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A Textbook of Data Structures and Algorithms 1
 One of the greatest lessons I have learnt in my life is
to pay as much attention to the means of work as to its end…
I have been always learning great lessons from that one principle,
and it appears to me that all the secret of success is there;
to pay as much attention to the means as to the end….
Let us perfect the means; the end will take care of itself.

– Swami Vivekananda
(Lecture Delivered at Los Angeles, California, January 4, 1900)
 A Textbook of Data
Structures and Algorithms 1

Mastering Linear Data Structures

G A Vijayalakshmi Pai
First published 2022 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Previous edition published in 2008 as “Data Structures and Algorithms: Concepts, Techniques and
Applications” by McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt Ltd. © McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt Ltd. 2008

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers,
or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the
CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the
undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

27-37 St George’s Road 111 River Street
London SW19 4EU Hoboken, NJ 07030
UK USA

www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd 2022

The rights of G A Vijayalakshmi Pai to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by her
in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the
author(s), contributor(s) or editor(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of ISTE Group.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2022945771

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-78630-869-6
 Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

Chapter 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1. History of algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2. Definition, structure and properties of algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2. Structure and properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3. Development of an algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4. Data structures and algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5. Data structures – definition and classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.1. Abstract data types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5.2. Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6. Algorithm design techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7. Organization of the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Chapter 2. Analysis of Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.1. Efficiency of algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2. Apriori analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3. Asymptotic notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4. Time complexity of an algorithm using the O notation . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5. Polynomial time versus exponential time algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.6. Average, best and worst case complexities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
vi A Textbook of Data Structures and Algorithms 1

2.7. Analyzing recursive programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.7.1. Recursive procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.7.2. Apriori analysis of recursive functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.8. Illustrative problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Chapter 3. Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2. Array operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3. Number of elements in an array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3.1. One-dimensional array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3.2. Two-dimensional array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3.3. Multidimensional array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4. Representation of arrays in memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4.1. One-dimensional array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.4.2. Two-dimensional arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4.3. Three-dimensional arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4.4. N-dimensional array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.5. Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.5.1. Sparse matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.5.2. Ordered lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.5.3. Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.5.4. Bit array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.6. Illustrative problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Chapter 4. Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2. Stack operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.2.1. Stack implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2.2. Implementation of push and pop operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3. Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.3.1. Recursive programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.3.2. Evaluation of expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4. Illustrative problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Chapter 5. Queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

5.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.2. Operations on queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.2.1. Queue implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.2.2. Implementation of insert and delete operations on a queue . . . . . 103
 Contents vii

5.2.3. Limitations of linear queues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5.3. Circular queues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.3.1. Operations on a circular queue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.3.2. Implementation of insertion and deletion operations in
circular queue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.4. Other types of queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.4.1. Priority queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.4.2. Deques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.5. Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.5.1. Application of a linear queue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.5.2. Application of priority queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.6. Illustrative problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Chapter 6. Linked Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

6.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.1.1. Drawbacks of sequential data structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.1.2. Merits of linked data structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.1.3. Linked lists – structure and implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.2. Singly linked lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.2.1. Representation of a singly linked list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.2.2. Insertion and deletion in a singly linked list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.3. Circularly linked lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.3.1. Representation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.3.2. Advantages of circularly linked lists over singly linked lists . . . . 155
6.3.3. Disadvantages of circularly linked lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.3.4. Primitive operations on circularly linked lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.3.5. Other operations on circularly linked lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.4. Doubly linked lists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.4.1. Representation of a doubly linked list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.4.2. Advantages and disadvantages of a doubly linked list . . . . . . . . 162
6.4.3. Operations on doubly linked lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.5. Multiply linked lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.6. Unrolled linked lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.6.1. Retrieval of an element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.6.2. Insert an element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.6.3. Delete an element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.7. Self-organizing lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.8. Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.8.1. Addition of polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.8.2. Sparse matrix representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.9. Illustrative problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
viii A Textbook of Data Structures and Algorithms 1

Chapter 7. Linked Stacks and Linked Queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

7.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7.1.1. Linked stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
7.1.2. Linked queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.2. Operations on linked stacks and linked queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.2.1. Linked stack operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.2.2. Linked queue operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.2.3. Algorithms for Push/Pop operations on a linked stack . . . . . . . . 205
7.2.4. Algorithms for insert and delete operations in a linked queue. . . . 206
7.3. Dynamic memory management and linked stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7.4. Implementation of linked representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
7.5. Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.5.1. Balancing symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.5.2. Polynomial representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.6. Illustrative problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Summaries of other volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

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 Preface

Efficient problem solving using computers, irrespective of the discipline or

application, calls for the design of efficient algorithms. The inclusion of appropriate
data structures is of critical importance to the design of efficient algorithms. In other
words, good algorithm design must go hand in hand with appropriate data
structures for an efficient program design to solve a problem.

