1.

Introduction

Theoretical background 1.1

Problems of teaching and learning English as a foreign language are widely

recognized and commonly shared by educators and researchers.(ghadribishtar intro
bedahidbaadnagahan SOLUTION bedahid)
One of the solutions is paying attention to one’s own preferred language
learning style when deciding how to learn a language. Whilst there is clearly some
truth in the assertion that different people can have different learning styles and it
is important to know what is the best way to learn or teach (Weiler, 2008).
Keefe (1987) emphasizes learning styles as cognitive, affective, and
psychological traits that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners
perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment.
In this context, Dunn (1983) found that dramatic improvement in students’
achievement in cases where learning styles have been taken into account show that
the way things are taught have a greater impact than the content covered in a
course of study. It is believed that when teachers are able to analyze the differences
and needs of their students, the educational process is likely to become optimized
for both students and teachers (Fairhurst andFairhurst, 1995).
Learning styles are attributed to different learning groups.Reid (1987)
categorizes styles of learning into six types: Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic, Tactile,
Group, and Individual.
 Discussions of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learners are common in
educational literature, teacher-preparation programs, and professional development
workshops (Willingham, 2005). Zapalska and Dabb (2002) mentioned thathow
well a person absorbs and retains information depends largely on whether the
information was received in the person’s preferred learning modality.
The theory that students learn more when content is presented in their best
modality seems to be supported by classroom experiences, and offers the hope of
maximizing each child's learning by planning different lessons for each type of
learner (Willingham, 2005).

...... It is horribly too short for a thesis

(az statement kandaminjagozashtam)

A young child who is naturally in the process of language learning just listens for
some years and gets prepared for speaking and then produces the words or phrases
internalized during the silence period, but most of second language learners neglect
this priority and pay little attention to this skill and as a result they can’t be good
speakers or readers or even writers (Brown, 2000).
Until recently, listening comprehension attracted little attention in terms of both
theory and practice. While the other three language skills (i.e. reading, writing and
speaking) receive direct instructional attention, teachers often expect students to
develop their listening skill by themselves and without any help. The fact that
listening has been neglected or poorly taught may have stemmed from the belief
that it is a passive skill and that merely exposing students to the spoken language
provides adequate instruction in listening comprehension (Call, 1985). When we
come to the case of teaching and take the eagle’s eye, we figure out that most
teachers ignore such myriad factors like individual differences among students and
different strategies and styles of learning, and hence students are treated similarly.
Reiff (1992) states that all learners have individual attributes relating to their
learning processes.

In tikkero ham az SIGNIFICANCE of the study kandam …..Human beings are

complicated creatures and are always under constant changes; therefore we cannot
ignore the differences among them, especially from the viewpoint of learning.
Definitely, these differences have some effect on the way of individual learning
(Kolb, 1985). In learning, we depend on our senses to process the information
around us and most people tend to use one of their senses more than the others;
these differences create different styles of learning (White, 2001).

Learning styles will be influenced by learners’ genetic make-up, their previous

learning experiences, their culture and the society they live in (Gunes, 2004).
Learning styles are among the concepts that are postulated by researchers to show
learners’ differences and varied needs and it has been shown that every human
being has his or her own way of learning and that students do not learn as well
when that style is thwarted (Guild, 1990). We can tailor our teaching techniques to
tease learning styles. As an example, showing movies for visual learners, using
audio for auditory learners and involving students in role-playing dialogues for
kinesthetic learners. According to Dunn, Zapalska and Dabb (2008), the way that
materials are presented and taught and weather they are presented in the learners’
preferred learning modality has the crucial impact on how well a person absorbs
the information.

Bazam KHEYLI kame…

1.2 Statement of the problem

 Language learning is a demanding task and needs time and energy. Learners
who dedicate themselves to learning English as a second language, encounter
different sorts of problems in grasping the language. Studies (which studies?)
suggest that listening comprehension is the skill in which students feel they have
achieved the least success. The main problems highlighted by learners were
dealing adequately with the speed of delivery of text, making out individual words
in a stream of spoken language, and making sense of any words identified.
Furthermore, most learners attributed their difficulties in listening to their own
supposed low ability in the skill and to the difficulty of the listening tasks and texts
set. (source)
Weiler (2004) believes that students’ listening skills will undoubtedly have an
enormous impact on their ability to learn new language.
Sitt-Gohdes (2001) also holds that most teachers teach the way they have already
learned. These might have caused the frustration of a good number of learners as
they witness that their learning preferences are not accounted for by many teachers.
Compared to the extensive work done on methods and instructional activities, one
vital area often neglected is the exploration of learning styles in the classroom.
This research focuses on the realm of listening comprehension as partof teaching
and using different techniques of teaching according to VAK (Visual, Auditory
and Kinesthetic) amonglearner’s learning styles as a suggested solution for
achievement in learning. By conducting this study, the researcher wishes to explore
the value of teaching through VAK (Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic) learning
styles channels in teaching listening comprehension to EFL learners.

Significance of the study 1.3

Nature gave us two ears but only one tongue, which is a gentle hint that we
should listen more than we talk! Listening is the most common communicative
activity in daily life.Morley (1991) believes that we can expect to listen twice as
much as we speak, four times more than we read, and five times more than we
write. Listening is also important for obtaining comprehensible input that is
necessary for language development.
Listening comprehension is a very important skill for a number of reasons. First,
being able to recall and understand information is an important pre-reading skill. In
order to be a strong reader later on, a child must be able to recall information when
it is presented orally. Second, children who have strong listening comprehension
skills also tend to be good listeners overall. And finally, according to researchers,
strong listening comprehension skills also promote thinking and problem-solving
skills (training module?,who??!!, 2007).
This research aimed to use some techniques for teaching listening comprehension
according to some differences among students (i.e. three different learning styles)
to see whether these techniques can promote above mentioned skill, and whether
this way can develop learning styles or not.
Reid (1987) mentioned, learning styles are variations among learners in using one
or more senses to understand, organize, and retain experiences. Reid categorized
styles of learning into six types: Visual (these learners prefer seeing things in
writing), Auditory (prefer listening), Kinesthetic (prefer active
participation/experiences), Tactile (prefer hands-on work), Group (prefer studying
with others), and Individual (prefer studying alone). This study is focused on the
first four learning styles. However, the kinesthetic and tactile styles were combined
to one learning-style group. It is obvious that those techniques which are related to
auditory learning stylesand promoting listening comprehension, but in this study,
the researcher decided to not omit this learning style because in literature review
these three learning styles always are in juxtaposition, and in the questionnaire
which is used in this research for assigning students in different learning style
groups, these three learning styles (VAK) areincorporated.

Research Questions 1.4

RQ1. Do VAK-based teaching techniques have any significant effect on listening

comprehension skill of Elementary learners?
A) If yes, how?

RQ2. Do different VAK- based types of teaching listening comprehension

?techniques have any impact on development of students’ learning styles

Research Hypothesis 1.5

Ho 1. VAK-based teaching techniques do not have any significant effect on

listening comprehension skill of Elementary learners.Mage quantitative
!!!???karmikoni

1.6 Definition of key terms

Some important concepts need to be discussed to clarify the usage of each term
.and what they mean throughout the study

Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Learning Styles

Maggioli (1996) classifies learners into the following four sensory preferences:
Visual learners recall information by visualizing the source, tend to follow the
teacher with their eyes while the teacher moves around the classroom, and
theyalways notice details or are very neat in the presentation of written work. They
like to work with videotapes, flashcards, pictures, and/or diagrams.
Auditory learners know how to listen to others, can be bright at oral work, but
their performance on tests is mediocre, and they cannot stop chattering. They like
to work with audiocassettes, songs, poems, or rhymes.
Kinesthetic learners need hands-on activities in order to understand. They are
familiar with everyone around them and have a short concentration span. They
enjoy working with maps, slips of paper, or cards.
Listening comprehension

Listening comprehension is viewed theoretically as an active process in which

individuals focus on selected aspects of aural input, construct meaning from
passages, and relate what they hear to existing knowledge (O'Malley, Chamot
andKüpper, 1989).

Yani key termedigeyinadari??

Limitations and delimitations 1.7

The gender of participants was ignored and only those who were between the 7and
18 years old were selected.As material, only the book which is mentioned in
instrumentation was adopted.
The English level of our participants was determined in accordance with
placement test of the institution and sometimes the class that the student is
assigned to, does not align with their actual level. Theycould not be selected
randomly, because of institution’s stringent principles; also there is no equal
distribution of learning styles possessed by all participants.
Limitation va delimitation raaz ham jodakonvajodabenevis….
 2. Review of the Related Literature

2.1 Introduction(hamejanoghteyedovombaadaz heading hazf shaved)

A wealth of research has been undertaken to attempt to define and demonstrate the
effects of a student’s learning style on academic performance in the classroom.
Cognitive style is not a single entity. Researchers examining learning styles have
varied views on the exact components and characteristics of learning styles. Keefe
(1982) stated: “Learning styles are cognitive, affective, and physiological traits that
serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and
respond to the learning environment.” (p. 32)

This study has focused on the studies carried out and theories proposedthat deal
with different learning styles theory, self-efficacy theory(yanivagheanraje be in
ham chizidar in karmatrahmikoni?!), and instructional technology in teaching for
visual, auditory, and kinesthetic students. Each of these areas will be discussed
separately.

2.2 Instructional Technology

Historically, the two terminologies, instructional and educational

technology have been used interchangeably. For the purpose of this study, it is
decided that the term instructional technology be used. Numerous definitions of
instructional technology have been offered so far, proving the developing nature of
the area. Ely (1970) was the pioneer who posited:

Audiovisual communications is that part of educational theory and

practice that basically deals with the planning and utilizing messages
which function as the controller of the process of learning. It deals
 with the study of the particular and relative strong points and weak
points of pictorial and non-pictorial messages alike which have high
possibility to be used in the process of learning for various purposes
and also the categorizing and systematizing of messages undertaken
by human and tools in an academic atmosphere. These cover the
planning, producing, choosing, managing, and using both elements
and total educational systems. (p.18)(agar copy astbayad BLOCK
beshavad…haminjuri)

In the1970s, three more definitions of thisnotionwere presented. One of

them is referred to in Seels and Richey (1994) as following:

an organized way of planning, assessing, and handling the whole

learning and teaching process according to particular purposes. This is
established on the grounds of researching in human learning and
communication process and applying mixed resources of human and
nonhuman to develop more helpful instruction. (p. 17)

vaghti page number midimyani DIRECT QUOTE… pas

yagiyumemidimya block minevisim… APA rabekhandokhtarekhub!

Sibler’s 1970 definition of instructional technology is mentioned in

Christopher as "the development of instructional systems components (messages,
people, materials, devices, techniques, settings) and the management of the
development . . . in a systematic manner with the goal of solving educational
problems" (p.1).

It was in1972 that the AECT (according to Seelsand Richey, 1994), using
some of the previously presented definitions, offered still a newer definition of
instructional technology as “a field involved in the facilitation of human learning
through the systematic identification, development, organization, and utilization of
a full range of learning resources and through the management of these processes”
(p. 19).The definition’s picture of instructional technology is that of “the theory
and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of
processes and resources for learning” (Seels and Richey, p. 1).

As implied in these definitions, the responsibilities and duties of an

instructional technologist are manifold. According to Cutshall (1999), the four
domains in which an instructional technologist functions include: (a) instruction’s
designing, (b) instructional products and services’ producing, (c) instruction’s
managing, and (d) instruction’s evaluation. Seels and Richey (1994) stated that an
instructional designer helps teachers by (a) assisting to design instructional
materials using many technologies; (b)using different teaching strategies; (c)
applying educational theory in designing curriculum; and (d) assessing, and
revising materials.

The instructional developer should have in mind various methods of

presentation: computer-assisted instruction, print, audiovisual methods, and
integrated technologies. It is the developers who should notice what the most
influential methods of presentation are to facilitate learning. They also need
continuous evaluation of the process to determine its effectiveness.

Ye chizayirohazfkardam….

