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Graph Theory 2 Note

The document discusses various mathematical concepts related to groups, elements, and subgroups, including properties of prime numbers and their relationships within group theory. It outlines theorems and definitions that illustrate the structure and behavior of these mathematical entities. Additionally, it presents proofs and examples to support the theoretical claims made throughout the text.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
13 views63 pages

Graph Theory 2 Note

The document discusses various mathematical concepts related to groups, elements, and subgroups, including properties of prime numbers and their relationships within group theory. It outlines theorems and definitions that illustrate the structure and behavior of these mathematical entities. Additionally, it presents proofs and examples to support the theoretical claims made throughout the text.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
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° prertel Seek preostuct pele SEtuers 20 careetlan praslutt ter A Orch Boo nom on goss “when Ahern fon Pmasluct: tan be uct OF 8 aeB= fees} emmy beg} ; i gietlora, . i FH a ay ane -bo Lede gaooe anal 7, ocnetiy no TWO OP Yon On Coys) CBs a) \ Hk ~ £33) IB cys REM? C1792) °C3'p 92) = COR a5! 824299.) & Ly Component wise ‘s Ws ¢ Cortes} enchorney efinery — preoet® turddi-Hon of Gye Cx HM we constelen ath g THE can be af, By thy ve 2 Gn Then WS tan be coratidy os , OV Gye = Boy = {9089 1~ --rgn\ te Gre eis LY&--Fy Gpvdgr--+ Bo) Cs gh > = = Bo) r yoy an = Ces} y B23) doar) Nee GeAt os Performer] ett te opercoetion of Gis, Ryder of Epe- 1 Gy GL x8-- = © Gr) = \oullegt > == | ginl Cocomplied BE Lae toe ve UG) = {1933.55 Ff onal vue) = fut), Then Fino} hein prsclver: ML Ueey x ULC ‘ = nee L59) CBNEH IG) H)e3;9) COV LOILGHHOD) CHOLERA LI} ; Tad Ho Rear POLIT tay day = Gbxe)F > FO e)%) ee ; = (S3) f vw Tetetg aresmenie oh OP trying rly eleanwes Cairagy @D yh gals late x om Ne utter Bar Fo 97 Zy> Sonn +O tua vty Cul) + = FLO 14K tun} coe ~ Seog) = fod1 ed ud = fix» 2997 2 VE 7 ~ fox ol Pry gs)~ Gag ad Hence 2273 a y cyetic por of onelen Ge 2 = reg: +e) TaPr3 [Iw er Qo3 TE Za ras Stoo) CoE o Crt y latte vig He i gahe Zaz {ov} 7 Bm Cid tal: el) 1 tod (aroeny} y ge 7 = frog 1@g}} = Lo 02 een Boo “R) fonf* = Scooter} feos en Gy ans) t [OBO + 1} = Soyo? _ tes {v0} foro} TTR Compleed CUR proved + 35 tay OTs Derensmine the nUMben of etementt of onsler 5 In TRE tan be Solel thot Za Bz_ Co not tyute Vel=4 es nok tyuite: Soi" . 