit
trafficking in wildlife. The Sustainable Development Goals has laid down specific targets to
combat poaching and trafficking of protected species.

Man-Wildlife Conflict
Man-wildlife conflict refers to the interaction between wild animals and people and the
consequential negative impact on both of them. Human population growth and the resultant
destruction of wildlife habitat for human habitation and economic prosperity create reduction of
resources or life to some people and wild animals.

World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) defines this conflict as “any interaction between humans and
wildlife that results in a negative impact on human social, economic, or cultural life, on the
conservation of wildlife population, or on the environment.”

Although man-wildlife conflict is as old as human civilization, in modern times the degree of
conflict has been on the rise due to high rise in human population in the past several centuries.

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Since human populations expand into wild animal habitats, natural wildlife territory is displaced.
Reduction in the availability of natural prey/food sources leads to wild animals seeking alternate
sources. Alternately, new resources created by humans draw wildlife resulting in conflict.
Competition for food resources also occurs when humans attempt to harvest natural resources such
as fish and grassland pasture.

There are many consequences of man versus wildlife conflicts. The major consequences are −

 Destruction of wildlife habitat

 Injury and loss of life of both humans and wildlife

 Crop damage and livestock depredation

 Damage to human property

 Decrease in wildlife population and reduction in geographic ranges

 Trophic cascades

Apart from the above, there are other causes of threat to biodiversity. Factors such as climate
change, invasion of non-native species also add to biodiversity losses in some or the other.

Biological Invasions

Biological invasions have captured the attention of the scientific community since the eighties
decade. They are considered one of the most serious threats for global biodiversity. Many human
activities can help to the intentional and accidental spreads of species (for example agriculture,
aquaculture, recreation, transport) breaking the natural barriers of dispersion. Although the natural
distribution of species can change with time, those activities can greatly increase the speed and
spatial scale of movement of species around the world. Invasive species can act as “ecosystem
engineers”; the environmental changes that cause can have strong effects on the community
structure. Control and prevention of biological invasions are the main factors to consider for the
conservation of the environment in general.

34. Conservation of biodiversity(5)

Considering the degree of threat to biodiversity around the world and the vital importance of
biodiversity for living beings of which mankind is a major part, there is an urgent need to
conserve biodiversity in the world. Further, we should be concerned about saving

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 biodiversity because of the benefits it provides us – biological resources and ecosystem
services, and the social and aesthetic benefits.

There are two main methods for the conservation of biodiversity.

1. In-situ Conservation
In-situ or on-site conservation refers to the conservation of species within their natural
habitats. This is the most viable way of biodiversity conservation. It is the conservation of
genetic resources through their maintenance within the environment in which they occur.

Examples − National Parks, Wild Life sanctuaries, Biosphere Reserves, Gene Sanctuaries

2. Ex-situ Conservation
Ex-situ conservation means the conservation of components of biological diversity outside
their natural habitats. In this method, threatened or endangered species of animals and plants
are taken out of their natural habitat and placed in special settings where they can be
protected and provided with natural growth.

In ex-situ conservation methods, the plants and animals taken away from their habitats are
taken care of in an artificially created environment.

Examples − Captive Breeding, Gene Banks, Seed Banks, Zoos, Botanical gardens, Aquaria,
In vitro fertilization, Cryopreservation, Tissue Culture.

35. Pollution (2)

“Any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of any
component of the environment (air, water, soil) which can cause harmful effects on various
forms of life or property.”

36. Pollutants(2)
A pollutant is defined as “any form of energy or matter or action that causes imbalance or
disequilibrium in the required composition of natural objects such as air, water, etc.” A
pollutant creates damage by interfering directly or indirectly with the biogeochemical process
of an organism.

37. Causes, effects and control measures of Air pollution(10)

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Every day, every moment, we breathe polluted air and may become a victim of air pollution. It is
estimated that an average adult exchanges 15 kg of air a day, in comparison to about 1.5 kg of the
food consumed and 2.5 kg of water intake. It is obvious that the quantum of pollutants that enter our
body through respiration would be manifold in comparison to those taken in through polluted water
or contaminated food.

Air pollution is one of the most widespread forms of pollution all over the world. Wind is the main
agent of air pollution. It gathers and moves pollutants from one area to another, sometimes
reducing the concentration of pollutants in one location, while increasing it in another.