Finally, “utilization is the act of using processes and resources for learning”
(Seelsand Richey, 1994, p. 46). It covers the utilization of the media, diffusion of
innovations, institutionalization and implementation, and rules and policies. It also
deals with evaluation because people often consider how helpful a resource is.
 In general, regarding all the definitions offered so far, instructional
technology is the search for finding out the ways people learn and the best possible
ways of teaching them. It deals with objects like instruments, machinery, tools,
appliances, and technical performance’s physical devices. It covers activities like
people’s doings, that is, their behavior, way of thinking, every day activities, skills
and approaches. It is a system based on sociotechnical grounds: the gathering and
use of tools that connect people and different objects. In the end, it should be
mentioned that it is a process that starts with a need and finishes with a response.
The response, in its own terms, can become a need, hence, the presence of an ever-
evolutionary process.(Is this paragraph needed really? I doubt)

2.2.1 Applied Instructional Technology in the Classroom

Due to everyday advances in the area of technology and their availability,

faculties can take advantage of a lot of technological choices such as CDs, DVDs,
audio and videotapes to offer a variety of movies, pictures, cartoons, instructional
programs, and so many other types of audio-video materials when they would like
to meet the needs of different students and their various learning styles. According
to a lot of researches such as Dille and Mezack, 1991; Gee, 1990; Grasha, 1996;a
mixture of different instructional technologies based on students’ individual
learning style preferences is the most effective method.

With the use of computers, different sorts of materials and information can
be provided and organized for the content introduction and for simplifying
students’ testing. CD-ROMs can conveniently substitute traditional paper books,
dictionaries, encyclopedias, saving a great deal of time, space, and money for the
students; with the application of web pages teachers can offer lectures, course
materials, homework and exams in the electronic format; PowerPoint slides can
present working and amusing visual materials. It is particularly effective for those
students who have visual learning style. Introducing a kind of visual novelty
satisfies students’ cognitive systems to keep them interested for extended periods
and classrooms. Besides, having presented the important materials in a highlighted
form, it makes the process of learning and note taking easier. Also, television,
Internet, and telephone can be used to invite professors and other academic groups
to take part in the classroom from far and distant countries. Students also can be
aware of what goes on in other universities via e-mails, Web pages, chat rooms,
and other electronic tools.

Instructors try to view students as unique individuals possessing different

learning styles, background knowledge, aptitude, area of interest, and needs. But it
is a very difficult and complicated task.

Instructors should be aware of the fact that there is a philosophy beyond

every teaching method. Each individual method rests on a conceptual basis, and by
knowing them an instructor will be able to choose the best possible method and
also to explain the necessity and reason beyond such an approach; in other words it
serves as a theoretical justification of utilizing a particular method. When it comes
to teaching with technology, noticing the students’ different learning styles is of
crucial importance. The performance of students, regarding their technology
functioning is greatly related to their individual learning style preferences (Dille
and Mezack, 1991; Gee, 1990). Also it introduces different stimuli of the same
concept, so that different parts of the brain are involved simultaneously (Diaz,
Aedo, Torra, Miranda, and Martín, 1998).(inhayekketabdarand? If yes, benevis…
Diaz et al. 1998)
 It is often quoted that computerized technologies process and analyze
information in a fashion similar to that of the brain. There are several ways through
which technology is used to help students process sensory information. Different
students use visual, auditory and kinesthetic waysof processing information to deal
more successfully with language learning and especially with listening.Students
who focus more on their visual skills in information processing by means of sight
and technology can minimize the level of their frustration via offering materials
through animations, hypertext, diagrams, and videotapes (Ross and Schulz, 1999).

Auditory-based students manage the information processing content

listening and its internalization. Such students take advantage of using audiotape
recordings of on-line classroom lectures, in classes such as music, where the
students have the opportunity of repeatedly interacting with examples that compare
and contrast various composition styles (Sarasin, 1998).

The third groupis kinesthetic students who work well with their hands, and
try to experience hands-on manipulation in material learning. One program that
can be of great help to these students is simulation programs that pavesthe way for
hands-on instruction, even where there is no chance for real learning atmosphere.
To conclude, the presence of different technologies with their applicability in
satisfying students’ individual styles of learning is advantageous for all students.
(Source?)

2.3. Learning Style

‘Learning Style’ has been defined by various scholars mostly as a signal for
individual differences. These differences may manifest themselves in ‘life styles’
and even in personality types (Zhang and Sternberg, 2005). Kolb (1984) and
Honey and Mumford (1992) describe learning style as an individual’s preferred or
habitual ways of processing and transforming knowledge. According to Kolb
(1984), psychological attributes, resulting from individual differences, determine
the particular strategies a person chooses while learning. On the other hand, Keefe
(1987) emphasizes learning styles as cognitive, affective, and psychological traits
that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and
respond to the learning environment. Moreover, Dunn and Dunn (1986) hold that
each individual’s concentration on, mental processes, internalization and retain of
new and difficult information stem from his specific learning style.

(mizane indentation avalehame paragraph ha yekibashad)Adapting learning to a

person’s unique learning style is not a new concept (Givens, 2000). The study of
differences in personality dates back thousands of years.It is proved that different
students learn in different ways, and learning style can be defined according to
students’ favorite way of learning. It is a matter of method not content: How and in
what ways a student learns not what he learns. In this way different learning styles
influence the learning atmosphere: The quality of lighting, sound, music, the
partner with whom one collaborates, time, and place are among different learning
style preferences. Brown’s definition of style (1987) encapsulates these definitions
as a “consistent and rather enduring tendency or preference within an individual.”
(p. 50). Various learning style models and definitions have been presented so far
but all of them are built upon one fundamental basis: individuals learn best in
different ways.
Theis??? (as cited in Dunn, Griggs, Olson, & Beasley, 1995) described learning
style as a set of biological and developmental characteristics that make identical
instruction for learners either effective or ineffective. Theoretically, individuals
differ in the sense modality of stimuli from which they best absorb, retain, and
process new information (Cassidy and Eachus, 2000; Dunn, 1983; Harrison,
Andrews, andSaklofske, 2003). Specifically, how well a person absorbs and retains
information depends largely on whether the information was received in the
person’s preferred learning modality (ZapalskaandDabb, 2002). For instance, a
“visual learner” is hypothesized to learn optimally with pictorial or other visual
stimuli such as diagrams, charts, or maps, whereas an “auditory learner” performs
best with spoken stimuli, like a lecture.

According to learning style theory, a person who is a visual learner needs to see,
observe, record, and write to best learn (Dunn, 1993; ZapalskaandDabb, 2002); an
auditory learner prefers information that is spoken and heard, as it is in dialogue
and discussion (Dunn, 1993; Zapalskaand Dabb, 2002); and a kinesthetic learner
prefers to learn in an environment where material can be touched and he or she can
be physically involved with the to-be-learned information (Dunn, 1993;
Zapalska&Dabb, 2002).

For Felder and Henriques (1995), the criterion for classifying learners is their
perceptual behavior. They make two categories: sensing and intuitive learners.
‘Sensing’ learners are concrete and methodical; they are good at memorizing facts
and doing hands-on work and are more comfortable with following rules and
standard procedures. On the other hand, ‘intuitive’ learners tend to be abstract and
imaginative; they like innovation and dislike repetition. As to the ways in which
learners prefer input information to be presented, they can be either visual or
verbal learners. Visual learners are those who prefer to receive information in the
form of pictures, diagrams, films and demonstrations while verbal learners prefer
words as a medium for information transfer. Moreover, with respect to the ways of
knowledge can be processed, learners can be put into two categories, namely
‘active’ and ‘reflective’. An active learner, as suggested by the name, is someone
who prefers to be actively involved in examining and employing knowledge with
others. He does so in group discussions and interactions with others.

Reflective learners tend to employ their introspection. Active learners benefit the
most in dialogue, role-play and team work learning activities while reflective
learners are more inclined to ponder on perceived information.

For a long time, researchers and educators alike believed that a person’s
intelligence was what influenced how a person learned, but subsequent testing of
this hypothesis indicated that students with the same IQ performed significantly
differently with similar learning tasks (Harrison et al., 2003). During the last 35
years, there has been a major effort to investigate the topic of learning style, and
instruments to measure and explain individual learning styles. The purpose of each
of these instruments is to identify the preferred learning style of each individual,
which in turn should result in modified instructional methods to optimize each
individual’s learning. However, researchers have observed a great deal of
variability between many of these devices; in fact, a great many of the available
learning style instruments have never been validated (Harrison et al., 2003).

Learning style research has simply identified learning styles through self-report
questionnaires (e.g., Delahoussaye, 2002; Haar, Hall, Schoepp, & Smith, 2002;
Loo, 2002) without assessing the basic hypothesis underlying the theory.They were
found to affect learners’ learning behaviors. Learners having different learning
style preferences would behave differently in the way they perceive, interact, and
respond to the learning environment (Junko, 1998). Since learners differ in their
preferences to certain learning styles, it will be important for teachers to examine
the variations in their students on the features of their learning styles, because the
information about learner’s preference can help teachers become more sensitive to
the differences students bring to the classroom (Felder &Spurlin, 2005).
.Adjustments can then be made to accommodate the students’ varied needs

2.3.1 Sensory Learning Styles

It is a model about which many researchers have been done so far. This
theory deems that each individual possesses a particular set of biological and
developmental traits and these traits affect a person’s learning, developing and
producing new skills and knowledge (Good andBrophy, 1987). It was first
designed to be applied mainly among middle and high school levels but then was
extended to cover all grade levels. It consists of some basic maxims and underlying
assumptions:

1. Most individuals have the ability to learn.

2. Different individuals learn best in different ways and learning
conditions.
3. There exist individual learning preferences that can be objectively
measured.
4. Most of the students given the opportunity to learn according to their
preferred style reveal agreat amount of self-motivation and success.
5. This provides teachers with good opportunity to get familiar with
different individual learning styles and to use them in their classes.
6. Students can be instructed and motivated toward self-teaching
according to their preferred learning styles.
 7. Applying various learning styles advances both learning and
productivity (Price, 1996).
This model covers 20 areas but those related to this study are the
sensory areas, that is, visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. In making sense of
and comprehending the world human beings use five senses, namely (a)
seeing, (b) hearing, (c) feeling, (d) tasting, and (e) smelling. Three out of
these five senses are mostly used by individuals as basic input channels:
visual, auditory, and kinesthetic senses. People can see different scenes,
pictures, images, and keep record of visual images from their past
experiences (visual); they hear and listen to various sounds, conversations,
and music and orally share their experiences (auditory); or they experience,
touch and feel their experiences (kinesthetic). According to Ross, 1991;
Eislzer 1983; and Alberghius, 2001, three learning modalities emerge: (a)
visual, (b) auditory, and (c) kinesthetic. Each of them has its own strengths
that instructors can recognize, value, and apply to meet the maximum
potentials of each student.

2.3.2.Felder-Silverman Model
The Felder-Silverman learning style model (FSLSM) was created by Richard
Felder and Linda Silverman in 1988. It focuses on aspects of learning styles on
engineering students.The model had five dimensions in the original version but
was changed to four when one dimension was deleted. The learning style
dimensions according to Felder are:
• Sensory/intuitive
• Visual/verbal
• Active/reflective
• Sequential/global.
Sensory learners like learning facts and solving problems with known methods
while intuitive prefer discovering possibilities. Active learners like to try things out
or dosomething active. Reflective learners prefer thinking about things on their
own. Sequentiallearners learn in small steps when global learners understand
things in large steps (Felder, 2002).The Felder-Silverman learning style model
(FSLSM) is considered the mostappropriate to be used in a computer-based
educational system (Carver, 1999).

2.3.3. VAK Learning Style Model

There are many different kinds of learning style models based on different aspects.
One model concentrates on human observation channels; vision, hearing and
feeling. It is called the Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic (VAK) model. Probably the
most well-known model is the Kolb’s learning style model. The Honey and
Mumford's learning style model and The Felder-Silverman model are also briefly
introduced.(yanihameye in payinihahanuz BLOCK hastand !!)

The observation channel model or in other words the Visual-Auditory-

Kinesthetic(VAK) model bases on the basic observation channels of human.
The learning styles are divided into four categories; visual (verbal), visual
(non-verbal), auditory and kinesthetic.Sometimes the word tactile is
connected to the kinesthetic category changing the model name into Visual-
Auditory-Kinesthetic-Tactile (VAKT). The VAK model is not a learning
style in a way that the other learning style models are. It is not developed by
any specific person or persons. The model is anyway a base for several
learning style models including for example the Dunn and Dunn learning
style model and the Gregorc’s Mind Styles Model and Style Delineator.
(Työssäoppii, 2006; Illinois Learning Styles, 2006)
Learners with visual learning style learn best using their eye sight. Seeing
and reading are described to be important for visual learners. For example
pictures, Tables, demonstrations, handouts, and mind maps are very useful
for them. Especially lecture notes, textbooks and other written text is the
most useful way of learning. It is easy to add those things in the learning
environment and therefore it is easy to visually learning students to use and
study in virtual environment. Thematic entities are important to this kind of
learners. (ibid.) (check whether in 6th edition of APA we should use “ibid” or
not.

