KCA University

Nairobi, Kenya

BSD 1207/BIT01203
INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING

Prepared By:
Dr. Linus Aloo, PhD
E-mail: [email protected]
Phone: 0754188380
Course Text
1. Programming in ANSI C" by E. Balagurusamy (8th Edition), McGraw Hill
Education, 2019.
References
1. The C Programming Language" by Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie
(2nd Edition)
2. Fundamentals of programming languages by Dipali P. Baviskar, 2010.
3. Expert C Programming: Deep C Secrets" by Peter van der Linden.
4. C++: The Complete Reference" by Herbert Schildt (4th Edition)
Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes
9/19/2024 1
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
 INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING

COURSE OUTLINE
Chapter 1: History of Programming: Language models, evaluating languages, chronology of
programming, language generations.
Chapter 2: Programming Tools and Implementation: Translators, Traditional Systems lifecycle,
SDLC, need for documentation and coding standards, attributes of good documentation.
Chapter 3: Data Analysis and Problems: Program development process: program specification,
requirement analysis, design coding and analysis, implementation, and support.
Chapter 4: Algorithms, structured diagrams and structured walkthrough.
Chapter 5: Variables Controls Structures and calculations: Variable types and names, sequence,
selection, loops.
Chapter 6: Programming Techniques: Procedures and Functions, Arrays:- one-dimensional
arrays, two-dimensional array, array processing.
Chapter 7: Testing: Why testing, levels of testing, unit, integration, systems, acceptance testing,
and installation tests. Desk checking and dry running.
Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes
9/19/2024
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo 2
 •INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
Course Learning Outcomes
• Up successfully completion of this course unit, the learner should be able to
demonstrate a satisfactory performance in the following areas:

• Placing context development in programming languages and reasons for

their evolutions

• Recognize and apply appropriate ways to control and manipulate data

• Break down and formulate data into structures appropriate for the problem
to be addressed

• Define and apply a range of testing approaches to check the correctness of

programming code

• Put programming activities into the context of software development as a

whole with emphasis on the importance of documentation
9/19/2024
 •INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
Course Outline
Learning & Teaching Methodologies
Lectures, tutorials and planning exercises
Instructional Materials/Equipment
Classroom with audio visual aids
Computer laboratory
Course Assessment
BSD Introduction To Programming
1207/BIT01203
Course Assessment Type Weighting (%)
Lab Ass I 5%

Lab Ass II 5%

Lab Ass II 10 %

CATs-CAT 1&2 30 %

END SEM EXAMS 50%

TOTALS 100%
9/19/2024
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

• 1.1. Introduction

• A computer program is a sequence of instructions written using a

Computer Programming Language to perform a specified task by
the computer.

• A computer program is a software usually written by a

programmer to solve user problems on the computer.

• Programming refers to the process of developing computer

instructions (programs) used to solve a particular task. It involves
use of special characters, signs and symbols found in a particular
programming language to create computer instructions.

Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes

9/19/2024 5
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Introduction

• Computer programming (often shortened to programming or coding)

is the process of writing, testing, debugging/troubleshooting, and
maintaining the source code of computer programs. This source code is
written in a programming language.

• Each language has a special sequence or order of writing characters,

usually called syntax.

• The main function of a computer program is to process data. This data

usually originates from outside the computer and must be loaded into the
computer memory before being processed.

Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes

9/19/2024 6
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction
Qualities of a good program
• Accuracy: the program must do what it is supposed to do and meet
the criteria laid down in its specification.
• Reliability: the program must always do what it is supposed to do
and never crash. how often the results of a program are correct.
• Efficiency: the program must use the available storage space and
resources in such a way that the system’s speed is not wasted.
• Robustness: the program should cope with invalid data without
creating errors or stopping without any indication of the cause.
• Usability: the program must be easy to use and well documented.
• Maintainability: the program must be easy to amend, having good
structuring and documentation.
• Readability: the code in the program must be well laid out and
explained with comments.

Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes

9/19/2024 7
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.2. Uses of Computer Programs
 Today computer programs are being used in almost every field,
household, agriculture, medical, entertainment, defense,
communication, etc.
 Listed below are a few applications of computer programs −
 MS Word, MS Excel, Adobe Photoshop, Internet Explorer, Chrome,
etc., are examples of computer programs.
 Computer programs are being used to develop graphics and special
effects in movie making.
 Computer programs are being used to perform Ultrasounds, X-Rays,
and other medical examinations.
 Computer programs are being used in our mobile phones for SMS,
Chat, and voice communication.

Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes

9/19/2024 8
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.3. Computer Programmer
 A person who can write computer programs or in other words, someone who
can do computer programming is called a Computer Programmer.
 Based on computer programming language expertise, examples of computer
programmers include−
 C Programmer
 C++ Programmer
 Java Programmer
 Python Programmer
 PHP Programmer
 Perl Programmer
 Ruby Programmer

Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes

9/19/2024 9
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.4. Computer Programming Languages
 We assume you are well aware of English  Decision Making
Language, which is a well-known Human  Loops
Interface Language (HIL).  Numbers
 English has a predefined grammar, which
 Characters
needs to be followed to write English
statements correctly.  Arrays
 Similar to HIL, Computer Programming  Strings
Languages are also made of several  Functions
elements.  File I/O
 The following are the basics of those
elements used in various programming  Programming
languages: Environment
 Basic Syntax
 Data Types
 Variables
 Keywords
 Basic Operators

Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes

9/19/2024 10
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.4. Computer Programming Languages
 We assume you are well aware of English Language, which is a well-
known Human Interface Language (HIL).
 English has a predefined grammar, which needs to be followed to write English
statements correctly.
 Similar to HIL, Computer Programming Languages are also made of several
elements.
 The following are the basics of those elements used in various programming
languages:
 Programming  Decision Making
Environment  Loops
 Basic Syntax  Numbers
 Characters
 Data Types  Arrays
 Variables  Strings
 Keywords  Functions
 Basic Operators  File I/O

Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes

9/19/2024 11
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.4. Computer Programming Languages

 Instruction: Directions that a Computer language

microprocessor follows to execute a
task or part of a task. High Level Low Level

 Program: A set of instructions

written to solve a problem. Assembly Language
 A program can be written in a variety of Machine Language  English Alphabets
 ‘Mnemonics’
programming languages. The languages  Binary bits
 Assembler
are broadly classified into two Mnemonics 
Machine
categories: Language
 Low-level languages which refers to the machine language and assembly language
 High-level languages which refers to languages that are machine-independent and thus can
be run on different types of machines. They use a series of English-like words to write
instructions. Example is C++ program, COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC,C 4GLs etc

Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes

9/19/2024 12
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.4.1. Low-level languages

 Machine language
•The first generation computer.
•Codes that consisted of 0’s and 1’s.
•Only language computer understands directly that uses binary digits.
Advantages:
–Execution is fast since there is no interpretation
Disadvantages:
–Programmers have to write computer programs using 0’s and 1’s which are difficult
to read and debug
–Whole process is tedious
–Time consuming
–Error prone
–It is designed for a specific machine and specific microprocessor

Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes

9/19/2024 13
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.4.1. Low-level languages

Assembly language (or simply assembly)

 Assembly language (or simply assembly) is a low-level programming language,
which uses mnemonics, instructions, and operands to represent machine code.
 This was a second-generation language developed in English-like acronyms to
speed programming. Words like ADD, SUB, etc., could be used in programs, and
a program called an assembler translated these words into machine language.

Advantages of Assembly Language

Having an understanding of assembly language makes one aware of −
 How programs interface with OS, processor, and BIOS;
 How data is represented in memory and other external devices;
 How the processor accesses and executes instruction;

Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes

By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
9/19/2024 14
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.4.1. Low-level languages

 Assembly
 How instructions access and process data;
 How a program accesses external devices.
Other advantages of using assembly language are −
 It requires less memory and execution time;
 It allows hardware-specific complex jobs more easily;
 Assembly language has closer control over the computer hardware and executes
very efficiently.
 It is therefore useful for writing operating systems and game programs which
require fast and efficient use of the CPU.

Disadvantage:
Platform Specific: This implies that programs cannot be moved from one computer
architecture to another without re-writing the code.

Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes

By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
9/19/2024 15
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.4.2. High level Languages
• Popularly known as 3rd Generation Languages (3GLs)
– Advantages

• High level languages are portable i.e. they are transferable from one computer to another.