Causes of Air Pollution

Apart from the natural causes of pollutants, as stated above, human interaction and resource
utilization is perhaps adding more pollutants to the atmosphere.

 Industrialization − Industries big or small require steam to run. The steam is produced by
burning fossil fuels such as coal, coke, and furnace oil. These fuels while burning release
toxic gases in large amount into the atmosphere.

 Automobiles − To meet the demands of exploding human population, the number of

automobiles is increasing at a great space. The automobile exhausts are responsible for
about sixty percent of air pollution. Released carbon monoxide from the automobiles
pollutes the air and harms trees and other natural vegetation. It also has ill-effects on human
health.

 Chlorofluorocarbons − Scientists are now alarmed regarding the increased concentration of

chemical substances together called chlorofluorocarbon in the atmosphere. These substances
are responsible for creating holes in the ozone layer causing unwanted imbalance in the heat
budget. These are produced by modern gadgets such as air conditioners, refrigerators, dyers,
etc.

The adverse effects of air pollution appear in the form of poor quality of air, acidic precipitation
(rain, snow and hail) and deposition, and other health hazards.

The main pollutants of air are carbon dioxide (CO2 ), carbonic acid (H 2SO2), water (H2O), nitric
acid (HNO3O ), and sulphuric acid (H2SO4 ).

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Air pollution has harmful effects on natural vegetation and human health such as respiratory
illnesses. Acidic precipitation is highly fatal for aquatic flora and fauna, monuments, and also for
natural vegetation.

Effects of air pollution

Induces health problems to humans

Air pollutants enter stomata of plants and reduce plant development

Air pollutants enter aquatic systems through rain and alter the life of aquatic species

High concentration of CO2 causes global warming

SO2 and NOx gases causes acid rain

CFCs causes ozone layer depletion

Air Pollution Control

Air pollution control is an onerous task as there are large number of pollutants involved in air
pollution. Some of these are even difficult to detect. However, there can be some basic approaches
to control air pollution. They are as follows.

Preventive Approach
It is well said that prevention is better than cure. We can prevent pollutants of air from being
produced by various ways. For instance, by changing raw materials used in industry or the
ingredient of fuel from conventional to non-conventional sources of energy; by maintenance of
vehicles and roads and efficient transport system; by reduction in garbage burning and shifting
cultivation areas; afforestation, etc.

Dispersal Approach
We can prevent air pollution by raising the heights of smokestacks in industries so as to release the
pollutants high into the atmosphere.

Collection Approach
Air pollution can be controlled by designing the equipment and machinery to trap pollutants before
they escape into the atmosphere. To meet the standards, automobile engines have been re-designed
and new cars have been equipped with devices such as the catalytic converter, which changes the

30
pollutants into harmless substances. Because of these new devices, air pollution from car exhaust
has also been reduced.

Legislation Approach
There have been many initiatives in different countries for making laws, setting standards and
norms to check air pollution and ensure quality air. All the highly industrialized countries of the
world have certain legislations to prevent and control air pollution. As pollutants of air are carried
by the wind from one country to another for thousands of miles, there should be global initiatives
agreed upon by all countries to save the earth from the menace of air pollution.

38. Water pollution (5)

“Water pollution may be defined as alteration in physical, chemical, and biological characteristics
of water, which may cause harmful effects on human and aquatic life.”

Following are some of the reasons for water pollution.

 Disposal of sewage and sludge into water bodies such as river, streams, and lakes.

 Inorganic compounds and minerals by mining and industrial activities.

 Use of chemical fertilizers for agricultural purposes.

 Synthetic organic compounds from industrial, agricultural, and domestic garbage.

 Oil and petroleum from tankers’ accident, offshore drilling, combustion engine, etc.

 Radioactive wastes

Effects of Water pollution

Diseases: In humans, drinking or consuming polluted water in any way has many disastrous
effects on our health. It causes typhoid, cholera, hepatitis and various other diseases.

Destruction of Ecosystems: Ecosystems are extremely dynamic and respond to even small
changes in the environment. Water pollution can cause an entire ecosystem to collapse if left
unchecked.

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 Eutrophication: Chemicals in a water body, encourage the growth of algae. These algae form a
layer on top of the pond or lake. Bacteria feed on this algae and this decreases the amount of
oxygen in the water body, severely affecting the aquatic life there.

Effect the food chain: Disruption in food chains happens when toxins and pollutants in the
water are consumed by aquatic animals (fish, shellfish etc) which are then consumed by humans.