Data structures and algorithms is a fundamental course in computer science,

which most undergraduate and graduate programs in computer science and other
allied disciplines in science and engineering offer during the early stages of the
respective programs, either as a core or as an elective course. The course enables
students to have a much-needed foundation for efficient programming, leading to
better problem solving in their respective disciplines.

Most of the well-known text books/monographs on this subject have discussed the
concepts in relation to a programming language – beginning with Pascal and spanning
a spectrum of them such as C, C++, C#, Java, Python and so on, essentially calling for
ample knowledge of the language, before one proceeds to try and understand the
data structure. There does remain a justification in this. The implementation of data
structures in the specific programming language need to be demonstrated or the
algorithms pertaining to the data structures concerned need a convenient medium of
presentation and when this is the case, why not a programming language?

Again, while some authors have insisted on using their books for an advanced
level course, there are some who insist on a working knowledge of the specific
programming language as a prerequisite to using the book. However, in the case of a
core course, as it is in most academic programs, it is not uncommon for a novice or a
sophomore to be bewildered by the “miles of code” that demonstrate or explain a
data structure, rendering the subject difficult to comprehend. In fact, the efforts that
one needs to put in to comprehend the data structure and its applications are
x A Textbook of Data Structures and Algorithms 1

distracted by the necessity to garner sufficient programming knowledge to follow

the code. It is indeed ironic that while a novice is taught data structures to appreciate
programming, in reality it turns out that one learns programming to appreciate data
structures!

In my decades-old experience of offering the course to graduate programs, which

admits students from diverse undergraduate disciplines, with little to no strong
knowledge of programming, I had several occasions to observe this malady. In fact,
it is not uncommon in some academic programs, especially graduate programs
which, due to their shorter duration, have a course in programming and data
structures running in parallel in the same semester, much to the chagrin of the
novice learner! That a novice is forced to learn data structures through their
implementation (in a specific programming language), when in reality it ought to be
learning augmented with the implementation of the data structures, has been the
reason behind the fallout.

A solution to this problem would be to

i) Frame the course such that the theory deals with the concepts, techniques and
applications of data structures and algorithms, not taking recourse to any specific
programming language, but instead settling for a pseudo-language, which clearly
expounds the data structure. Additionally, supplementing the course material with
illustrative problems, review questions and exercises to reinforce the students’ grasp
of the concepts would help them gain useful insights while learning.
ii) Augment the theory with laboratory sessions to enable the student to
implement the data structure in itself or as embedded in an application, in the
language of his/her own choice or as insisted upon in the curriculum. This would
enable the student who has acquired sufficient knowledge and insight into the data
structures to appreciate the beauty and merits of employing the data structure by
programming it themself, rather than “look” for the data structure in a prewritten
code.

This means that text books catering to the fundamental understanding of the data
structure concepts for use as course material in the classroom are as much needed as
the books that cater to the implementation of data structures in a programming
language for use in the laboratory sessions. While most books in the market conform
to the latter, bringing out a book to be classroom course material and used by
instructors handling a course on data structures and algorithms, comprehensive
enough for the novice students to benefit from, has been the main motivation in
writing this book.

As such, the book details concepts, techniques and applications pertaining to data
structures and algorithms, independent of any programming language, discusses
 Preface xi

several examples and illustrative problems, poses review questions to reinforce the
understanding of the theory, and presents a suggestive list of programming
assignments to aid implementation of the data structures and algorithms learned.

In fact, the book may either be independently used as a textbook since it is self-
contained or serve as a companion for books discussing data structures and
algorithms implemented in specific programming languages such as C, C++, Java,
Python, and so on.

At this juncture, it needs to be pointed out that a plethora of programming

resources and freely downloadable implementations of the majority of the data
structures in almost all popular languages are available on the Internet, which can
undoubtedly serve as good guides for the learner. However, it has to be emphasized
that an earnest student of data structures and algorithms must invest a lot of time and
self-effort in trying to implement the data structures and algorithms learned, in a
language of one’s choice, all by oneself, in order to attain a thorough grasp of the
concepts.