2 lav qal= LoCige lag) fragomiss of codenrel sicert ema B= Benoit ey) “Theorem: ye orolen of On element tn q direct eral 5 aims GY Cus) i of He sumben of Lotte gyrours B® the teed} commen, @) Gry motte of The saclet af Me Componentt of -the. Gd Cos) ee tonttclertiag Car BR agg esos 9) 26 Coart siggy =< (get) j Gz\a ars BQzoT Karo. as tan be Sere} Swot ‘ 2-0) 5 TA. ae My he! nN orden t 3-428, Ty ehement %n y het U eremens of 5 We ele SPE tyede grove oF oncten w0 8G) * poe el se Sobgreor ef ra. rug Tremonetic + 2Ory,| Sibetg p= 20 gst ed “we tered tur) sa QU +e —_ = ay =4 Mee eu Sat ess cf ctemenss = tome tay elements. Bel cere} are nowten of © Subgnavp ef onelen jy 1 SST agente greet Debetion pg group tee rat mitre i NY Re gqnese Then Gen | el Sut cetesivery erie. geensen f “ set weve Tqyad= Se erehvery prime pomben em Coo peme number con members ane Sdlel te be rete have He prime factors th Gm 3 me mutt he amin 8M commen Faure Casby=1 y then fat are! ane netes vety rin Bees ot as prime Taney Fmt neler ues) 9U gates Gas) we rene = super ne Wanel 15 netedkvety petme ? 4 ? A Kvisony Sy Commer ofivisons menagerie TTR ar Y =o een =4 Heree ancl ane reBvety primes ty be te Subqneve Sh anol Su be tne genera et i) TARE Vey Tre me tet Hy bE te Sebgneve Sf & Q BE ane ir anel aL neredveny! pcime? of , : ween anti “Sonenoton of He= G40) =y Ws} ay DW BHW Bs UH > prior’ VS => rmmoo civisont -—_ = => aye =< s my) Meenee 15 enol AL are Dot ee TSN CL PUME Cerarfon fon UB eo BE CYC ae Lat a sp Then & oe = uiet 4 ancl HM be Poatee qe ene : . a Ma) Sete as ancl amy UU | &) ane TH ace mers very aS Be OH SF geet CQL s ° S Cayekrd ol ’ SS SAERE One| OSumes, ge Gane] HEH Leek us constelen {aon anc| AWS ett AME gceol Cmsn) = | Mow Wwe Wt Show that ola mn mr, iS) > Can) Ss Capo bl ny amyl. y y {egen)] eren ¢ SR TW os posible when el=4 mts Empter gcel Um S gee Chet Seat of geel Umoj=t SY mM=lGl> s=1q\ Ga tes fol 12 >. Aolteu, (clea on G@ Oncl ha) or Q Here we excruele tel = 4 Now. axuxk=16 — Q) ie Reloling D andl @® = sate =u etomans Store “a can have etter, Hwee elemerts to Zy Men we ean howe total AKUP =AG elements of omden 12. Thtenna) ineet procleeio NNSA ORIRART SSARRS . B ber Gy 4 » Garo iq tree the mache Cheng of gneup written ong a coreg greve tn the Teh pey Manner’ + | = GSM, O. ~-- OGD wohicy cs KNOW OS EOP 1 OM Mebey ' Olrrert Prveluct + Rot Tn Potencet. Qeeect preeerk » Susur Nat DOLL citiernertal torneo RL oRweorty element of Gers San oy a Gy ~~ - Defiatrton'— on 7 Let abe ony oops ane] o be Procluer of 4 and > At 7 aR HK one Normal subgroup of Cy A GE HK= hat hey ek a HONK se} we an write Git XK ylae Hox] (HY Mesmed Subgrnupi- em Verhene4 cline a mp Gy ts gotel to be normal svoqflour of ty dhs Cee SURRMYLEN: Ae qeai > newt ELULV eer Bf gNy: =Lgogt [nent ‘ yay soy eet OY SESE Loy ehvayy yy apy VS) UID) OH JY . 