The students who learn best through hearing (aurally) can find virtual
learning useful if there are video clips, virtual lectures, and video
conferences because listening and speaking are important for auditory
learners. The clips can also be easily added to the environment. The learners
with auditory learning style like to hear detailed directions. They learn
things one at a time. Auditory learners benefit from listening to lectures and
participating in discussions. (ibid.)

Kinesthetic learners learn best through feeling and experimenting. They

prefer laboratory sessions or field trips over classroom lectures. These
learners like to be involved with physical experiences; touching, feeling,
holding, doing, and practical hands-on experiences. Therefore the virtual
learning environment brings a lot of challenge to their learning. In the
learning process some kind of virtual models can be useful for them where
one can see how things work. (ibid.)
2.3.4.Multisensory Approach(noghteyeakharhazfshavad)

Any teacher has experienced meeting students with different learning styles. The
three common learning styles are visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. Recognizing
these differences and striving to incorporate approaches that are multisensory can
promote greater interest, enthusiasm, and more thorough learning. Multisensory
instruction refers to any learning activity that includes the use of two or more
sensory modalities simultaneously to take in or express information (Birsch, 1999,
p. 1). The sensory modalities include visual (sight), auditory (hearing), tactile
(touch) and kinesthetic (movement). Using a multisensory teaching approach
means helping students to learn through more than one of the senses. Students have
learning differences in one or more areas of reading, writing, listening
comprehension, and expressive language.
Multisensory instruction can facilitate students’ ability to learn and recall
information by combining explicit instruction and multisensory strategies (Birsch,
1999, p.2). Multisensory teaching is simultaneously visual, auditory, and
kinesthetic-tactile to enhance memory and learning. Links are consistently made
between the visual (what we see), auditory (what we hear), and kinesthetic (what
we feel) pathways in learning. These teaching techniques and strategies stimulate
learning by engaging students on multiple levels. Some researchers theorize that
many students have an area of sensory learning strength, sometimes called a
learning style. This research suggests that when students are taught using
techniques consistentwith their learning styles, they learn more easily, faster, and
can retain and apply conceptsmore readily to future learning. Most students, with a
disability or not, enjoy the engaging variety that multisensory techniques can offer
(Logsdon, 2009). Multisensory techniques enable students to use their personal
areas of strength to help them learn. They can range from simple to complex,
depending on the needs of the student and the task at hand.

Multisensory techniques that stimulate visual reasoning and learning are called
visualtechniques. Those techniques that focus on sound and stimulate verbal
reasoning are called auditory techniques. Multisensory techniques that involve
using body movement are called Kinesthetic Methods (Logsdon, 2009). For
instance, the visual teaching methods include strategies such as using text or
pictures on paper, posters, models, projection screens, or computers, student-
created art, and images. Auditory techniques include strategies such as using
hearing aids, video, film, or multi-image media with accompanying audio; and
music, song, instruments, speaking, rhymes, chants, and language games.
Moreover, multisensory methods involve games such as jumping rope, clapping,
stomping or other movements paired with activities while counting, and singing
songs related to concepts.

Generally speaking, students learn more when information is presented in a variety

of modes than when only a single mode is used. The point is supported by a
research study carried out several decades ago. Felder and Henriques (1995, p.28)
claim that students retain 10 percent of what they read, 26 percent of what they
hear, 30 percent of what they see, 50 percent of what they see and hear, 70 percent
of what they say, and 90 percent of what they say as they do something. Thus,
what must be done to achieve effective foreign language learning is tobalance
instructional methods, so that all learning styles are simultaneously accommodated.
However, teaching styles are made up of the methods and approaches with which
instructorsfeel most comfortable; if they tried to change to completely different
approaches they wouldbe forced to work entirely with unfamiliar, awkward, and
uncomfortable methods, probably with disastrous results from the students’ point
of view. Fortunately, instructors who wish to address a wide variety of learning
styles need not make drastic changes in their instructional approach. The way they
normally teach addresses the needs of at least three of the specified learning style
categories; regular use of at least some of the instructional techniques given below
should suffice to cover the remaining five (Felder &Henriques, 1995, pp.28-29).
• Motivate learning. As much as possible, teach new material (vocabulary, rules of
grammar) in the context of situations to which the students can relate in terms of
their personal and career experiences, past and anticipated, rather than simply as
more material to memorize (intuitive, global, inductive).
• Balance concrete information (word definitions, rules for verb conjugation and
adjective-noun agreement) (sensing) and conceptual information (syntactical and
semantic patterns, comparisons and contrasts with the students’ native language)
(intuition) in every course at every level. The balance does not have to be equal,
and in elementary courses it may be shifted heavily toward the sensing side, but
there should periodically be something to capture the intuitors’ interest.
• Balance structured teaching approaches that emphasize formal training
(deductive, sequential) with more open-ended unstructured activities that
emphasize conversation and cultural contexts of the target language (inductive,
global).
• Make liberal use of visuals. Use photographs, drawings, sketches, and cartoons to
illustrate and reinforce the meanings of vocabulary words. Show films, videotapes,
and live dramatizations to illustrate lessons in texts (visual, global.)(Ina source
nadaran be alave be nazarcutpasteshodan)
2.4. Applications of Learning Styles in the Classroom

Various researchers have attempted to provide ways in which learning styles can
take affecting the classroom. Two such scholars are Dr. Rita Dunn and Dr.
Kenneth Dunn (1978). Dunn and Dunn write that “learners are affected by their:
(1) immediate environment (sound, light, temperature, and design); (2) own
emotionality (motivation, persistence, responsibility, and need for structure or
flexibility); (3) sociological needs (self, pair, peers, team, adult, or varied); and (4)
physical needs (perceptual strengths, intake, time, and mobility)” (Dunn &Dunn,
1978). They claim that not only can students identify their preferred learning
styles, but that students also score higher on tests, have better attitudes, and are
more efficient if they are taught in ways to which they can more easily relate.
Therefore, it is to the educator’s advantage to teach and test students in their
preferred styles (Dunn and Dunn, 1978).
(vaghtighalatpeydanemikonamnegaranmishavam……..omidvaramhamejavaghti
QUOTATION MARKS nazashtihatman PARAPHRASE kardebashivagarna
plagiarism mahsubmishavadvadavaranihastandkematnradar goggle search
mikonandva agar sechaharkalameeynankenare ham bashand in serghat bar
malaamishavad… take care please…it’s serious)

Although learning styles will inevitably differ among students in the classroom,
Dunn and Dunn say that teachers should try to make changes in their classroom
that will be beneficial to every learning style. Some of these changes include room
redesign, the development of small-group techniques, and the development of
Contract Activity Packages. Redesigning the classroom involves locating dividers
that can be used to arrange the room creatively, clearing the floor area, and
incorporating student thoughts and ideas into the design of the classroom (Dunn
and Dunn, 1978). Small-group techniques often include a “circle of knowledge” in
which students sit in a circle and discuss a subject collaboratively as well as other
techniques such as team learning and brainstorming. Contract Activity Packages
are educational plans that facilitate learning by using the following elements: 1)
clear statement of what the students’ needs to learn; 2) multisensory resources
(auditory, visual, tactile, kinesthetic) that teach the required information; 3)
activities through which the newly-mastered information can be used creatively; 4)
the sharing of creative projects within small groups of classmates;5) at least 3
small-group techniques; 6) a pre-test, a self-test, and a post-test (Dunn and
Dunn,1978).

2.5.Learning Styles and Academic Achievements

There have been many attempts made to enhance students’ academic
achievements. It has always been the main concern of many dedicated teachers and
parents that their students and children be as much successful as possible. In
relation to this, many teachers are convinced that students need the positive attitude
to succeed academically. Often, one’s learning style is identified to determine
strengths for academic achievement. Dunn, Beaudry and Klavass (1989) assert that
through voluminous studies, it has been indicated that both low and average
achievers earn higher scores on standardized achievement and attitude tests when
they are taught within the realm of their learning styles. Chuah Chong-Cheng
(1988) discusses the importance of learning styles as being not only necessary, but
also important for individuals in academic settings. Most students favor to learn in
particular ways with each style of learning contributing to the success in retaining
what they have learnt. As such, studies carried out conclude that students retain
10% of what they read, 26% of what they hear, 30% of what they see, 50% of what
they see and hear, 70% of what they say, and 90% of what they say as they do
something (Chuah; Chong-Cheng 1988). These facts reveal that each learning style
has its own strengths and weaknesses. Some students learn in many ways, while
others might only favor one or two. Those students with multiple learning styles
tend to gain more and obtain higher scores compared to those who rely solely on
one style (Dunn, Beaudry&Klavas, 1989). Additionally, the differences in learning
styles have also been reported between gifted and the underachievers; between the
learning disabled and average achievers; among different types of special
education students; and among secondary students in comprehensive schools and
their counterparts in vocational education and industrial arts (Dunn and Dunn,
1986). Some special students favor kinesthetic instruction, such as experiential,
active and hands-on, while many others are more auditory and visually oriented
(Dunn, 1991).
Dunn and Dunn (1986) also believe that low achievers tend to have poor
auditory memory. Although they often want to do well in school, their inability to
remember information through lecture, discussion, or reading causes their low
achievement especially in traditional classroom environment where teachers
dominate and students mostly listen or read. It is not only the low achievers learn
differently from the high achievers, they also vary among themselves. Impulsive
students for instance, when compared to reflective ones, show poor academic
achievement (Kagan and Kagan, 1970). Other studies show that Field Independent
students achieve more than Field Dependent ones (Chapelle, 1995). Studies also
reveal that matching teaching and learning styles can significantly enhance
academic achievement at the primary and secondary school levels (Smith
&Renzulli, 1984). According to Felder (1995), students learn more when
information is obtainable in a variety of approaches than when only a single
approach is applied. Although many teachers are aware that their students favor
different learning styles, lecture tends to be the main form of teaching. Some
faculties simply decide to use a wide variety of teaching activities, hoping that they
will cover most student learning preferences along the way.

This method, though convenient, may not be the most effective way to address
student learning preferences. Caudil (1998) stated that planning for multiple
modalities within each lesson is important because once a teacher focuses on one
modality, “students who learn best in one of the other ways may lose interest or
have difficulty staying focused” (p. 11).

Much experiential research indicates that learning styles can either hamper or
increase academic performance in several aspects even though not much research
has been conducted on the relationship between instructional design of learning
materials and learning styles (Riding andCheema, 1991). In general, a rich data
have been obtained through studies on learning styles; however, the data have
rarely been exploited by designers of instructional programs thereby a greater
understanding of learners’ approaches to learning can be obtained.