About this edition

This edition is a largely revised and enlarged version of its predecessor,

published by McGraw Hill, USA. The earlier edition published in 2008 saw 15
reprints in its life span of 13 years (ending January 2022) and was recommended as
a text book for the course in several universities and colleges. It comprised 17
chapters categorized into five parts and reinforced learning through 133 illustrative
problems, 215 review questions and 74 programming assignments.

The features of this new edition are as follows:

– There are 22 chapters spread across three volumes that detail sequential linear
data structures, linked linear data structures, nonlinear data structures, advanced data
structures, searching and sorting algorithms, algorithm design techniques and NP-
completeness.
– The data structures of k-d trees and treaps have been elaborated in a newly
included chapter (Chapter 15) in Volume 3.
– The data structures of strings, bit rays, unrolled linked lists, self-organizing
linked lists, segment trees and k-ary trees have been introduced in the appropriate
sections of the existing chapters in Volumes 1 and 2.
– The concepts of counting binary search trees and Kruskal’s algorithm have
been detailed in the appropriate sections of the existing chapters in Volume 2.
xii A Textbook of Data Structures and Algorithms 1

– Skip list search, counting sort and bucket sort have been included in the
chapters on searching and sorting algorithms in Volume 3.
– The algorithm design techniques of divide and conquer, the greedy method
and dynamic programming have been elaborately discussed in Chapters 19–21 in
Volume 3.
– The concept of NP-completeness has been detailed in a newly included
chapter, Chapter 22 in Volume 3.
– Several illustrative problems, review questions and programming assignments
have been added to enrich the content and aid in understanding the concepts. The
new edition thus includes 181 illustrative problems, 276 review questions and 108
programming assignments.

Organization of the book

The book comprises three volumes, namely, Volume 1: Chapters 1–7, Volume 2:
Chapters 8–12 and Volume 3: Chapters 13–22.

Volume 1 opens with an introduction to data structures and concepts pertaining

to the analysis of algorithms, detailed in Chapters 1 and 2, which is essential to
appreciate the theories and algorithms related to data structures and their
applications.

Chapters 3–5 detail sequential linear data structures, namely, arrays, strings, bit
arrays, stacks, queues, priority queues and dequeues, and their applications.
Chapters 6 and 7 elucidate linked linear data structures, namely linked lists, linked
stacks and linked queues, and their applications.

Volume 2 details nonlinear data structures. Chapters 8 and 9 elaborate on the

nonlinear data structures of trees, binary trees and graphs, and their applications.
Chapters 10–12 highlight the advanced data structures of binary search trees, AVL
trees, B trees, tries, red-black trees and splay trees, and their applications.

Volume 3 details an assortment of data structures, algorithm design strategies

and their applications.

Chapters 13–15 discuss hash tables, files, k-d trees and treaps. Chapter 16
discusses the search algorithms of linear search, transpose sequential search,
interpolation search, binary search, Fibonacci search, skip list search and other
search techniques.
 Preface xiii

Chapter 17 elaborates on the internal sorting algorithms of bubble sort, insertion

sort, selection sort, merge sort, shell sort, quick sort, heap sort, radix sort, counting
sort and bucket sort, and Chapter 18 discusses the external sorting techniques of
sorting with tapes, sorting with disks, polyphase merge sort and cascade merge sort.

Chapters 19–21 detail the algorithm design strategies of divide and conquer, the
greedy method and dynamic programming and their applications.

Chapter 22 introduces the theories and concepts of NP-completeness.

For a full list of the contents of Volumes 2 and 3, see the summary at the end of
this book.

Salient features of the book

The features of the book are as follows:

– all-around emphasis on theory, problems, applications and programming
assignments;
– simple and lucid explanation of the theory;
– inclusion of several applications to illustrate the use of data structures and
algorithms;
– several worked-out examples as illustrative problems in each chapter;
– list of programming assignments at the end of each chapter;
– review questions to strengthen understanding;
– self-contained text for use as a text book for either an introductory or advanced
level course.

Target audience

The book could be used both as an introductory or an advanced-level textbook

for undergraduate, graduate and research programs, which offer data structures and
algorithms as a core course or an elective course. While the book is primarily meant
to serve as a course material for use in the classroom, it could be used as a
companion guide during the laboratory sessions to nurture better understanding of
the theoretical concepts.