4 if CS Peremu-tortton greens Show “that 4 ts an imenmay “eaett prepelvchs ° ot gir wel ME Coun ayeg tna) + cand oah | e mH funy = {usr TF mu HN be Sot Ahot Ge tk, A Anke prow pecomse WHIE%s WIE 2 one uorwsivery PmaAMmE SHOW os eyete qv of onoler @ but Sx 8S not gua Hence GL oS nod Gnterna, efinert produce of H onelk beeepse kK AG Toe vy Ene theorems ol HX Hg HX > 7 > oXHy BAO Ha OHO -- BH reromeny G0 aw gree oy ts spe of Q Sondte number f febgreoub HoH ta = Hos Then % ty So morphic. ~t pp of Hp Has + s- Ho Typ Hy Hy XH Ke ~"RHn yr we § “ok oy up ae oe olineet Prroluct of Subgroup Hit tate THD HaHy “== HO TS Morunas Sub wp of 6 7 Gergen Bn = Lnurbas sn Wi eHet 7 Cavy ss HE)O CHE) S Let fon te ya ee os Fs Lrok Ge MIEMQH ANS OM G-> Oty Lt cloment of Gi. te Maney Wie ten eon? — @. Eye % Eve Bobs wedi rat Hg he WE re ane Hy EHS > tH » Ten bths =h3 ht seer (tommutadive ) *y [eosns tacts el —@ Now we proof ewation OO) Chtsngty nyt e ag by shy 3 becavse CHibs hit) hy ome hi &G Hy eHs nite Gr Aes gtexs HDA G Stemivarciy nitny it ny tye nine =He becaue hy hit hye at Lek US oasume “Prot 7S Lick MEH}, GEHE fon ot te 9-9 At Ce. ---ree & Hitlge = o> Eta NHC = fey niow -to Solve CAS momar baa hh --s nd Sho a as yong na =n hg - i he mPa shane! ahi veces he? hn 2 ee > bn he? my sang shthye = ot has! 7 Cn" _— har--- hag shy hy ---¢hd hot Py Onetng) hang =o heen hh oo he bo? Sone TWDEns madmag DRA SAE AL -coa htt hot het meythsthay= os Chaar eet) Bre HRA Ha Hay a x Ww see Ho & a Qy3 Hay | pet hE FUT © tt ga DMO” fet , \po = gre SAME WEL) peeneb yee TmpPiEs erpe preproerentotten ef 4 aque s che FRYE RH) EL@D HAW = 7 OUP Wharcs che +> Cypha ys sera) ce weal el ettnol- econ of Syrenvp of ocala p io ees petimge. ene eon ae Gi as onelen pe where PE | ; eeomo ree. on Ze a nhac be te od woof} Cade-01 sf G@ Wed On erement of orders OS™ A aire | gayle hore AS a= Cue conttolern) >eN non Tolenrted cement of Cy rod | ortelen Py S veo ov fe H= Gy PW Y= =P YEG Seth that Ye oy eatery Ee oC we » Lup iS ® —o “7 [ez el | 1 to Pap ef erVaton O LG Sy «ous | u REG > Lay 4a FBR asswome gad AG 3 bea > bab! ¢ Lay > Kay anol Coast) are aflstiner Subgroup 2 yo bass = fe} » day = fe aa -- oY 2 Cbayty By ellgtinee ULE cofed of Gbary TMWhus Me ton be conten Ob . Koabty > aLpaly 1 - ca get doors > ble at Keasty for Sere Ve pwsr rH ? b= ae dpa)? Abt = abe bt Sex aud! soa) ec) > belay > bokte Cay Ceontraolter’on)~ O Ths dah must be Nermet Sy OC Now A= dw * Gr= GW) KAD ALL) 9 Lapa fe} Leet a eoseye P —~® - > \G & Lewze teins. s a BOVE, ads Yee of ocala phe women eT a : a ofa tat (Stkcrel gieza mene 8 ‘ yo ojo Vo -heeonen |betan qrmoup: eur nw~ WN o- re we mM? ome SM NS Le ae e yeme Storte at evests| Seaite et i gene prvelvet of cure group ! of paime rower Reet : qoctect ancl he PvE? AAR DUMBER, of tegams %o THER o. a en oF The eyedic nop gece, UreAuedsh ptexermenes| ¢ we geet * ¥ \el=n —> Tn Lqnovp) (Gl=e" > 7 om 1 Ep ras oa oe gis CEE NOt mecesrorayty eUstindt « worn PE ot 8s onoler Lt cyte greek ane UMiave 6 exerurine | oa Ga) . aed mo BEAL one cobles| Mo menpric oss of Ole Ss > fo WEMOMLPREM — cLatsret of obeltan Qpeee of onslen