Water Pollution Control

 Environmental Education − Individuals and the masses should be educated about the
significance of quality of water and its impact on the economy, the society, and ecology.

 Sewage Treatment − The household water should be treated properly to make it

environmentally safe. Necessary steps should be taken to ensure that effective sewage
treatment process is put in place and contaminated water doesn’t get mixed with the fresh
water bodies.

 Accountability of Industrial Units − The industrial setups should make provisions for
treatment of waste materials and water, and for its safe drainage.

 Afforestation − Planting trees can reduce the water pollution to a large extent as they check
surface soil runoff by running water.

 Soil Conservation − Soil conservation add many inorganic substances in the surface and
underground water. Soil conservation is, therefore, a useful technique to reduce water
pollution.

 Reduced Use of Chemical Fertilizers − Chemical fertilizers add nitrates in water bodies.
Use of compost manures can help reduce the problem of eutrophication in the water bodies.

 Financial Support − Governments should make provisions for adequate funds to the civic
bodies for water pollution control.

 Legislation and Implementation of Stringent Environmental Laws − The need of the

hour is that the government should legislate and implement strict environmental laws for the
protection of water bodies, treatment of waste water, etc. The violators of such laws should
be given exemplary punishment.

39. Soil pollution(5)

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“Soil pollution refers to an undesirable decrease in the quality of soil, either by man-induced
sources or natural sources or by both.”

Soil is vital not only for the growth of plants and growing food but also cultivating raw materials
for agro-based industries. Health soil is a significant prerequisite for human survival.

Causes of Soil Erosion

 Deforestation at large scale

 Over-grazing

 Mining

 Decrease in soil microorganisms

 Excessive use of chemical fertilizers

 Excessive use of irrigation

 Lack of humus content

 Improper and unscientific rotation of crops

Soil pollution leads to many harmful consequences such as decrease in agricultural production;
reduced nitrogen fixation; reduction in biodiversity; silting of tanks, lakes and reservoirs; diseases
and deaths of consumers in the food chain due to use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, etc.

Effects of soil pollution

Contamination of soil will decrease the agricultural output of a land.

It can decrease the quality of the crop. Regular use of chemical fertilizers, inorganic fertilizers,
pesticides will decrease the fertility of the soil at a rapid rate and alter the structure of the soil. This will
lead to decrease in soil quality and poor quality of crops. Over the time the soil will become less
productive due to the accumulation of toxic chemicals in large quantity.

It will increase the exposure to toxic and harmful chemicals thus increasing health threats to people
living nearby and on the degraded land. Living, working or playing in the contaminated soil can lead to
respiratory diseases, skin diseases, and other diseases. Moreover, it can cause other health problems.

The surface run-off after raining will carry the polluted soil and enter into different water resource.
Thus, it can cause underground water contamination thereby causing water pollution. This water after
contamination is not fit for human as well as animal use due to the presence of toxic chemicals.

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Therefore, human activities are responsible for the majority of the soil pollution. We as humans buy
things that are harmful and not necessary, use agricultural chemicals (fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides,
etc.), drop waste here and there. Without being aware we harm our own environment.

Soil Pollution Control

 Adoption of soil-friendly agricultural practices.

 Use of compost manures in place of chemical fertilizers; Use of bio-fertilizers and natural
pesticides help in minimizing the usage of chemical fertilizers and pesticides

 Scientific rotation of crop to increase soil fertility.

 Proper disposal of industrial and urban solid and liquid wastes.

 Planting of trees to check soil erosion in slopes and mountainous regions.

 Controlled grazing.

 Reduction in the heaps of garbage and refuse.

 The principles of three R’s − Recycle, Reuse, and Reduce − help in minimizing generation
of solid waste.

 Formulation and effective implementation of stringent pollution control legislation.

 Improved sewage and sanitation system in urban areas.

40. Noise pollution(5)

Noise pollution refers to any unwanted and unpleasant sound that brings discomfort and
restlessness to human beings. Like air and water pollution, noise pollution is harmful to
human and animal life.
Noise pollution is also an important environmental hazard, which is becoming growingly
injurious in many parts of the world. Noise beyond a particular level or decibel (unit of
noise) tends to become a health and environmental hazard.