2.6. Listening
No one can deny the importance of listening skills in foreign language learning
because the key to acquire a language is to receive language input. Krashen,
Terrell, Ehrman, and Herzog (1984) claim that acquisition takes place only when
students absorb enough comprehensible input. The same claim was supported by
Rost (1994) who confirmed that listening is vital in language classrooms because it
provides input for learners. As an input skill, listening plays a crucial role in
students’ language development. Krashen (1985) argues that people acquire
language by understanding the linguistic information they hear. Thus language
acquisition is achieved mainly through receiving understandable input and
listening ability is the critical component in achievingunderstandable language
input. Without understanding inputs at the right level, any kindof learning simply
cannot occur. Thus listening is a fundamental language skill, and as such it merits a
critical priority among the four skill areas for language students. As Hasan (2000)
pointed out, “listening comprehension provides the right conditions for language
acquisition and development of other language skills” (p.138). Listening, therefore,
is essential not only as a receptive skill but also to the development of spoken
language proficiency.
Vandergrift (2007) points out that while listening comprehension lies at the heart
of language learning, it is the least understood and last researched skill. Listening
comprehension is not a passive activity. It is a complex active process in which the
student must discriminate sounds, understand vocabulary and grammatical
structure, interpret stress and intonation and associate it into the context.
(Vandergrift, 1999).In fact, listening is at the heart of language learning due to its
role in the construction of other language abilities Dunkel 1991, Rost (2002 cited
by Vandergrift 2007). Vandergrift (1999) points out that listening comprehension
is a highly integrative skill as it is usually the first skill that learners develop. In
addition, listening comprehension skills help to facilitate the acquisition of
vocabulary and grammatical competence. Terrell and Krashen (1983) argue that
teachers should not force student to produce utterances in the target language until
they have an opportunity for the acquisition process to begin. For this reason, it is
important for teachers to find effective strategies for presenting audio input in
order to help students develop listening strategies and take the maximum
advantage of language learning opportunities. The importance of finding effective
strategies for teaching listening was demonstrated in research done by Hasan
(2000), Kim (2002) and Graham (2003, cited by Vandergrift (2007), who
concluded that language learners perceive listening as the most challenging skill to
be developed. The grade of difficulty in understanding specific listening input in
L2 may generate in learners a feeling of frustration and anxiety (Graham, 2003 as
cited by Vandergrift, 2007).
Listening plays an important role in communication as it is said that, of the total
time spent on communicating, listening takes up 40-50%; speaking, 25-30%;
reading, 11- 16%; and writing, about 9% (Gilakjani&Ahmadi, 2011). According to
Goh (2000),listening is the primary means by which incoming ideas and
information are taken in. Gilbert (1988), on the other hand, noted that students
from kindergarten through high school were expected to listen 65-90 percent of the
time. Wolvin and Coakley (1988) concluded that, both in and out of the classroom,
listening consumes more of daily communication time than other forms of verbal
communication. Listening is central to the lives of students throughout all levels of
educational development (Coakley&Wolvin, 1997). Listening is the most
frequently used language skill in the classroom (Ferris, 1998; Vogely, 1998). Both
instructors (Ferris &Tagg, 1996) and students (Ferris, 1998) acknowledge the
importance of listening comprehension for success in academic settings. Numerous
studies indicated that efficient listening skills were more important than reading
skills as a factor contributing to academic success (Coakley&Wolvin, 1997).
Nevertheless, it is evident that listening is more important for the lives of students
since listening is used as a primary medium of learning at all stages of education.
In spite of its importance in foreign language learning, the teaching of listening
comprehension has long been ―somewhat neglected and poorly taught aspect of
English in many EFL programs (Mendelsohn, 1994, p. 9).
EFL learners have serious problems in English listening comprehension due to the
fact that universities pay more attention to English grammar, reading and
vocabulary. Listening and speaking skills are not important parts of many course
books or curricula and teachers do not seem to pay attention to these skills while
designing their lessons. Most teachers take it for granted and believe that it will
develop naturally within the process of language learning. Persulessy (1988, p.50)
states that one of the reasons for the opinion that listening is a skill that tends to be
neglected is the feeling among language teachers that this skill is automatically
acquired by the learner as he learns to speak the language. Most teachers also
assume listening is synonymous to breathing— automatic (Ina Thomas and Brian
Dyer, 2007). Another reason why this skill is not given serious attention is the fact
that incompetence in it is easy to hide through nodding and shaking of the head,
which may give the impression of understanding even there, is none. Still another
reason is that audio-lingual courses give the impression that they are teaching
listening when in fact they are teaching other skills. In addition to this, Nobuko
Osada, 2004 reported that listening has not drawn much attention of both teachers
and learners, they are generally less aware of its importance. In classrooms,
teachers seem to test, not to teach listening. Meanwhile, students seem to learn
listening, not listening comprehension.
As a result, it remains the most neglected and the least understood aspect of
language teaching (Glisan, 1985). In fact, listening is a complex mental process
that involves perception, attention, cognition, and memory. Comprehending speech
in a foreign language is a quite difficult task for language learners. When listening
to a foreign language, many language learners face difficulties. In order to help
students improve their listening ability, language teachers have to understand
students’ listening difficulties in comprehending spoken texts, and instruct
effective listening strategies to help students solve their listening difficulties.

2.6.1. Importance of Developing Listening Skills

Listening is probably the most important skill that people need to develop to
acquire a second language since it is the principal means by which learners receive
linguistic input. However, it is found that this skill presents the highest level of
difficulty in teaching English as a foreign language to elementary grades.
Rubin (1994), Dunkel (1991), Rost (1990) and Anderson and Lynch (1988) cited
by Soyoun. K (2010) emphasize that listening skills play a crucial role in
communication. Moreover, Oxford (1993) says that “listening is perhaps the most
fundamental language skill”. (p.205)
Richards (1983) cited by Brown (1994), who mentions a list with some micro
skills useful for learners to acquire effective interactive listening strategies. Some
of these micro-skills were taken as criteria to develop listening in this project:
- Retain chunks of language of different length in short- term memory.
- Discriminate among the distinctive sounds of English.
- Recognize reduced forms of words.

2.6.2 Studies on Listening Comprehension Strategies

Since the 1970s, a number of studies were conducted to elucidate the relationship
between listening strategy use and successful learning. Murphy (1985) found that
more proficient listener tended to have an open and flexible use of strategies,
whereas less proficient listeners most frequently had a dependence on the text and
a consistent use of paraphrases.
Zhou (2004) in her study compared the language learning strategies between ESL
and Chinese students. He found that for using listening strategies both groups
looked for opportunities to listen to English. In addition, most of them were aware
of not translating what they had heard into the native language. He found
differences between ESL and Chinese students. For example, ESL had clearer
purpose of listening, and they usually listened for pleasure in English. On the other
hand, Chinese students preferred to make guesses to understand unfamiliar English
words by any clue, such as clues from the context or situation.
Yumiko (2005) investigated the relationship between Japanese EFLlearners'
listening ability and vocabulary gain. The subjects were 156 Japanese female
second-year English-major college students. Three groups (High, Mid, and Low)
were generated according to the quartile scores of the Test of English for
International Communication. In relation to listening strategies, Yumiko has found
that the subjects of the high group are keen to have more opportunities of listening
to English, and use more strategies for listening skills and vocabulary learning than
the mid and low groups.
Tang (2006) has investigated the status of the listening strategy use among58 non-
English major postgraduates of Shandong University of Science and Technology
students through a Questionnaire for Listening Strategies which was based on
Oxford Strategy Inventory for Language Learning. The results showed that from
an overall perspective, the status of the listening strategy use among the subjects
ranged from “sometimes to seldom”. This implied that they lacked the knowledge
of listening strategies, and their consciousness of strategy use was rather low.
Subjects seldom used social strategies. They also showed weak consciousness in
using management strategies. Unsteady use of affective strategies was found far
from sufficient, especially in management strategies and social strategies.
In recent years various scholars have contributed to the study of perceptuallearning
style (Hyland, 1993; Reid, 1987; Rossi-Le, 1995; Stebbins, 1995) and listening
comprehension strategies (Goh, 1998; Kupper, 1989; Teng, 1998; Vandergrift,
1997, 2003) but to the researcher knowledge no study has been conducted to find
the relationship between perceptual learning styles and listening strategy
preferences. Taking the importance of perceptual learning style and listening
comprehension strategies in language learning, this study aims to find out the
perceptual learning style and listening comprehension strategy preferences and
their relationship among Iranian intermediate EFL learners.
Itis impossible for instructors to do all that in a course and still cover the syllabus.
They canmake extensive use of some of the recommended approaches, particularly
those involvingopportunities for student activity during class. The idea, however, is
not to adopt all thetechniques at once but rather to pick several that look feasible
and try them on an occasional basis. In this way a teaching style that is both
effective for students and comfortable for the instructor will evolve naturally, with
a potentially dramatic effect on the quality of learning that subsequently occurs.
It is important for teachers to know their learners’ preferred learning styles because
this knowledge will help teachers to plan their lessons to match or adapt their
teaching and to provide the most appropriate activities to suit a particular learner
group. Therefore, EFL teachers need to recognize the conflict and difference
between teaching and learning to enhance the learning process. Matching the
language instruction methods to student learning styles can enhance academic
achievement.

2.1 Introduction

A wealth of research has been undertaken to attempt to define and demonstrate the
effects of a student’s learning style on academic performance in the classroom.
Cognitive style is not a single entity. Researchers examining learning styles have
varied views on the exact components and characteristics of learning styles. Keefe
(1982) stated,

“Learning styles are cognitive, affective, and physiological traits that serve as
relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to
the learning environment.” (p. 32)
This study focuses on the studies carried out and theories proposedthat deal with
different learning styles theory, self-efficacy theory, and instructional technology
in teaching for visual, auditory, and kinesthetic students. Each of these areas will
be discussed separately.

2.2. Instructional Technology

Historically, the two terminologies, instructional and educational

technology have been used interchangeably. For the purpose of this study, it is
decided that the term instructional technology be used. Numerous definitions of
instructional technology have been offered so far, proving the developing nature of
the area. Ely (1970) was the pioneer in this: Audiovisual communications is that
part of educational theory and practice that basically deals with the planning and
utilizing messages which function as the controller of the process of learning. It
deals with the study of the particular and relative strong points and weak points of
pictorial and non-pictorial messages alike which have high possibility to be used in
the process of learning for various purposes and also the categorizing and
systematizing of messages undertaken by human and tools in an academic
atmosphere. These cover the planning, producing, choosing, managing, and using
both elements and total educational systems. (p.18)

In 1970s, three more definitions of this topicwere presented. One of them is

referred to in Seels and Richey (1994) as following: an organized way of planning,
assessing, and handling the whole learning and teaching process according to
particular purposes. This is established on the grounds of researching in human
learning and communication process and applying mixed resources of human and
nonhuman to develop more helpful instruction. (p. 17)
 Sibler’s 1970 definition of instructional technology is mentioned in
Christopher as "the development of instructional systems components (messages,
people, materials, devices, techniques, settings) and the management of the
development . . . in a systematic manner with the goal of solving educational
problems" (p.1).

It was in1972 that the AECT (according to Seelsand Richey, 1994), using
some of the previously presented definitions, offered still a newer definition of
instructional technology as “a field involved in the facilitation of human learning
through the systematic identification, development, organization, and utilization of
a full range of learning resources and through the management of these processes”
(p. 19).The definition’s picture of instructional technology is that of “the theory
and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of
processes and resources for learning” (Seels and Richey, p. 1).

As implied in these definitions, the responsibilities and duties of an

instructional technologist are manifold. According to Cutshall (1999), the four
domains in which an instructional technologist functions include: (a) instruction’s
designing, (b) instructional products and services’ producing, (c) instruction’s
managing, and (d) instruction’s evaluation. Seels and Richey (1994) stated that an
instructional designer helps teachers by (a) assisting to design instructional
materials using many technologies; (b)using different teaching strategies; (c)
applying educational theory in designing curriculum; and (d) assessing, and
revising materials.

The instructional developer should have in mind various methods of

presentation: computer-assisted instruction, print, audiovisual methods, and
integrated technologies. It is the developers who should notice what the most
influential methods of presentation are to facilitate learning. They also need
continuous evaluation of the process to determine its effectiveness.

Management can be defined as the process of checking, monitoring, and

designing the processes of instructional design, development, and utilization (Seels
and Richey, 1999). This area covers project, resource, systems of delivery, and
information management. The instructional manager aids the stakeholders in this
ground by means of his or her background knowledge and experience. He gathers
different people together to guarantee the project’s success. A manager takes
advantage of evaluation to guide the process by evaluating what is achieved and
what is in need of completion.

Finally, “utilization is the act of using processes and resources for learning”
(Seelsand Richey, 1994, p. 46). It covers the utilization of the media, diffusion of
innovations, institutionalization and implementation, and rules and policies. It also
deals with evaluation because people often consider how helpful a resource is.

In general, regarding all the definitions offered so far, instructional

technology is the search for finding out the ways people learn and the best possible
ways of teaching them. It deals with objects like instruments, machinery, tools,
appliances, and technical performance’s physical devices. It covers activities like
people’s doings, that is, their behavior, way of thinking, every day activities, skills
and approaches. It is a system based on sociotechnical grounds: the gathering and
use of tools that connect people and different objects. In the end, it should be
mentioned that it is a process that starts with a need and finishes with a response.
The response, in its own terms, can become a need, hence, the presence of an ever-
evolutionary process.
2.2.1. Applied Instructional Technology in the Classroom:

Due to everyday advances in technology and their availability, faculties can

take advantage of a lot of technological choices such as CDs, DVDs, audio and
videotapes to offer a variety of movies, pictures, cartoons, instructional programs,
and so many other types of audio-video materials when they would like to meet the
needs of different students and their various learning styles. According to a lot of
researches such as Dille and Mezack, 1991; Gee, 1990; Grasha, 1996;a mixture of
different instructional technology based on students’ individual learning style
preferences is the most effective method.