An introductory level course for a duration of one semester or 60 lecture hours,

targeting an undergraduate program or first-year graduate program or a diploma
xiv A Textbook of Data Structures and Algorithms 1

program or a certificate program, could include Chapters 1–7 of Volume 1, Chapter 8

of Volume 2, Chapters 13, 16 (sections 16.1, 16.2, 16.5) and 17 (sections 17.1–17.3,
17.5, 17.7) of Volume 3 in its curriculum.

A middle-level course for a duration of one semester or 60 lecture hours

targeting senior graduate-level programs and research programs such as MS/PhD
could include Chapters 1–7 of Volume 1, Chapters 8–11 of Volume 2, Chapter 13
and selective sections of Chapters 16–17 of Volume 3.

An advanced level course that focuses on advanced data structures and algorithm
design could begin with a review of Chapter 8 and include Chapters 9–12 of Volume 2,
Chapters 14 and 15 and selective sections of Chapters 16–18, and Chapters 19–22 of
Volume 3 in its curriculum based on the level of prerequisite courses satisfied.

Chapters 8–10 and Chapter 11 (sections 11.1–11.3) of Volume 2 and Chapters 13,
14 and 18 of Volume 3 could be useful to include in a curriculum that serves as a
prerequisite for a course on database management systems.

To re-emphasize, all theory sessions must be supplemented with laboratory

sessions to encourage learners to implement the concepts learned in an appropriate
language that adheres to the curricular requirements of the programs concerned.
 Acknowledgments

The author is grateful to ISTE Ltd., London, UK, for accepting to publish the
book, in collaboration with John Wiley & Sons Inc., USA. She expresses her
appreciation to the publishing team, for their professionalism and excellent
production practices, while bringing out this book in three volumes.

The author expresses her sincere thanks to the Management and Principal, PSG
College of Technology, Coimbatore, India for the support extended while writing
the book.

The author would like to place on record her immense admiration and affection
for her father, Late Professor G. A. Krishna Pai and her mother Rohini Krishna Pai
for their unbounded encouragement and support to help her follow her life lessons
and her sisters Dr. Rekha Pai and Udaya Pai, for their unstinted, anywhere-anytime-
anything kind of help and support, all of which were instrumental and inspirational
in helping this author create this work.

G. A. Vijayalakshmi Pai
August 2022
 1

Introduction

While looking around and marveling at the technological advancements of this

world – both within and without, one cannot help but perceive the intense and
intrinsic association of the disciplines of science and engineering and their allied and
hybrid counterparts, with the ubiquitous machines called computers. In fact, it is
difficult to spot a discipline that has distanced itself from the discipline of computer
science. To quote a few, be it a medical surgery or diagnosis performed by robots or
doctors on patients halfway across the globe, or the launching of space crafts and
satellites into outer space, or forecasting tornadoes and cyclones, or the more
mundane needs of the online reservation of tickets or billing at supermarkets, or the
control of washing machines, etc., one cannot help but deem computers to be
omnipresent, omnipotent, why even omniscient! (Figure 1.1).

In short, any discipline that calls for problem solving using computers looks up
to the discipline of computer science for efficient and effective methods of solving
the problems in their respective fields. From the view point of problem solving, the
discipline of computer science could be naively categorized into the following four
sub areas, notwithstanding the overlaps, extensions and gray areas within
themselves:
– Machines: What machines are appropriate or available for the solution of the
problem? What is the machine configuration – its processing power, memory
capacity, etc. – that would be required for the efficient execution of the problem
solution?
– Languages: What is the language or software with which the problem solution
needs to be coded? What are the software constraints that would hamper the efficient
implementation of the solution to the problem?
2 A Textbook of Data Structures and Algorithms 1

– Foundations: What is the problem model and its solution? What methods need
to be employed for the efficient design and implementation of the solution? What is
its performance measure?
– Technologies: What are the technologies that need to be incorporated to solve
the problem? For example, does the solution call for a web-based implementation,
need activation from mobile devices, call for hand shaking broadcasting devices or
merely need to interact with high-end or low-end peripheral devices?

Agriculture Business Health care

Industry Transportation
Computer

Weather Science Space Technology

Figure 1.1. Omnipresence of computers. For a color version

of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/pai/algorithms1.zip

Figure 1.2 illustrates the categorization of the discipline of computer science

from the perspective of problem solving.

One of the core fields that belongs to the foundations of computer science
addresses the design, analysis and implementation of algorithms for the efficient
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