Sources of Noise Pollution

 Household appliances such as grinders, electric motor, washing machines

 Social gatherings such as marriages and other social parties

 Places of worship
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  Commercial activities

 Construction activities

 Industrial activities

 Automobiles and transport system

 Power generators

 Agricultural equipment

Noise Pollution Control

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), of all the environmental pollution, noise is
the easiest to control.

Noise pollution can be checked at home by −

 Turning off sound-making appliances when they are not in use.

 Shutting the door when noisy machines are being used.

 Lowering the volume of appliances such as television to a desirable level.

 Using earplugs while listening to music.

At mass level it can be checked by −

 By planting trees in large number to create vegetation buffer zones, which absorb noise.

 Public awareness about the need of control of noise pollution.

 Application of engineering control techniques such as alteration and modification of design

to reduce noise from equipment and machinery, and by construction of sound barriers or the
use of sound absorbers in industrial and factory sites can reduce exposure to noise to a great
extent.

 Construction of institutions and hospitals away from airports, railways, and highways.

 Improved building design may also reduce the impact of noise pollution.

 Stringent legislations at central and state levels to check air pollution at workplaces, urban
centers, etc.

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41. Solid waste management(5)
Solid waste management refers to the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material
that is discarded or is no longer useful. Solid waste management is an important aspect of
urban area management. Improper disposal of municipal solid waste can create unsanitary
conditions, which can lead to environmental pollution and the outbreak of vector-borne
disease.
The task of solid waste management presents complex technical challenges. They also pose
various economic, administrative, and social problems which need urgent attention.
The major sources of solid waste are households; agricultural fields; industries and mining,
hotels and catering; roads and railways; hospitals and educational institutions; cultural
centers and places of recreation and tourism, etc. Plastic waste is also a solid waste.

Classification of Solid Wastes

 Municipal Waste

 Hospital Waste

 Hazardous Waste

Effective Solid Waste Management can be carried out in the following ways −

 Sanitary landfills

 Composting

 Landfills

 Incineration and pyrolysis (a process of combustion in the absence of oxygen)

 Vermiculture or earthworm farming

 Bioremediation or the use of micro-organism (bacteria and fungi)

 Reuse, reduce, and recycle

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 Questions and answers related to 6th and 7th Units
42. Global warming(5)

“The enhancement of temperature on the earth is called global warming.”

Warming or cooling by more than 20C over the past decades may prove to be disastrous for
various ecosystems on the earth including humans, as it would alter the conditions faster than
some species could adopt or migrate. Some areas will become inhabitable because of drought
or floods following a rise in average sea level.

Significant human-led factors responsible for global warming are −

 Exponential growth in human population.

 Massive and unplanned urbanization and industrialization over the last century.

 Burning of fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas at huge scale to meet the
growing energy needs of the bulging world population.

 Change in lifestyle and massive increase in the number of machinery, gadgets, etc.

Impact of Climate Change/ Global warming on Human Environment

The environmental consequences of climate change are extreme heat waves, rising sea levels,
changes in precipitation resulting in flooding and droughts, intense hurricanes, and degraded air
quality.

The above phenomenal changes directly and indirectly affect the physical, social, and
psychological health of human beings.

Frequency in Weather-Related Disasters

Changes in precipitation create changes in the availability and quantity of water and also results in
extreme weather events, such as intense storms, flooding and droughts. Frequency in all these
weather phenomena sometimes lead to human causality in great proportion apart from huge loss of
property, mostly in developing and underdeveloped countries.

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Human Health
Climate change affects the prerequisites of human health such as clean air and water, sufficient and
healthy food, natural constraints to infectious disease agents and the adequacy and security of
shelter.

The report of the WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health points out that
disadvantaged communities are likely to shoulder a disproportionate share of the burden of climate
change because of their increased exposure and vulnerability to health threats.

Large Scale Displacement of People

Climate change effects such as desertification, rising sea levels and severity of weatherrelated
disasters along with the spread of epidemics can destroy or affect human habitation causing people
to seek shelter elsewhere.

Apart from the above, following are some other consequences of climate change −

 Change in hydrological cycle and water supply

 Changes in pressure belts and atmospheric circulation

 Warming of ocean water may endanger the corals worldwide

 Expansion of deserts and more desertification within deserts

 Effect on food supply and international trade of grains

 National parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves may be altered

 Countries such as Maldives and greater parts of Netherlands etc. may submerge under water

 Climate change/ global warmingis making food crops less nutritious. Rising carbon dioxide
emissions lead to iron and zinc deficiencies in food crops

43. Ozone layer depletion(5)

Ozone is a form of oxygen in which three atoms of oxygen combine to form a single molecule of
ozone. It normally is not found in the lower atmosphere. It exists in the stratosphere between 20
and 50 kilometers above the surface.