Me arn BA UP ON. OTR f aN tow to Hel nos. of distinct Usomphicm ef a selon + Th GH yy abetan grove of on acnteger) La\=n. ve ton WROTE [Eilon =A Ry Pa US= 5x4 Q = a xs! BN = 97 Leas) S\ cor Cees A Lola eS, | b a <0u : ‘4 e€ abettan are P. fon eaten pantten of. *uctttion pmeans get of ave “integer ewrete Sum UK, Tucketton of KOs Ene ng: --5M4 [ote 2° Nya te =D HW DH DTNB OE oar ae Parxtitos x Vet xe ere wal Sur} SF3 3= 3 U3} “ma (ait, . = tart Lott a uy fut = 3 (351) = RA CRY ” dele) Lasuit ple tetsl Las tas} LE Ke meer ganga- oe “hene ane paretton of kK roup. There Sf one Rp" Op AO ieee “Ope SL EASA SM parctttton of K Sor =— orslen of & Let PHB Boel etme} HR Ssormonphism eros of gpven enter. oly ei) eosstble OCP) don é e i Le == a ZyX S aN Zr Ot s3 a os ta Ts Ors" z Oz s“ Bet z54 Bar Zs ez dara th Ons, ARR tg OxPis 12s 0 xctrs8 a eo Ley 4 re a Seca ei itor wohere ars PR aN erime 4 et not "o ‘ne Meck ole HERR where ge {req{aMee)] ord ccenenini| (one OT Hl=p?, fool we we Rave sto Proof Aout Hone ere tobar eee oa) (gener, Oy. ts abetan, , pe hove HE onel WK one normed Sabgecove of Ge Sco! BECK EK ancl Minn et we have HKe G © ne, P Xm qe Cove) ay 3 Tun reer ent an eregen Boon nak Sm de =a Son any eG we have Azo! = aysmrte? = sm, fe? tm a oS Ww “Con! yen atone ~ tn? ey - oS? a 4 miler ie eK 7 Oe WK x GS AK @) 9 OD ane] (Genk ome tink, LEAL anol ALEK ae anol gay s ee SO 1). ofivtele’ 9” anol m lou a 5 onze Hows fez aut of orlen i : 8o Mawes gel " s DD Oy es We Shave LO) & Wal, WAL al wee ead J hme sl ie Resa] RE hy. nen ba droler ps MEK St Loe Dolce * In Je Fy Le 7 ne oS cet 7 FR REN Q — comractietdon aout: 0 “VG, Aheonem WK hel | Chernend 64 . = tcoo wen] Remaruct- are 3 o Leek be wan abettan grove ath Vat: a = POS omere pane dtefne: — Pene + tad: GILPL fret {ela t my lemme 4 f Ge GCP. recess 1 ee" al Leemmo — 02 “a Lot “4 be an obetian agree ef prime — powest oral anel ani “all be Ceci of mantimor orcelen tn 4 Then cr con be corckHen AG he + Lorem Layne + a CORY Pav nue chenote | &| by pn Som ey 9 Wear Okas= 5 Qe Sarr dey Uae Has te swe fon basemen dp tneluciton onine ogc ia ere 2 rane ae Ce es en is LWP 5 Aue e] at Pom - Bae SO) Oe ~ are atone . ject vs atsome 4 + Lo . wen PE OY be tue cmauerd orerlern gt bY Riso. Rezo Rata HD Rag Raga = ko UH Rate =V voH 1 DPD! 90 hutemorphism gyceues DetCer) ane] Tan(4r)1— Twhpert to Funcidoo Composition + feof Ty Show Aot(Gt) TS a ove we nCa)= {$1 G2 G Lone~one, onto} bet Wt @ tut Ch) We Kawe to Show thot mee eros) TO) must fe one-one anak | 0 7.0 g MoS+ be Cerotpoepltin —@® Theowem—0l fur Co) ons) Tho Car) SCH) ane groves web OU Bow HOrC GUA, : THOT Cony = Tro) . = WUryLa) *2Us)) = CTatay THERE) ne TrOT2La) wv O72 U6) — @ from @ anol) Tory @ KG) =, tad te norco) To Show tte AutCé) OMe-one » onto a Sa TOG endict One| well olofinee| ancl one-ones Ooty Whe G - i Qssume thet