• High level languages are user friendly and easy to use and learn.

• Are more flexible, hence they enhance the creativity of the programmer and increase
productivity in the workplace.

• High level languages are far much easier to correct errors (debug).
– Disadvantages

• Their nature encourages the use of many instructions in a word or statement hence the
complexity of these instructions causes slower program processing.

• They have to be interpreted or compiled to machine readable form before the computer can
execute them.

Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes

9/19/2024 16
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.4.2. High-level Languages

The most popular high-level languages are as follows:

1. FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslation)

 It was developed in 1956 to provide an easier way of writing scientific and engineering applications.
FORTRAN is especially useful in processing numeric data.

FORTRAN has a standard and is therefore portable, and is widely used. It is not suited for business
applications.

2. COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)

 This came into use in the early 1960s.

COBOL was designed with business and commercial data processing in mind.

The advantages of COBOL are its wide use, capability of using it on different types of computers,
and a pool of skilled programmers.

However, the structure of a COBOL program is such that even simple programs are long.

Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes

9/19/2024 17
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.4.2. High-level Languages

3. BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)

It was developed in 1964 by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz to teach students how to use computers.

Today it is a common language on microcomputers. BASIC can do almost all computer processing tasks.

There are too many dialects of BASIC, and therefore, has no standard.

Some of the versions offer limited facilities in terms of structured programming and meaningful variable
names.

4. PASCAL

It was developed in the early 1970s as a tool for teaching programming by Swiss computer science professor
Niklaus Wirth.

Today PASCAL is the most widely used language for teaching programming. PASCAL has strict variable
typing and declarations.

It uses procedures and functions which allows a “top-down” approach to solving problems.

However, due to its strict style, it is not easy to learn and is poor on data file handling.

Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes

9/19/2024 18
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.4.2. High-level Languages

5. C.
 In the mid-1970s, programmers at Bell Laboratories developed a
language called C.
 This is a powerful language that like Assembly Language, permits
direct control over the hardware, but like high-level languages, it
also has powerful commands that permit the rapid development of
programs.
 It is closely linked to the popular UNIX operating system and is the
ideal tool for systems programming.
 The only disadvantage is that it is difficult to read and learn.
Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes
9/19/2024 19
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.4.2. High-level Languages

6. LISP.
 LISP was developed in the late 1950s by John McCarthy of M.I.T.
 It is the pre-eminent language used in artificial intelligence.
 The name is derived from “list processing”, since both programs and
data are structured as lists.
 However, it is not suitable for commercial data processing and
interactive programming.

Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes

9/19/2024 20
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.4.2. High-level Languages

7. PROLOG
 PROLOG ( PROgramming in LOGic) is a language developed from LISP by the
Japanese.
 It is designed for use with Expert systems and Artificial Intelligence. it is used
for solving problems which involve objects and relationships between objects.
Like LISP it is not suitable for commercial data processing and is not widely
available or known by many programmers.
8. LOGO
 LOGO was designed for educational use in which children can explore and
develop concepts through programming the movement of a pen.
 It has no commercial application.

Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes

9/19/2024 21
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.4.3. Fourth Generation Languages
 4th Generation Languages (4GLs) started appearing from mid-1970s,
and were designed to meet the following objectives:
–Speed up the application-building process, thereby increasing
programmer productivity.
–Enable quick and easy amendment and alterations
–Reduce development and maintenance costs
–Generate bug-free code from high-level expressions of
requirements
–Make languages user-friendly
–Allow non-professional end users to develop their own solutions.
Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes
9/19/2024 22
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.4.3. Fourth Generation Languages
•4GLs may be classified as Query Languages such as Structured Query
Languages (SQL), Report Generators, Application Generators,
Decision-support languages and Graphics languages.
•The Structured Query Language (SQL) makes programming a lot easier,
and provides a means of easily accessing and presenting data in a suitable
format.
Object-Oriented languages
•Some examples include; Visual Basic, Access Basic, Visual C++, Object
COBOL etc.
Internet (scripting) Programming Languages
Examples; HTML, JAVA Introduction to Programming Lecture Notes
9/19/2024 23
By Dr. Linus .A. Aloo