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The presence of ozone is of singular importance because it filters out the incoming ultraviolet (UV)
radiation and thus acts as a screen against ultraviolent radiation that can increase the occurrence of
skin cancer, cataracts, and other diseases of eyes. It also affects the body defense mechanism,
which increases the vulnerability of infectious diseases.

Increased ultraviolet radiation can seriously affect plant and fish production.

Ozone Depletion
“Ozone depletion refers to the wearing out or reduction of the amount of ozone in the
stratosphere. It was first identified in 1970s due to the advent of supersonic aircraft, which fly in
the lower stratosphere and emit nitrogen oxides.”

Ozone Depleting Substances

Ozone depleting substances are those substances which deplete the ozone layer.

It is found that the major cause of ozone depletions is the CFC (Chlorofluorocarbons) gases. CFCs
are used for a wide range of applications including refrigerant, foaming agents, plastic
manufacturing, fire extinguishing agents, solvents for freezing food, cleaners for electronic
components fine retardant, solvents, aerosol, propellants, and the production of foamed plastics.

Other ozone depleting substances controlled by Montreal Protocol (discussed in a subsequent

chapter) are −

 Halon

 Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), Methyl chloroform (CH3CCl3)

 Hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs)

 Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)

 Methyl bromide (CH3Br)

 Bromochloromethane (CH2BrCl)

There are serious consequences of ozone depletion. Following are some of the significant
consequences of ozone depletion.

 Plants and animals vary in their tolerance of ultraviolet rays. The ultraviolet rays damage
DNA (the genetic code in every living being). Crops such as soybean are the worst affected.

39
  Animals and humans also have adapted to UVB radiation. In case of depletion of the ozone
layer, there is danger of melanoma – a type of skin cancer. The disease is now almost
epidemic in the United States.

44. Acid rain(5)

Oxides of sulfur and nitrogen originating from industrial operations and fossil fuels
combustion are the major sources of acid forming gases. Acid forming gases are oxidized
over several days by which time they travel several thousand kilometers. In the atmosphere
these gases are ultimately converted into sulfuric and nitric acid. Hydrogen chloride emission
forms hydrochloric acid. These acids cause acidic rain.
Rain water is turned acidic when its pH falls below 5.6. In fact clean or natural rain water has
a pH of 5.6 at 200C because of formation of carbonic acid due to dissolution of CO2 in water.

Effects of acid rain

 It causes deterioration of buildings made of marble e.g. monuments of TajMahal.
 It damages stone statues
 It damages metals and car finishes
 Aquatic life especially fish are badly affected by lake acidification.
 It damages foliage and weakens trees.

Control of Acid rain

 Emission of SO2 and NO2 form industries and power plants should be reduced by
using pollution control equipment.
 A coating of protective layer of inert polymer should be given in the interior of water
pipes for drinking water.

45. Kyoto protocol(5)

In order to reduce the growing concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the Earth’s
atmosphere, the UNFCCC put in place the first ever agreement between nations to mandate

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 country-by-country reduction in GHGs. This historic Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan,
on 11 December 1997 and hence, got the name of Kyoto Protocol.

The Kyoto Protocol officially came into force in 2005, after being formally ratified by the
required number of nations. Participating nations or the signatories have agreed to meet
certain greenhouse gas emission targets, as well as submit to external review and
enforcement of these commitments by the UN-based bodies.

The parties or the signatory countries committed to reduce the GHGs emission, based on the
premise that (a) global warming exists and (b) man-made CO2 emissions have caused it.

Under Kyoto, industrialized nations pledged to cut their yearly emissions of carbon, as
measured in six greenhouse gases, by varying amounts, averaging 5.2%, by 2012 as
compared to 1990.

It excluded developing countries such as China and India, which have since become the
world's largest and fourth largest polluters according to the International Energy Agency, as
well as second-placed United States which refused to ratify the deal.

A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the
protocol, in which 37 countries have binding targets: Australia, the European Union (and its
28 member states), Belarus, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and
Ukraine.

Initiatives like Kyoto Protocol has been necessitated as the UN has set a target of limiting
global warming to 2.0 degrees Celsius (3.6 Fahrenheit) from pre-industrial levels — a level
at which scientists say the planet may be spared the worst impacts of climate change.