ata) say ane} 7704) = by Y X= Tas b= Th) Jab ~ Toy) rb) = TL) Swab) = aye; YT Cas) = Tea) wey — 4) From @ anol @ Y Rot Cory < ACor) iT] Show Tons) ee a grove Wwe_ wht Sew Aha ran (éi) Since as tay, (a)= LBs 3% moe} toy Be34 meel 10} = PRG SB, 0059 102 ano| ; = Lio 0 . P Bes Q Jeneneaton of 7, Onelo oy Me-one . q ia . SMO GlRo of, My & vpention = atoan io > Since | f Xs Lorin) = SLath) = 3q+43b =Aata)-+h3 Ub) 7 ee ' sence Xg & Aut C0) tans Ayrey hot Cu) TREE we have wey= id & retemtisy) Smal BUY een WOK é = 3K CF RU then KDE TK EX ota = Tasty at) =A Ano \ HELM) = fap agreyy Xf q = fe BK THAT : See he Strucurne of Tle 4 we have Caras) a) = aCe 1)) = Ayes) = BD o sy Xa %y = Aq oe Oy NXg) = ye oy lea) 4 Thee Rot (yo) es. CHEE Se emt = oq Ves} 3 #9 Ret Gio) Joy oly oy xg yj. 5 #49 Ps oe 3aiaa 1F x [ots aq oy wy 4 i41 93 Ay [ey ol a oy Vig ta Bt Hq] Xq Ay ay TTreornem-2 tog enercny postive. —Kic +a ULn)+ Proof! Lut fe Aut Gn) sbuy automorp hieey ay! € ugn) by “BGS bat Qf AGE In) Voy gue ok Pcayedu) a Rave He Prof ota SU) ww Anteaan D Aut (tn) sb a on th fom platens oletorm! PEON IY TNE MEL Biot EAS seh nea] ¢ ds one-one ee ro) “4 es well ~ oleHoeol go ™ 9 tet 42 FB 5 Be BUtCZn) HAWKE BOW 5 ay METH Sus = eu) aQ@> ge) ya vs Welt = AER neo] 3 ts bne-one “Lak QP OD= OP) > 45 BE Hot Gen) 3 AUy= BU) SACD SUA - rh) gt Nomomonp tern [0c~ Heme] FMA Map ee = aay Cr trmes] =OLRU) = BSUS 4 2. 4 Ba) Coc- emer = Bete oa 5 Ney M--Hmed = BY yas Boa) 7e= 8] Cas gtce - copeatactton] ae ee one-one So CC onto . Son element Le UM) J xe KU (Zn) Souk thot Peja "EKO thech LU) =n TPR 8 AU)RAUEH HAUS my ee, / / . s we hove to prises He feltowlicy, onto > Homomorprty nm Ree H= G= cre) x (es) aise Snee &= “A () NOW Bore Te onto So Fee z Oy Te q sven Hor Ge TTHAY Sy . Same Sq pe ME | : [qyreur e] ‘ 7 K=Qh fon Some regen i “aetege TLA) S=Tlarqes s+ 5 tes). E Taye Tem) => + 1 py timgk = (rosy? = (ary? a= am) *) oa =e! =) m= 1 x0 Coy uttng: ev): yen st Somay of me Now from we have ThA Sa Om TR) = RIA Now from @ we have TAY 2a om TH = act Mes avs cay: Cay,7} — [freoov eof cas] Where ~rrLay=eat TWH enefone 5 Caen @J=Qo [recnove| coy] Me Know that Paty , q wt @ MComorpree -to Xy qenes youve of onefen ug | ~ Qot COD L Ty — (Peooveo} i) Factort Group / Qyorent GYrours : 1 Se ‘at Denton. eas) be aw grou anol Let A be a moan Sub’ oP AT 4 So Nee aN N WEG Tre wep of GW cometh of N tH Gos cLeno-+eo} bye Gin = UNMET” Anof N4Gt . ‘ # Ler Cou) be a group anh nye ct a normal Sbanoue of Gr then Ahe colteation of an te Om Om RE cosets oF N? en Gag Satel +0 be auotent Set of G by ny ons|_senotenl by CB) ancl the Ser SL? Boar A group ORDER eh Ges gg Babee group enol AZ es A ADAM} sen neus of G? theo G.