With the use of computers different sorts of materials and information can
be provided and organized for the content introduction and for simplifying
students’ testing. CD-ROMs can easily and conveniently substitute traditional
paper books, dictionaries, encyclopedias, saving a great deal of time, space, and
money for the students; with the application of web pages teachers can offer
lectures, course materials, homework and exams in the electronic format;
PowerPoint slides can present working and amusing visual materials. It is
particularly effective for those students who have visual learning style. Introducing
a kind of visual novelty satisfies students’ cognitive systems to keep them
interested for extended periods and classrooms. Besides, having presented the
important materials in a highlighted form, it makes the process of learning and note
taking easier. Also, television, Internet, and telephone can be used to invite
professors and other academic groups to take part in the classroom from far and
distant countries. Students also can be aware of what goes on in other universities
via e-mails, Web pages, chat rooms, and other electronic tools.
 Instructors try to view students as unique individuals possessing different
learning styles, background knowledge, aptitudes, area of interest, and needs. But
it is a very difficult and complicated task.

Instructors should be aware of the fact that there is a philosophy beyond

every teaching method. Each individual method rests on a conceptual basis, and by
knowing them an instructor will be able to choose the best possible method and
also to explain the necessity and reason beyond such an approach; in other words it
serves as a theoretical justification of utilizing a particular method. When it comes
to the teaching with technology, noticing the students’ different learning styles is
of crucial importance. The performance of students, regarding their technology
functioning is greatly related to their individual learning style preferences (Dille
and Mezack, 1991; Gee, 1990). Also it introduces different stimuli of the same
concept, so that different parts of the brain are involved simultaneously (Diaz,
Aedo, Torra, Miranda, and Martín, 1998).

It is often quoted that computerized technologies process and analyze

information in a fashion similar to that of the brain. There are several ways through
which technology is used to help students process sensory information. Different
students use visual, auditory and kinesthetic waysof processing information to deal
more successfully with language learning and especially with listening.Students
who focus more on their visual skills in information processing by means of sight
and technology can minimize the level of their frustration via offering materials
through animations, hypertext, diagrams, and videotapes (Ross and Schulz, 1999).

Auditory-based students manage the information processing content

listening and its internalization. Such students take advantage of using audiotape
recordings of on-line classroom lectures, in classes such as music, where the
students have the opportunity of repeatedly interacting with examples that compare
and contrast various composition styles (Sarasin, 1998).

The third groupis kinesthetic students who work well with their hands, and
try to experience hands-on manipulation in material learning. One program that
can be of great help to these students is simulation programs that pavesthe way for
hands-on instruction, even where there is no chance for real learning atmosphere.
To conclude, the presence of different technologies with their applicability in
satisfying students’ individual styles of learning is advantageous for all students.

2.3. Learning Style

‘Learning Style’ has been defined by various scholars mostly as a signal for
individual differences. These differences may manifest itself in ‘life styles’ and
even in personality types (Zhang & Sternberg, 2005). Kolb (1984) and Honey and
Mumford (1992) describe learning style as an individual preferred or habitual ways
of processing and transforming knowledge. According to Kolb (1984),
psychological attributes, resulted from individual differences, determine the
particular strategies a person chooses while learning. On the other hand, Keefe
(1987) emphasizes learning styles as cognitive, affective, and psychological traits
that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and
respond to the learning environment. Moreover, Dunn and Dunn (1986) hold that
each individual’s concentration on, mental processes, internalization and retain of
new and difficult information stem from his specific learning style.

Adapting learning to a person’s unique learning style is not a new concept

(Givens, 2000). The study of differences in personality dates back thousands of
years.
It is proved that different students learn in different ways, and learning style can be
defined according to students’ favorite way of learning. It is a matter of method not
content: How and in what ways a student learns not what he learns. In this way
different learning styles influence the learning atmosphere: The quality of lighting,
sound, music, the partner with whom one collaborates, time, and place are among
different learning style preferences. Brown’s definition of style (1987)
encapsulates these definitions as a “consistent and rather enduring tendency or
preference within an individual.” (p. 50). Various learning style models and
definitions have been presented so far but all of them are built upon one
fundamental basis: individuals learn best in different ways.

The is (as cited in Dunn, Griggs, Olson, & Beasley, 1995) described learning style
as a set of biological and developmental characteristics that make identical
instruction for learners either effective or ineffective. Theoretically, individuals
differ in the sense modality of stimuli from which they best absorb, retain, and
process new information (Cassidy &Eachus, 2000; Dunn, 1983; Harrison,
Andrews, &Saklofske, 2003). Specifically, how well a person absorbs and retains
information depends largely on whether the information was received in the
person’s preferred learning modality (Zapalska&Dabb, 2002). For instance, a
“visual learner” is hypothesized to learn optimally with pictorial or other visual
stimuli such as diagrams, charts, or maps, whereas an “auditory learner” performs
best with spoken stimuli, like a lecture.

According to learning style theory, a person who is a visual learner needs to see,
observe, record, and write to best learn (Dunn, 1993; Zapalska&Dabb, 2002); an
auditory learner prefers information that is spoken and heard, as it is in dialogue
and discussion (Dunn, 1993; Zapalska&Dabb, 2002); and a kinesthetic learner
prefers to learn in an environment where material can be touched and he or she can
be physically involved with the to-be-learned information (Dunn, 1993;
Zapalska&Dabb, 2002).

For Felder and Henriques (1995), the criterion for classifying learners is their
perceptual behavior. They make two categories: sensing and intuitive learners.
‘Sensing’ learners are concrete and methodical; they are good at memorizing facts
and doing hands-on work and are more comfortable with following rules and
standard procedures. On the other hand, ‘intuitive’ learners tend to be abstract and
imaginative; they like innovation and dislike repetition. As to the ways in which
learners prefer input information to be presented, they can be either visual or
verbal learners. Visual learners are those who prefer to receive in the form of
pictures, diagrams, films and demonstrations while verbal learners prefer words as
a medium for information transfer. Moreover, with respect to the ways of
knowledge can be processed, learners can be put into two categories, namely
‘active’ and ‘reflective’. An active learner, as suggested by the name, is someone
who prefers to be actively involved in examining and employing knowledge with
others. He does so in group discussions and interactions with others.

Reflective learners tend to employ their introspection. Active learners benefit the
most in dialogue, role-play and team work learning activities while reflective
learners are more inclined to ponder on perceived information.

For the longest time, researchers and educators alike believed that a person’s
intelligence was what influenced how a person learned, but subsequent testing of
this hypothesis indicated that students with the same IQ performed significantly
differently with similar learning tasks (Harrison et al., 2003). During the last 35
years, there has been a major effort to investigate the topic of learning style, and
instruments to measure and explain individual learning styles. The purpose of each
of these instruments is to identify the preferred learning style of each individual,
which in turn should result in modified instructional methods to optimize each
individual’s learning. However, researchers have observed a great deal of
variability between many of these devices; in fact, a great many of the available
learning style instruments have never been validated (Harrison et al., 2003).

Learning style research has simply identified learning styles through self-report
questionnaires (e.g., Delahoussaye, 2002; Haar, Hall, Schoepp, & Smith, 2002;
.Loo, 2002) without assessing the basic hypothesis underlying the theory

Learning styles were found to affect learners’ learning behaviors. Learners

having different learning style preferences would behave differently in the way
they perceive, interact, and respond to the learning environment (Junko, 1998).
Since learners differ in their preferences to certain learning styles, it will be
important for teachers to examine the variations in their students on the features of
their learning styles, because the information about learner’s preference can help
teachers become more sensitive to the differences students bring to the classroom
(Felder &Spurlin, 2005). Adjustments can then be made to accommodate the
students’ varied needs.
2.3.1. Sensory Learning Styles

It is a model about which many researchers have been done so far. This
theory deems that each individual possesses a particular set of biological and
developmental traits and these traits affect a person’s learning, developing and
producing new skills and knowledge (Good &Brophy, 1987). It was first designed
to be applied mainly among middle and high school levels but then was extended
to cover all grade levels. It consists of some basic maxims and underlying
assumptions:
8. Most individuals have the ability to learn.
9. Different individuals learn best in different ways and learning
conditions.
10. There exists such a phenomenon as individual learning preferences
and it can be objectively measured.
11. Most of the students given the opportunity to learn according to their
preferred style reveal agreat amount of self-motivation and success.
12. This provides teachers with good opportunity to get familiar with
different individual learning styles and to use them in their classes.
13. Students can be instructed and motivated to self-teaching according to
their preferred learning styles.
14. Applying various learning styles advances both learning and
productivity (Price, 1996).
This model covers 20 areas but those related to this study are the
sensory areas, that is, visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. In making sense of
and comprehending the world human beings use five senses, namely (a)
seeing, (b) hearing, (c) feeling, (d) tasting, and (e) smelling. Three out of
these five senses are mostly used by individuals as basic input channels:
visual, auditory, and kinesthetic senses. People can see different scenes,
pictures, images, and keep record of visual images from their past
experiences (visual); they hear and listen to various sounds, conversations,
and music and orally share their experiences (auditory); or they experience,
touch and feel their experiences (kinesthetic). According to Ross, 1991;
Eislzer 1983; and Alberghius, 2001, three learning modalities emerge: (a)
visual, (b) auditory, and (c) kinesthetic. Each of them has its own strengths
that instructors can recognize, value, and apply to meet the maximum
potentials of each student.
2.3.2. Felder-Silverman Model
The Felder-Silverman learning style model (FSLSM) was created by Richard
Felder and Linda Silverman in 1988. It focuses on aspects of learning styles on
engineering students.
The model had five dimensions in the original version but was changed to four
when one dimension was deleted. The learning style dimensions according to
Felder are:
• Sensory/intuitive
• Visual/verbal
• Active/reflective
• Sequential/global.
Sensory learners like learning facts and solving problems with known methods
while intuitive prefer discovering possibilities. Active learners like to try things out
or dosomething active. Reflective learners prefer thinking about things on their
own. Sequentiallearners learn in small steps when global learners understand
things in large steps (Felder, 2002).
The Felder-Silverman learning style model (FSLSM) is considered the
mostappropriate to be used in a computer-based educational system (Carver,
1999).
2.3.3. VAK Learning Style Model

There are many different kinds of learning style models based on different aspects.
One model concentrates on human observation channels; vision, hearing and
feeling. It is called the Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic (VAK) model. Probably the
most well-known model is the Kolb’s learning style model. The Honey and
Mumford's learning style model and The Felder-Silverman model are also briefly
introduced.
The observation channel model or in other words the Visual-Auditory-
Kinesthetic(VAK) model bases on the basic observation channels of human.
The learning styles are divided into four categories; visual (verbal), visual
(non-verbal), auditory and kinesthetic.

Sometimes the word tactile is connected to the kinesthetic category changing

the model name into Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic-Tactile (VAKT). The
VAK model is not a learning style in a way that the other learning style
models are. It is not developed by any specific person or persons. The model
is anyway a base for several learning style models including for example the
Dunn and Dunn learning style model and the Gregorc’s Mind Styles Model
and Style Delineator. (Työssäoppii, 2006; Illinois Learning Styles, 2006)

Learners with visual learning style learn best using their eye sight. Seeing
and reading are described to be important for visual learners. For example
pictures, Tables, demonstrations, handouts, and mind maps are very useful
for them. Especially lecture notes, textbooks and other written text is the
most useful way of learning. It is easy to add those things in the learning
environment and therefore it is easy to visually learning students to use and
study in virtual environment. Thematic entities are important to this kind of
learners. (ibid.)

The students who learn best through hearing (aurally) can find virtual
learning useful if there are video clips, virtual lectures, and video
conferences because listening and speaking are important for auditory
learners. The clips can also be easily added to the environment. The learners
with auditory learning style like to hear detailed directions. They learn
 things one at a time. Auditory learners benefit from listening to lectures and
participating in discussions. (ibid.)