46. Montreal protocol(5)

The Montreal Protocol is related to the substance that depletes the ozone layer of the
atmosphere. This International Treaty is designed to protect the ozone layer, by phasing out
the production of numerous substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The
Treaty was opened for signature on 16 September, 1987 and came into force on 1 January,
1989.

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 Its first meeting was held at Helsinki in May, 1989. Since then, it has undergone several
revisions in London (1990), Nairobi (1991), Copenhagen (1992), Bangkok (1993), Vienna
(1995), Montreal (1997, Beijing (1999), and Kigali (2016).

It was agreed that if this international agreement is strictly adhered to, the ozone layer would
recover by 2005. At first, the aim was to remove harmful chemicals such as CFCs by 50
percent by 1998. The target was further revised so as to curtail the production of these
chemical at the earliest.

The Montreal Protocol has been ratified by 196 countries. It is the first international treaty to
achieve complete ratification by member countries. In Kigali, Rwanda in 2016, the Parties
(Members) agreed to an international phase down of 85 percent of Hydroflurocarbons
(HFCs).

47. Convention on biological diversity (CBD) (5)

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international agreement adopted at the Earth
Summit, in Rio de Janeiro, in 1992. It has three main objectives:

 to conserve biological diversity

 to use its components in a sustainable way

 to share fairly and equitably the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.

The CBD was negotiated under the guidance of the United Nations. It was signed by more than 150
government leaders at the Rio Earth Summit (which official denomination is the 'United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development'). The Convention is now one of the most widely
ratified international treaties on environmental issues, with 194 member countries.

Unlike other international agreements that set compulsory targets and obligations, the CBD takes a
flexible approach to implementation. It identifies general goals and policies, and countries are free
to determine how they want to implement them.

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One of the CBD's greatest achievements so far has been to generate an enormous amount of interest
in biodiversity, both in developed and developing countries. Biodiversity is now seen as a critically
important environment and development issue.

48. The chemical weapons convention (CWC) (5)

The First Review Conference of the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) was held from
April 28-May 9, 2003 in The Hague, The Netherlands. The CWC entered into force on April
29, 1997 and since its inception, its membership has increased from 87 to the current number
of 153 States. The review conference was attended by 113 States Parties, with Haiti and
Israel participating as signatory states, and Libya and Angola being accorded observer status.
Five international organizations, 22 NGOs, and six industry associations were approved by
the Conference as participants. The CWC has strengthened international efforts to eliminate
the threat of a chemical weapons attack. This has been accomplished through the work of its
own verification regime, the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
(OPCW).
In accordance with Article VIII of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development,
Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and their Destruction (CWC), State
Parties held the First Review Conference of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical
Weapons (OPCW) from April 28-May 9, 2003 in The Hague, The Netherlands. The CWC
prohibits the acquisition, stockpiling, transfer, and use of chemical weapons and is the first
multilateral treaty that requires the elimination of an entire category of weapons of mass
destruction within a fixed time frame. The objective of the review conference was to review
the operations of the Convention as provided for in Paragraph 2 of Article VIII, while taking
into consideration any relevant scientific and technological developments, as required by
paragraph 26 of Part IX of the Verification Annex. The Review Conference is a unique
opportunity for States Parties of the CWC, as well as the Technical Secretariat—which
assists the Conference and the Executive Council in the performance of their functions,
including carrying out the verification measures provided for in the Convention—to examine
the implementation and evaluate the overall operations of the CWC during its first five years.
After evaluating past operations, Review Conferences offer a chance to stay the course or
provide a new strategic direction for the future of the OPCW, an opportunity not typically
afforded during regular meetings of the Conference of States Parties and the Executive
Council.
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49. Tribal population and rights(5)
(Note to students: General information is given try to extract required components)

Tribal People
The tribe is viewed, developmentally, or historically as a social group existing before the
development of Nation States, or outside them. A Tribe is a group of distinct people, dependent
on their land for their livelihood, who are largely self-sufficient, and not integrated into the
National society.

Largest Tribe In India

According to 2011 Census of India, BHIL is the most popular tribe with a total population of
4,618,068 constituting 37.7% of the total ST population. GOND is the seond largest tribe, with a
population of 4,357,918 constituting of 35.6% MADHYA PRADESH has more than 1.6 Crore
ST population who mare 21% of state population. MIZORAM and LAKSHADWEEP had the
highest percentage of ST population but as number one think CHATTISGARH will top the list.