\_ Novof Cement es G °C&)= oe Norof etoment ee ny = SCoy BS Oy. hat no Bbarop of onelerc. ocAy)= ME. x Ay = fEsCu29) C1325 yA... + CAYESySsLuyeray, Ca) s@uy 7 Ue *leel -- Uxax ts Bee XE ae. bret WK Ay gy OUI) =6 3 C23 Cyuie ® Socy Ee ———— : = Me G= AY a yy < S$ \Aq) ete ! Xs We IR mot possible Controeaticdon —-ytetel * Hence Ay hes oo yen o& orclen Gs G frcexy Theortery 1 an or 7 BH Lek Ge be a grove anol Lat TOM) * be € Centre of, F Srey & eyete Wen GL ey abetlan Rg Seok r leet NL a Sate a oe ets AC) dec aa a “fo Some ge Gi SE G&S abettan be ob=ba ww abe G Ker bE G be ant mem two chases PY aN: bal -e Se > an co anol pal gq. “ent =¢guym anol br =a)? Bin tome. Fon eny Son = 9h ane} bas gh Al 7 Lary aat (gn) 2 tr San = (a1 gmy x TP LN= Cotge dy > N= far'gmn >) esapre et: . ; “eel 9 [yee] Seend lorty [etgnes] ‘| Leet a8 A= 4 G7 =, 2 MAREN Pasi baal ® = gra: gry ae a” LQ OR = g™ Caradng qm a° NNR = qs nag wee qe HR —_ @ ba = ghaegrns : = Froggy) ay = 9? Grads HP groan = arr na, @ Srom O anol © abzbaq Steg BU EH Wet an anbétary elLemend{ > Ges abetlan| = ‘le ming CProveo!) “Moore ecm) Tan) nN SIN Se Lon ange group. brs fac) es Momonpie 4, tan Cey) Proof yoy @ be aw goer ancl we have -2C6) 4-64 “Nous we Construcy qi = Zl t Ray = TAT geay we know Tan C61) = a 5 fq wr nye “Automorc phism? Deine, = ren 6! tm) “> Santa) Se ) Lg 260) = $y graye oe WwW sto. Show OY db dy well cleli'neel . 4 FA RENE . Arce). qazen) : Wage rLe1) HE Of » Catagn = Caetag) PUG Ey ae neal) a) 4 sash = o Cuso) a Senet Cares lefty > ¥¢ aos * os gat from fe ragne] ae spe 78 Carxcay) = = Q(gyzc09) "es well a = sLatiine| SD es one-one Reverse cu, the wert olefine of weftrel 8 one-one Ss onto, Fon ang 9 tne) J gzca) -¢ a 7 4 SS PUyzcen) =» “eo =p + Hoy, = qq bq ste? hes orcto + » es homomorcptise / P Cg rz Gv) q ez) iy =e (8.932260) “ ~ F489 =fq, 8a =P Hew) FQ yee) & Romo moreph'tnn, i pe eS om Khar afee te oCasePe Saoite obert ups Ser OL prime Pevofy— Liat _Cr_t's_e nase sto Show “that “J_O€ Gy eb no __P/o¢ m)_+ Then te Oo Ae onal ofse: _ Wwe Shall prove: this Ue KUIAS. to tre metiosis of | amelucaton over OCG) Cage tf oChd=4 ge Ge fet “Then we howe nesthtng “ko pa ove 7 [Cose-2. 2% Ghost _no proper S$ sgriadp ancl OCG) _- “then _0Cor) ¢s__prtime >) Gr ts _cuyeate C/oté) ees PF ancl oCor) es’ petime e =o CH) Mos Gres Cyeut vp of orclen P+ tiet o be gqenenastot of Gre m : L __ So thee 0 Cay=r Ss alee ~ ake ge 3 “Leet! Cn hot opto per Sob sgecne MH anol Co) St . SS otet) £0 Cor) AMrus | bE ree (Xo) —— —— Hes asi rary Sages OF ‘ 2b STH ts a peep es — “nll _ 4 och) goes) fet) & otts) GA oc) =o Cor) TR emt Xe cay sea AH fatn) > e fo Cot ginal “eC Gif) SOO) — anc| ivi oC fet) a oe ov a8 snelc-tog —Aypertests Ts ented Monte b an element’ tHe © HY Ze_onc| (He)! geapeps ance ———_——— Pi penhil esac Se grip— Otc “T30 morepht | ero Gop —of_penmurtartion + —___ ‘ [gpcts} “_Penmutectton —gnuups t Whe eit_one =one anol vee by 0 CSoJ=N +s t= {T} vot) = oa i Sa= fr U2) $ o(S9)= N=

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