Kinesthetic learners learn best through feeling and experimenting. They

prefer laboratory sessions or field trips over classroom lectures. These
learners like to be involved with physical experiences; touching, feeling,
holding, doing, and practical hands-on experiences. Therefore the virtual
learning environment brings a lot of challenge to their learning. In the
learning process some kind of virtual models can be useful for them where
one can see how things work. (ibid.)

2.3.4. Multisensory Approach

Any teacher has experienced meeting students with different learning styles. Three
common learning styles are visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. Recognizing these
differences and striving to incorporate approaches that are multisensory can
promote greater interest, enthusiasm, and more thorough learning. Multisensory
instruction refers to any learning activity that includes the use of two or more
sensory modalities simultaneously to take in or express information (Birsch, 1999,
p. 1). The sensory modalities include visual (sight), auditory (hearing), tactile
(touch) and kinesthetic (movement). Using a multisensory teaching approach
means helping students to learn through more than one of the senses. Students have
learning differences in one or more areas of reading, writing, listening
comprehension, and expressive language.
Multisensory instruction can facilitate students’ ability to learn and recall
information by combining explicit instruction and multisensory strategies (Birsch,
1999, p.2). Multisensory teaching is simultaneously visual, auditory, and
kinesthetic-tactile to enhance memory and learning. Links are consistently made
between the visual (what we see), auditory (what we hear), and kinesthetic (what
we feel) pathways in learning. These teaching techniques and strategies stimulate
learning by engaging students on multiple levels. Some researchers theorize that
many students have an area of sensory learning strength, sometimes called a
learning style. This research suggests that when students are taught using
techniques consistentwith their learning styles, they learn more easily, faster, and
can retain and apply conceptsmore readily to future learning. Most students, with a
disability or not, enjoy the engaging variety that multisensory techniques can offer
(Logsdon, 2009). Multisensory techniques enable students to use their personal
areas of strength to help them learn. They can range from simple to complex,
depending on the needs of the student and the task at hand.

Multisensory techniques that stimulate visual reasoning and learning are called
visualtechniques. Those techniques that focus on sound and stimulate verbal
reasoning are called auditory techniques. Multisensory techniques that involve
using body movement are called Kinesthetic Methods (Logsdon, 2009). For
instance, the visual teaching methods include strategies such as using text or
pictures on paper, posters, models, projection screens, or computers, student-
created art, and images. Auditory techniques include strategies such as using
hearing aids, video, film, or multi-image media with accompanying audio; and
music, song, instruments, speaking, rhymes, chants, and language games.
Moreover, multisensory methods involve games such as jumping rope, clapping,
stomping or other movements paired with activities while counting, and singing
songs related to concepts.

Generally speaking, students learn more when information is presented in a variety

of modes than when only a single mode is used. The point is supported by a
research study carried out several decades ago. Felder and Henriques (1995, p.28)
claim that students retain 10 percent of what they read, 26 percent of what they
hear, 30 percent of what they see, 50 percent of what they see and hear, 70 percent
of what they say, and 90 percent of what they say as they do something. Thus,
what must be done to achieve effective foreign language learning is tobalance
instructional methods, so that all learning styles are simultaneously accommodated.
However, teaching styles are made up of the methods and approaches with which
instructorsfeel most comfortable; if they tried to change to completely different
approaches they wouldbe forced to work entirely with unfamiliar, awkward, and
uncomfortable methods, probably with disastrous results from the students’ point
of view. Fortunately, instructors who wish to address a wide variety of learning
styles need not make drastic changes in their instructional approach. The way they
normally teach addresses the needs of at least three of the specified learning style
categories; regular use of at least some of the instructional techniques given below
should suffice to cover the remaining five (Felder &Henriques, 1995, pp.28-29).
• Motivate learning. As much as possible, teach new material (vocabulary, rules of
grammar) in the context of situations to which the students can relate in terms of
their personal and career experiences, past and anticipated, rather than simply as
more material to memorize (intuitive, global, inductive).
• Balance concrete information (word definitions, rules for verb conjugation and
adjective-noun agreement) (sensing) and conceptual information (syntactical and
semantic patterns, comparisons and contrasts with the students’ native language)
(intuition) in every course at every level. The balance does not have to be equal,
and in elementary courses it may be shifted heavily toward the sensing side, but
there should periodically be something to capture the intuitors’ interest.
• Balance structured teaching approaches that emphasize formal training
(deductive, sequential) with more open-ended unstructured activities that
emphasize conversation and cultural contexts of the target language (inductive,
global).
• Make liberal use of visuals. Use photographs, drawings, sketches, and cartoons to
illustrate and reinforce the meanings of vocabulary words. Show films, videotapes,
and live dramatizations to illustrate lessons in texts (visual, global.)
2.4. Applications of Learning Styles in the Classroom

Various researchers have attempted to provide ways in which learning styles can
take affecting the classroom. Two such scholars are Dr. Rita Dunn and Dr.
Kenneth Dunn (1978). Dunn and Dunn write that “learners are affected by their:
(1) immediate environment (sound, light, temperature, and design); (2) own
emotionality (motivation, persistence, responsibility, and need for structure or
flexibility); (3) sociological needs (self, pair, peers, team, adult, or varied); and (4)
physical needs (perceptual strengths, intake, time, and mobility)” (Dunn &Dunn,
1978). They claim that not only can students identify their preferred learning
styles, but that students also score higher on tests, have better attitudes, and are
more efficient if they are taught in ways to which they can more easily relate.
Therefore, it is to the educator’s advantage to teach and test students in their
preferred styles (Dunn & Dunn, 1978).

Although learning styles will inevitably differ among students in the classroom,
Dunn and Dunn says that teachers should try to make changes in their classroom
that will be beneficial to every learning style. Some of these changes include room
redesign, the development of small-group techniques, and the development of
Contract Activity Packages. Redesigning the classroom involves locating dividers
that can be used to arrange the room creatively, clearing the floor area, and
incorporating student thoughts and ideas into the design of the classroom (Dunn &
Dunn, 1978). Small-group techniques often include a “circle of knowledge” in
which students sit in a circle and discuss a subject collaboratively as well as other
techniques such as team learning and brainstorming. Contract Activity Packages
are educational plans that facilitate learning by using the following elements: 1)
clear statement of what the students’ needs to learn; 2) multisensory resources
(auditory, visual, tactile, kinesthetic) that teach the required information; 3)
activities through which the newly-mastered information can be used creatively; 4)
the sharing of creative projects within small groups of classmates;5) at least 3
small-group techniques; 6) a pre-test, a self-test, and a post-test (Dunn &
Dunn,1978).

2.5. Learning Styles and Academic Achievements

There have been many attempts made to enhance students’ academic
achievements. It has always been the main concern of many dedicated teachers and
parents that their students and children be as much successful as possible. In
relation to this, many teachers are convinced that students need the positive attitude
to succeed academically. Often, one’s learning style is identified to determine
strengths for academic achievement. Dunn, Beaudry and Klavass (1989) assert that
through voluminous studies, it has been indicated that both low and average
achievers earn higher scores on standardized achievement and attitude tests when
they are taught within the realm of their learning styles. Chuah Chong-Cheng
(1988) discusses the importance of learning styles as being not only necessary, but
also important for individuals in academic settings. Most students favor to learn in
particular ways with each style of learning contributing to the success in retaining
what they have learnt. As such, studies carried out conclude that students retain
10% of what they read, 26% of what they hear, 30% of what they see, 50% of what
they see and hear, 70% of what they say, and 90% of what they say as they do
something (Chuah; Chong-Cheng 1988). These facts reveal that each learning style
has its own strengths and weaknesses. Some students learn in many ways, while
others might only favor one or two. Those students with multiple learning styles
tend to gain more and obtain higher scores compared to those who rely solely on
one style (Dunn, Beaudry&Klavas, 1989). Additionally, the differences in learning
styles have also been reported between gifted and the underachievers; between the
learning disabled and average achievers; among different types of special
education students; and among secondary students in comprehensive schools and
their counterparts in vocational education and industrial arts (Dunn & Dunn, 1986).
Some special students favor kinesthetic instruction, such as experiential, active and
hands-on, while many others are more auditory and visually oriented (Dunn,
1991).
Dunn and Dunn (1986) also believe that low achievers tend to have poor
auditory memory. Although they often want to do well in school, their inability to
remember information through lecture, discussion, or reading causes their low
achievement especially in traditional classroom environment where teachers
dominate and students mostly listen or read. It is not only the low achievers learn
differently from the high achievers, they also vary among themselves. Impulsive
students for instance, when compared to reflective ones, show poor academic
achievement (Kagan and Kagan, 1970). Other studies show that Field Independent
students achieve more than Field Dependent ones (Chapelle, 1995). Studies also
reveal that matching teaching and learning styles can significantly enhance
academic achievement at the primary and secondary school levels (Smith
&Renzulli, 1984). According to Felder (1995), students learn more when
information is obtainable in a variety of approaches than when only a single
approach is applied. Although many teachers are aware that their students favor
different learning styles, lecture tends to be the main form of teaching. Some
faculties simply decide to use a wide variety of teaching activities, hoping that they
will cover most student learning preferences along the way.

This method, though convenient, may not be the most effective way to address
student learning preferences. Caudil (1998) stated that planning for multiple
modalities within each lesson is important because once a teacher focuses on one
modality, “students who learn best in one of the other ways may lose interest or
have difficulty staying focused” (p. 11).

Much experiential research indicates that learning styles can either hamper or
increase academic performance in several aspects even though not much research
has been conducted on the relationship between instructional design of learning
materials and learning styles (Riding &Cheema, 1991). In general, a rich data have
been obtained through studies on learning styles; however, the data have rarely
been exploited by designers of instructional programs thereby a greater
understanding of learners’ approaches to learning can be obtained.