Indian Laws
Constitutional Provisions
According to Art.342 of Constitution of India, the President after consulting with the state
governments concerned, has promulgated nine order so far. This promulgation has clearly
specified the Scheduled Tribes in relation to concerned State and Union territories. India can
proudly be called the largest TRIBAL population in the world. According to 2001 Census, 8.2%
of India's population. This interprets into 82 million people. In all,, 698 Scheduled Tribes exist in
India. Constitutional Provisions / Safeguards for Scheduled Tribes can be divided into two parts.
1. Protective. 2. Development.

Basic Safeguards Provided In Indian Constitution

I. Educational & Cultural Safeguards
Art. 15(4):- Special provisions for advancement of other backward classes (it includes STs)
Art. 29:- Protection of Interests of Minorities (it includes STs)
Art. 46:-The State shall promote, with special care, the educational and economic interests of the
weaker sections of the people, and in particular, of the Scheduled Castes, and the Scheduled
Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation,
Art. 350:- Right to conserve distinct Language, Script or Culture;
Art. 350:- Instruction in Mother Tongue.

II. Social Safeguard

Art. 23:- Prohibition of traffic in human beings and beggar and other similar form of forced
labour;
Art. 24:- Forbidding Child Labour.

III. Economic Safeguards

Art.244:- Clause(1) Provisions of Fifth Schedule shall apply to the administration & control of

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 the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes in any State other than the states of Assam,
Meghalaya, Mizoram and Tripura which are covered under Sixth Schedule, under Clause (2) of
this Article.
Art. 275:- Grants in-Aid to specified States (STs&SAs) covered under Fifth and Sixth Schedules
of the Constitution.

IV. Political Safeguards

Art.164(1):- Provides for Tribal Affairs Ministers in Bihar, MP and Orissa;
Art. 330:- Reservation of seats for STs in LokSabha;
Art. 337- Reservation of seats for STs in State Legislatures;
Art. 334:- 10 years period for reservation (Amended several times to extend the period.);
Art. 243:- Reservation of seats in Panchayats.
Art. 371:- Special provisions in respect of NE States and Sikkim

V. Service Safeguards
(Under Art.16 (4), 16(4A), 164(B) Art.335, and Art. 320(40)

Other Provision In Regards With Rights Of Scheduled Tribes In Indian Constitution

Art.15(4). Promotion Of Social, Economic And Educational Interests
This article empowers the state to make any special provision for the advancement of socially
and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes.
This clause has been especially incorporated to prevent any special provision made by a state for
the advancement of socially or educationally backward classes of citizens from being challenged
in the law courts on the ground of discrimination.

Art.19 (5) Safeguard of Tribal Interests

While the rights of free movement and residence throughout the territory of India and of
acquisition and disposition of property are guaranteed to every citizen, special restrictions may
be imposed by the state for the protection of the interests of any Scheduled Tribe.
(For example state may impose restrictions on owning property by non tribals in tribal areas.)

Art.23 Human Trafficking

Traffic in human beings;beggar and other similar forms of forced labor are prohibited”. This is a
very significant provision so far as Scheduled Tribes are concerned.

Art.29 Cultural and Educational Rights

According to this article a cultural or linguistic minority has right to conserve its language or
culture. The state shall not impose upon it any culture other than the community's own culture.

Article.164
It provides for a Minister-in-charge of tribal welfare in the states of MP, Chattisgarh, Orissa and
Jharkhand.
These states have substantial tribal population and special provision of a Minister looking after
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 tribal welfare is an evidence of the concern of the framers of the constitution for safeguarding
the interests of Scheduled Tribes.

50. Carbon foot print (2)

Carbon foot print is defined as – “The total amount of greenhouse gases produced to
directly and indirectly support human activities, usually expressed in equivalent tons of
carbon dioxide (CO2).”
In other words: When you drive a car, the engine burns fuel which creates a certain amount of
CO2, depending on its fuel consumption and the driving distance. (CO2 is the chemical symbol
for carbon dioxide). When you heat your house with oil, gas or coal, then you also generate
CO2. Even if you heat your house with electricity, the generation of the electrical power may
also have emitted a certain amount of CO2. When you buy food and goods, the production of the
food and goods also emitted some quantities of CO2.