2.6. Listening
No one can deny the importance of listening skills in foreign language learning
because the key to acquire a language is to receive language input. Krashen,
Terrell, Ehrman, & Herzog (1984) claim that acquisition takes place only when
students absorb enough comprehensible input. The same claim was supported by
Rost (1994) who confirmed that listening is vital in language classrooms because it
provides input for learners. As an input skill, listening plays a crucial role in
students’ language development. Krashen (1985) argues that people acquire
language by understanding the linguistic information they hear. Thus language
acquisition is achieved mainly through receiving understandable input and
listening ability is the critical component in achievingunderstandable language
input. Without understanding inputs at the right level, any kindof learning simply
cannot occur. Thus listening is a fundamental language skill, and as such it merits a
critical priority among the four skill areas for language students. As Hasan (2000)
pointed out, “listening comprehension provides the right conditions for language
acquisition and development of other language skills” (p.138). Listening, therefore,
is essential not only as a receptive skill but also to the development of spoken
language proficiency.
Vandergrift (2007) points out that while listening comprehension lies at the heart
of language learning, it is the least understood and last researched skill. Listening
comprehension is not a passive activity. It is a complex active process in which the
student must discriminate sounds, understand vocabulary and grammatical
structure, interpret stress and intonation and associate it into the context.
(Vandergrift, 1999).
In fact, listening is at the heart of language learning due to its role in the
construction of other language abilities Dunkel 1991, Rost (2002 cited by
Vandergrift 2007). Vandergrift (1999) points out that listening comprehension is a
highly integrative skill as it is usually the first skill that learners develop. In
addition, listening comprehension skills help to facilitate the acquisition of
vocabulary and grammatical competence. Terrell and Krashen (1983) argue that
teachers should not force student to produce utterances in the target language until
they have an opportunity for the acquisition process to begin. For this reason, it is
important for teachers to find effective strategies for presenting audio input in
order to help students develop listening strategies and take the maximum
advantage of language learning opportunities. The importance of finding effective
strategies for teaching listening was demonstrated in research done by Hasan
(2000), Kim (2002) and Graham (2003, cited by Vandergrift (2007), who
concluded that language learners perceive listening as the most challenging skill to
be developed. The grade of difficulty in understanding specific listening input in
L2 may generate in learners a feeling of frustration and anxiety (Graham, 2003 as
cited by Vandergrift, 2007).
Listening plays an important role in communication as it is said that, of the total
time spent on communicating, listening takes up 40-50%; speaking, 25-30%;
reading, 11- 16%; and writing, about 9% (Gilakjani&Ahmadi, 2011). According to
Goh (2000),listening is the primary means by which incoming ideas and
information are taken in. Gilbert (1988), on the other hand, noted that students
from kindergarten through high school were expected to listen 65-90 percent of the
time. Wolvin and Coakley (1988) concluded that, both in and out of the classroom,
listening consumes more of daily communication time than other forms of verbal
communication. Listening is central to the lives of students throughout all levels of
educational development (Coakley&Wolvin, 1997). Listening is the most
frequently used language skill in the classroom (Ferris, 1998; Vogely, 1998). Both
instructors (Ferris &Tagg, 1996) and students (Ferris, 1998) acknowledge the
importance of listening comprehension for success in academic settings. Numerous
studies indicated that efficient listening skills were more important than reading
skills as a factor contributing to academic success (Coakley&Wolvin, 1997).
Nevertheless, it is evident that listening is more important for the lives of students
since listening is used as a primary medium of learning at all stages of education.
In spite of its importance in foreign language learning, the teaching of listening
comprehension has long been ―somewhat neglected and poorly taught aspect of
English in many EFL programs (Mendelsohn, 1994, p. 9). EFL learners have
serious problems in English listening comprehension due to the fact that
universities pay more attention to English grammar, reading and vocabulary.
Listening and speaking skills are not important parts of many course books or
curricula and teachers do not seem to pay attention to these skills while designing
their lessons. Most teachers take it for granted and believe that it will develop
naturally within the process of language learning. Persulessy (1988, p.50) states
that one of the reasons for the opinion that listening is a skill that tends to be
neglected is the feeling among language teachers that this skill is automatically
acquired by the learner as he learns to speak the language. Most teachers also
assume listening is synonymous to breathing— automatic (Ina Thomas and Brian
Dyer, 2007). Another reason why this skill is not given serious attention is the fact
that incompetence in it is easy to hide through nodding and shaking of the head,
which may give the impression of understanding even there, is none. Still another
reason is that audio-lingual courses give the impression that they are teaching
listening when in fact they are teaching other skills. In addition to this, Nobuko
Osada, 2004 reported that listening has not drawn much attention of both teachers
and learners, they are generally less aware of its importance. In classrooms,
teachers seem to test, not to teach listening. Meanwhile, students seem to learn
listening, not listening comprehension. As a result, it remains the most neglected
and the least understood aspect of language teaching (Glisan, 1985). In fact,
listening is a complex mental process that involves perception, attention, cognition,
and memory. Comprehending speech in a foreign language is a quite difficult task
for language learners. When listening to a foreign language, many language
learners face difficulties. In order to help students improve their listening ability,
language teachers have to understand students’ listening difficulties in
comprehending spoken texts, and instruct effective listening strategies to help
students solve their listening difficulties.
2.6.1. Importance of Developing Listening Skills
Listening is probably the most important skill that people need to develop to
acquire a second language since it is the principal means by which learners receive
linguistic input. However, it is found that this skill presents the highest level of
difficulty in teaching English as a foreign language to elementary grades.
Rubin (1994), Dunkel (1991), Rost (1990) and Anderson and Lynch (1988) cited
by Soyoun. K (2010) emphasize that listening skills play a crucial role in
communication. Moreover, Oxford (1993) says that “listening is perhaps the most
fundamental language skill”. (p.205)
Richards (1983) cited by Brown (1994), who mentions a list with some micro
skills useful for learners to acquire effective interactive listening strategies. Some
of these micro-skills were taken as criteria to develop listening in this project:
- Retain chunks of language of different length in short- term memory.
- Discriminate among the distinctive sounds of English.
- Recognize reduced forms of words.
2.6.2. Studies on Listening Comprehension Strategies
Since the 1970s, a number of studies were conducted to elucidate the relationship
between listening strategy use and successful learning. Murphy (1985) found that
more proficient listener tended to have an open and flexible use of strategies,
whereas less proficient listeners most frequently had a dependence on the text and
a consistent use of paraphrases.
Zhou (2004) in her study compared the language learning strategies between ESL
and Chinese students. He found that for using listening strategies both groups
looked for opportunities to listen to English. In addition, most of them were aware
of not translating what they had heard into the native language. He found
differences between ESL and Chinese students. For example, ESL had clearer
purpose of listening, and they usually listened for pleasure in English. On the other
hand, Chinese students preferred to make guesses to understand unfamiliar English
words by any clue, such as clues from the context or situation.
Yumiko (2005) investigated the relationship between Japanese EFLlearners'
listening ability and vocabulary gain. The subjects were 156 Japanese female
second-year English-major college students. Three groups (High, Mid, and Low)
were generated according to the quartile scores of the Test of English for
International Communication. In relation to listening strategies, Yumiko has found
that the subjects of the high group are keen to have more opportunities of listening
to English, and use more strategies for listening skills and vocabulary learning than
the mid and low groups.
Tang (2006) has investigated the status of the listening strategy use among58 non-
English major postgraduates of Shandong University of Science and Technology
students through a Questionnaire for Listening Strategies which was based on
Oxford Strategy Inventory for Language Learning. The results showed that from
an overall perspective, the status of the listening strategy use among the subjects
ranged from “sometimes to seldom”. This implied that they lacked the knowledge
of listening strategies, and their consciousness of strategy use was rather low.
Subjects seldom used social strategies. They also showed weak consciousness in
using management strategies. Unsteady use of affective strategies was found far
from sufficient, especially in management strategies and social strategies.
In recent years various scholars have contributed to the study of perceptuallearning
style (Hyland, 1993; Reid, 1987; Rossi-Le, 1995; Stebbins, 1995) and listening
comprehension strategies (Goh, 1998; Kupper, 1989; Teng, 1998; Vandergrift,
1997, 2003) but to the researcher knowledge no study has been conducted to find
the relationship between perceptual learning styles and listening strategy
preferences. Taking the importance of perceptual learning style and listening
comprehension strategies in language learning, this study aims to find out the
perceptual learning style and listening comprehension strategy preferences and
their relationship among Iranian intermediate EFL learners.
Itis impossible for instructors to do all that in a course and still cover the syllabus.
They canmake extensive use of some of the recommended approaches, particularly
those involvingopportunities for student activity during class. The idea, however, is
not to adopt all thetechniques at once but rather to pick several that look feasible
and try them on an occasional basis. In this way a teaching style that is both
effective for students and comfortable for the instructor will evolve naturally, with
a potentially dramatic effect on the quality of learning that subsequently occurs.
It is important for teachers to know their learners’ preferred learning styles because
this knowledge will help teachers to plan their lessons to match or adapt their
teaching and to provide the most appropriate activities to suit a particular learner
group. Therefore, EFL teachers need to recognize the conflict and difference
between teaching and learning to enhance the learning process. Matching the
language instruction methods to student learning styles can enhance academic
achievement.

2.1. Introduction

A wealth of research has been undertaken to attempt to define and demonstrate the
effects of a student’s learning style on academic performance in the classroom.
Cognitive style is not a single entity. Researchers examining learning styles have
varied views on the exact components and characteristics of learning styles. Keefe
(1982) stated,

Learning styles are cognitive, affective, and physiological traits that serve
as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond
to the learning environment. (p. 32)
This study focuses on the studies carried out and theories proposedthat deal with
different learning styles theory, self-efficacy theory, and instructional technology
in teaching for visual, auditory, and kinesthetic students. Each of these areas will
be discussed separately.

2.2. Instructional Technology

Historically, the two terminologies, instructional and educational

technology have been used interchangeably. For the purpose of this study, it is
decided that the term instructional technology be used. Numerous definitions of
instructional technology have been offered so far, proving the developing nature of
the area. Ely (1970) was the pioneer in this: Audiovisual communications is that
part of educational theory and practice that basically deals with the planning and
utilizing messages which function as the controller of the process of learning. It
deals with the study of the particular and relative strong points and weak points of
pictorial and non-pictorial messages alike which have high possibility to be used in
the process of learning for various purposes and also the categorizing and
systematizing of messages undertaken by human and tools in an academic
atmosphere. These cover the planning, producing, choosing, managing, and using
both elements and total educational systems. (p.18)

In 1970s, three more definitions of this topicwere presented. One of them is

referred to in Seels and Richey (1994) as following: an organized way of planning,
assessing, and handling the whole learning and teaching process according to
particular purposes. This is established on the grounds of researching in human
learning and communication process and applying mixed resources of human and
nonhuman to develop more helpful instruction. (p. 17)
 Sibler’s 1970 definition of instructional technology is mentioned in
Christopher as "the development of instructional systems components (messages,
people, materials, devices, techniques, settings) and the management of the
development . . . in a systematic manner with the goal of solving educational
problems" (p.1).

It was in1972 that the AECT (according to Seels& Richey, 1994) , using
some of the previously presented definitions, offered still a newer definition of
instructional technology as “a field involved in the facilitation of human learning
through the systematic identification, development, organization, and utilization of
a full range of learning resources and through the management of these processes”
(p. 19).The definition’s picture of instructional technology is that of “the theory
and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of
processes and resources for learning” (Seels and Richey, p. 1).

As implied in these definitions, the responsibilities and duties of an

instructional technologist are manifold. According to Cutshall (1999), the four
domains in which an instructional technologist functions include: (a) instruction’s
designing, (b) instructional products and services’ producing, (c) instruction’s
managing, and (d) instruction’s evaluation. Seels and Richey (1994) stated that an
instructional designer helps teachers by (a) assisting to design instructional
materials using many technologies; (b)using different teaching strategies; (c)
applying educational theory in designing curriculum; and (d) assessing, and
revising materials.

The instructional developer should have in mind various methods of

presentation: computer-assisted instruction, print, audiovisual methods, and
integrated technologies. It is the developers who should notice what the most
influential methods of presentation are to facilitate learning. They also need
continuous evaluation of the process to determine its effectiveness.

Management can be defined as the process of checking, monitoring, and

designing the processes of instructional design, development, and utilization (Seels
and Richey, 1999).

This area covers project, resource, systems of delivery, and information

management. The instructional manager aids the stakeholders in this ground by
means of his or her background knowledge and experience. He gathers different
people together to guarantee the project’s success.

A manager takes advantage of evaluation to guide the process by evaluating

what is achieved and what is in need of completion.

Finally, “utilization is the act of using processes and resources for learning”
(Seels& Richey, 1994, p. 46). It covers the utilization of the media, diffusion of
innovations, institutionalization and implementation, and rules and policies. It also
deals with evaluation because people often consider how helpful a resource is.

In general, regarding all the definitions offered so far, instructional

technology is the search for finding out the ways people learn and the best possible
ways of teaching them. It deals with objects like instruments, machinery, tools,
appliances, and technical performance’s physical devices. It covers activities like
people’s doings, that is, their behavior, way of thinking, every day activities, skills
and approaches. It is a system based on sociotechnical grounds: the gathering and
use of tools that connect people and different objects. In the end, it should be
mentioned that it is a process that starts with a need and finishes with a response.
The response, in its own terms, can become a need, hence, the presence of an ever-
evolutionary process.
2.2.1. Applied Instructional Technology in the Classroom:

Due to everyday advances in the area of technology and their availability,

faculties can take advantage of a lot of technological choices such as CDs, DVDs,
audio and videotapes to offer a variety of movies, pictures, cartoons, instructional
programs, and so many other types of audio-video materials when they would like
to meet the needs of different students and their various learning styles. According
to a lot of researches such as Dille and Mezack, 1991; Gee, 1990; Grasha, 1996;a
mixture of different instructional technology based on students’ individual learning
style preferences is the most effective method.

With the use of computers different sorts of materials and information can
be provided and organized for the content introduction and for simplifying
students’ testing. CD-ROMs can easily and conveniently substitute traditional
paper books, dictionaries, encyclopedias, saving a great deal of time, space, and
money for the students; with the application of web pages teachers can offer
lectures, course materials, homework and exams in the electronic format;
PowerPoint slides can present working and amusing visual materials. It is
particularly effective for those students who have visual learning style. Introducing
a kind of visual novelty satisfies students’ cognitive systems to keep them
interested for extended periods and classrooms. Besides, having presented the
important materials in a highlighted form, it makes the process of learning and note
taking easier. Also, television, Internet, and telephone can be used to invite
professors and other academic groups to take part in the classroom from far and
distant countries. Students also can be aware of what goes on in other universities
via e-mails, Web pages, chat rooms, and other electronic tools.
 Instructors try to view students as unique individuals possessing different
learning styles, background knowledge, aptitudes, area of interest, and needs. But
it is a very difficult and complicated task.