51. Chipko movement(5)

Year: 1973
Place: In Chamoli district and later at Tehri-Garhwal district of Uttarakhand.
Leaders: SundarlalBahuguna, Gaura Devi, Sudesha Devi, Bachni Devi, Chandi Prasad
Bhatt, Govind Singh Rawat, Dhoom Singh Negi, Shamsher Singh Bisht and
GhanasyamRaturi.
Aim: The main objective was to protect the trees on the Himalayan slopes from the axes of
contractors of the forest.

About the movement: Mr. Bahuguna enlightened the villagers by conveying the importance of
trees in the environment which checks the erosion of soil, cause rains and provides pure air. The
women of Advani village of Tehri-Garhwal tied the sacred thread around trunks of trees and they
hugged the trees, hence it was called ‘Chipko Movement’ or ‘hug the tree movement’. The main
demand of the people in these protests was that the benefits of the forests (especially the right to
fodder) should go to local people. The Chipko movement gathered momentum in 1978 when the
women faced police firings and other tortures. The then state Chief Minister,
HemwatiNandanBahuguna set up a committee to look into the matter, which eventually ruled in
favor of the villagers. This became a turning point in the history of eco-development struggles in the
region and around the world.

52. Bishnios of Rajasthan(5)

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 Bishnoi Movement:
 Year: 1700s
 Place: Khejarli, Marwar region, Rajasthan state.
 Leaders: Amrita Devi along with Bishnoi villagers in Khejarli and surrounding villages.
 Aim: Save sacred trees from being cut down by the king’s soldiers for a new palace.

About the movement: Amrita Devi, a female villager could not bear to witness the destruction of
both her faith and the village’s sacred trees. She hugged the trees and encouraged others to do the
same. 363 Bishnoi villagers were killed in this movement. The Bishnoi tree martyrs were influenced
by the teachings of Guru MaharajJambaji, who founded the Bishnoi faith in 1485 and set forth
principles forbidding harm to trees and animals. The king who came to know about these events
rushed to the village and apologized, ordering the soldiers to cease logging operations. Soon
afterward, the maharajah designated the Bishnoi state as a protected area, forbidding harm to trees
and animals. This legislation still exists today in the region.

53. Save silent valley movement(5)

Year: 1978
Place: Silent Valley, an evergreen tropical forest in the Palakkad district of Kerala, India.
Leaders: The Kerala SastraSahityaParishad (KSSP) an NGO, and the poet activist
Sughathakumari played an important role in the Silent Valley protests.
Aim: In order to protect the Silent Valley, the moist evergreen forest from being destroyed
by a hydroelectric project.

About the movement: The Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) proposed a hydroelectric dam
across the Kunthipuzha River that runs through Silent Valley. In February 1973, the Planning
Commission approved the project at a cost of about Rs 25 crores. Many feared that the project
would submerge 8.3 sq km of untouched moist evergreen forest. Several NGOs strongly opposed
the project and urged the government to abandon it. In January 1981, bowing to unrelenting public
pressure, Indira Gandhi declared that Silent Valley will be protected. In June 1983 the Center re-
examined the issue through a commission chaired by Prof. M.G.K. Menon. In November 1983 the
Silent Valley Hydroelectric Project was called off. In 1985, Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi formally
inaugurated the Silent Valley, National Park.
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54. Environmental protection Act (1986)
Environmental Protection Act, 1986, was a statutory response that came into effect a year
after the tragic Bhopal Gas Tragedy and is considered an umbrella legislation as it addresses
many loopholes in the existing environmental laws. It was enacted as per the spirit of the
Stockholm Conference held in June 1972 to take suitable measures for the protection and
reinvigoration of environment and related matters.
The Environment (Protection) Act is applicable to whole of India including Jammu &
Kashmir. It came into force on November 19, 1986. EPA 1986 was enacted largely to
implement the decisions made at the UN Conference on Human Environment held at
Stockholm in June, 1972.
It was to co-ordinate the activities of the various regulatory agencies under the existing laws.
It also seeks collection and dissemination of information on environmental pollution.
A lot have been done to protect and improve the environment world over. However much
remains to be done for building a sustainable society. New mechanisms are being put in
place to expedite the process of protecting and improving the environment. For example,
new institutions — the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) and the
State Environment Management Authorities (SEMA) — in India have been proposed as
full-time technical organizations with the capacity to process all environmental clearance
applications in a time-bound manner.

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