Instructors should be aware of the fact that there is a philosophy beyond

every teaching method. Each individual method rests on a conceptual basis, and by
knowing them an instructor will be able to choose the best possible method and
also to explain the necessity and reason beyond such an approach; in other words it
serves as a theoretical justification of utilizing a particular method. When it comes
to the teaching with technology, noticing the students’ different learning styles is
of crucial importance. The performance of students, regarding their technology
functioning is greatly related to their individual learning style preferences (Dille
and Mezack, 1991; Gee, 1990). Also it introduces different stimuli of the same
concept, so that different parts of the brain are involved simultaneously (Diaz,
Aedo, Torra, Miranda, and Martín, 1998).

It is often quoted that computerized technologies process and analyze

information in a fashion similar to that of the brain. There are several ways through
which technology is used to help students process sensory information. Different
students use visual, auditory and kinesthetic waysof processing information to deal
more successfully with language learning and especially with listening.Students
who focus more on their visual skills in information processing by means of sight
and technology can minimize the level of their frustration via offering materials
through animations, hypertext, diagrams, and videotapes (Ross and Schulz, 1999).

Auditory-based students manage the information processing content

listening and its internalization. Such students take advantage of using audiotape
recordings of on-line classroom lectures, in classes such as music, where the
students have the opportunity of repeatedly interacting with examples that compare
and contrast various composition styles (Sarasin, 1998).

The third groupis kinesthetic students who work well with their hands, and
try to experience hands-on manipulation in material learning. One program that
can be of great help to these students is simulation programs that pavesthe way for
hands-on instruction, even where there is no chance for real learning atmosphere.
To conclude, the presence of different technologies with their applicability in
satisfying students’ individual styles of learning is advantageous for all students.

2.3. Learning Style

‘Learning Style’ has been defined by various scholars mostly as a signal for
individual differences. These differences may manifest itself in ‘life styles’ and
even in personality types (Zhang & Sternberg, 2005). Kolb (1984) and Honey and
Mumford (1992) describe learning style as an individual preferred or habitual ways
of processing and transforming knowledge. According to Kolb (1984),
psychological attributes, resulted from individual differences, determine the
particular strategies a person chooses while learning. On the other hand, Keefe
(1987) emphasizes learning styles as cognitive, affective, and psychological traits
that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and
respond to the learning environment. Moreover, Dunn and Dunn (1986) hold that
each individual’s concentration on, mental processes, internalization and retain of
new and difficult information stem from his specific learning style.

Adapting learning to a person’s unique learning style is not a new concept

(Givens, 2000). The study of differences in personality dates back thousands of
years.
It is proved that different students learn in different ways, and learning style can be
defined according to students’ favorite way of learning. It is a matter of method not
content: How and in what ways a student learns not what he learns. In this way
different learning styles influence the learning atmosphere: The quality of lighting,
sound, music, the partner with whom one collaborates, time, and place are among
different learning style preferences. Brown’s definition of style (1987)
encapsulates these definitions as a “consistent and rather enduring tendency or
preference within an individual.” (p. 50). Various learning style models and
definitions have been presented so far but all of them are built upon one
fundamental basis: individuals learn best in different ways.

The is (as cited in Dunn, Griggs, Olson, & Beasley, 1995) described learning style
as a set of biological and developmental characteristics that make identical
instruction for learners either effective or ineffective. Theoretically, individuals
differ in the sense modality of stimuli from which they best absorb, retain, and
process new information (Cassidy &Eachus, 2000; Dunn, 1983; Harrison,
Andrews, &Saklofske, 2003). Specifically, how well a person absorbs and retains
information depends largely on whether the information was received in the
person’s preferred learning modality (Zapalska&Dabb, 2002). For instance, a
“visual learner” is hypothesized to learn optimally with pictorial or other visual
stimuli such as diagrams, charts, or maps, whereas an “auditory learner” performs
best with spoken stimuli, like a lecture.

According to learning style theory, a person who is a visual learner needs to see,
observe, record, and write to best learn (Dunn, 1993; Zapalska&Dabb, 2002); an
auditory learner prefers information that is spoken and heard, as it is in dialogue
and discussion (Dunn, 1993; Zapalska&Dabb, 2002); and a kinesthetic learner
prefers to learn in an environment where material can be touched and he or she can
be physically involved with the to-be-learned information (Dunn, 1993;
Zapalska&Dabb, 2002).

For Felder and Henriques (1995), the criterion for classifying learners is their
perceptual behavior. They make two categories: sensing and intuitive learners.
‘Sensing’ learners are concrete and methodical; they are good at memorizing facts
and doing hands-on work and are more comfortable with following rules and
standard procedures. On the other hand, ‘intuitive’ learners tend to be abstract and
imaginative; they like innovation and dislike repetition. As to the ways in which
learners prefer input information to be presented, they can be either visual or
verbal learners. Visual learners are those who prefer to receive in the form of
pictures, diagrams, films and demonstrations while verbal learners prefer words as
a medium for information transfer. Moreover, with respect to the ways of
knowledge can be processed, learners can be put into two categories, namely
‘active’ and ‘reflective’. An active learner, as suggested by the name, is someone
who prefers to be actively involved in examining and employing knowledge with
others. He does so in group discussions and interactions with others.

Reflective learners tend to employ their introspection. Active learners benefit the
most in dialogue, role-play and team work learning activities while reflective
learners are more inclined to ponder on perceived information.

For the longest time, researchers and educators alike believed that a person’s
intelligence was what influenced how a person learned, but subsequent testing of
this hypothesis indicated that students with the same IQ performed significantly
differently with similar learning tasks (Harrison et al., 2003). During the last 35
years, there has been a major effort to investigate the topic of learning style, and
instruments to measure and explain individual learning styles. The purpose of each
of these instruments is to identify the preferred learning style of each individual,
which in turn should result in modified instructional methods to optimize each
individual’s learning. However, researchers have observed a great deal of
variability between many of these devices; in fact, a great many of the available
learning style instruments have never been validated (Harrison et al., 2003).

Learning style research has simply identified learning styles through self-report
questionnaires (e.g., Delahoussaye, 2002; Haar, Hall, Schoepp, & Smith, 2002;
.Loo, 2002) without assessing the basic hypothesis underlying the theory

Learning styles were found to affect learners’ learning behaviors. Learners

having different learning style preferences would behave differently in the way
they perceive, interact, and respond to the learning environment (Junko, 1998).
Since learners differ in their preferences to certain learning styles, it will be
important for teachers to examine the variations in their students on the features of
their learning styles, because the information about learner’s preference can help
teachers become more sensitive to the differences students bring to the classroom
(Felder &Spurlin, 2005). Adjustments can then be made to accommodate the
students’ varied needs.
2.3.1. Sensory Learning Styles

It is a model about which many researchers have been done so far. This
theory deems that each individual possesses a particular set of biological and
developmental traits and these traits affect a person’s learning, developing and
producing new skills and knowledge (Good andBrophy, 1987). It was first
designed to be applied mainly among middle and high school levels but then was
extended to cover all grade levels. It consists of some basic maxims and underlying
assumptions:
15. Most individuals have the ability to learn. (why starting from 15??)
16. Different individuals learn best in different ways and learning
conditions.
17. There exists such a phenomenon as individual learning preferences
and it can be objectively measured.
18. Most of the students given the opportunity to learn according to their
preferred style reveal agreat amount of self-motivation and success.
19. This provides teachers with good opportunity to get familiar with
different individual learning styles and to use them in their classes.
20. Students can be instructed and motivated to self-teaching according to
their preferred learning styles.
21. Applying various learning styles advances both learning and
productivity (Price, 1996).
This model covers 20 areas but those related to this study are the
sensory areas, that is, visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. In making sense of
and comprehending the world human beings use five senses, namely (a)
seeing, (b) hearing, (c) feeling, (d) tasting, and (e) smelling. Three out of
these five senses are mostly used by individuals as basic input channels:
visual, auditory, and kinesthetic senses. People can see different scenes,
pictures, images, and keep record of visual images from their past
experiences (visual); they hear and listen to various sounds, conversations,
and music and orally share their experiences (auditory); or they experience,
touch and feel their experiences (kinesthetic). According to Ross, 1991;
Eislzer 1983; and Alberghius, 2001, three learning modalities emerge: (a)
visual, (b) auditory, and (c) kinesthetic. Each of them has its own strengths
that instructors can recognize, value, and apply to meet the maximum
potentials of each student.
2.3.2. Felder-Silverman Model
The Felder-Silverman learning style model (FSLSM) was created by Richard
Felder and Linda Silverman in 1988. It focuses on aspects of learning styles on
engineering students.
The model had five dimensions in the original version but was changed to four
when one dimension was deleted. The learning style dimensions according to
Felder are:
• Sensory/intuitive
• Visual/verbal
• Active/reflective
• Sequential/global.
Sensory learners like learning facts and solving problems with known methods
while intuitive prefer discovering possibilities. Active learners like to try things out
or dosomething active. Reflective learners prefer thinking about things on their
own. Sequentiallearners learn in small steps when global learners understand
things in large steps (Felder, 2002).
The Felder-Silverman learning style model (FSLSM) is considered the
mostappropriate to be used in a computer-based educational system (Carver,
1999).

2.3.3VAK Learning Style Model

There are many different kinds of learning style models based on different aspects.
One model concentrates on human observation channels; vision, hearing and
feeling. It is called the Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic (VAK) model. Probably the
most well-known model is the Kolb’s learning style model. The Honey and
Mumford's learning style model and The Felder-Silverman model are also briefly
introduced.(chera in paragraph hayepayinhame BLOCK shodeand?!)

The observation channel model or in other words the Visual-Auditory-

Kinesthetic(VAK) model bases on the basic observation channels of human.
The learning styles are divided into four categories; visual (verbal), visual
(non-verbal), auditory and kinesthetic.

Sometimes the word tactile is connected to the kinesthetic category changing

the model name into Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic-Tactile (VAKT). The
VAK model is not a learning style in a way that the other learning style
models are. It is not developed by any specific person or persons. The model
is anyway a base for several learning style models including for example the
Dunn and Dunn learning style model and the Gregorc’s Mind Styles Model
and Style Delineator. (Työssäoppii, 2006; Illinois Learning Styles, 2006)

Learners with visual learning style learn best using their eye sight. Seeing
and reading are described to be important for visual learners. For example
pictures, Tables, demonstrations, handouts, and mind maps are very useful
for them. Especially lecture notes, textbooks and other written text is the
most useful way of learning. It is easy to add those things in the learning
environment and therefore it is easy to visually learning students to use and
study in virtual environment. Thematic entities are important to this kind of
learners. (ibid.)

The students who learn best through hearing (aurally) can find virtual
learning useful if there are video clips, virtual lectures, and video
conferences because listening and speaking are important for auditory
learners. The clips can also be easily added to the environment. The learners
 with auditory learning style like to hear detailed directions. They learn
things one at a time. Auditory learners benefit from listening to lectures and
participating in discussions. (ibid.)

Kinesthetic learners learn best through feeling and experimenting. They

prefer laboratory sessions or field trips over classroom lectures. These
learners like to be involved with physical experiences; touching, feeling,
holding, doing, and practical hands-on experiences. Therefore the virtual
learning environment brings a lot of challenge to their learning. In the
learning process some kind of virtual models can be useful for them where
one can see how things work. (ibid.)

2.3.4 Multisensory Approach

Any teacher has experienced meeting students with different learning styles. Three
common learning styles are visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. Recognizing these
differences and striving to incorporate approaches that are multisensory can
promote greater interest, enthusiasm, and more thorough learning. Multisensory
instruction refers to any learning activity that includes the use of two or more
sensory modalities simultaneously to take in or express information (Birsch, 1999,
p. 1). The sensory modalities include visual (sight), auditory (hearing), tactile
(touch) and kinesthetic (movement). Using a multisensory teaching approach
means helping students to learn through more than one of the senses. Students have
learning differences in one or more areas of reading, writing, listening
comprehension, and expressive language.
Multisensory instruction can facilitate students’ ability to learn and recall
information by combining explicit instruction and multisensory strategies (Birsch,
1999, p.2). Multisensory teaching is simultaneously visual, auditory, and
kinesthetic-tactile to enhance memory and learning. Links are consistently made
between the visual (what we see), auditory (what we hear), and kinesthetic (what
we feel) pathways in learning. These teaching techniques and strategies stimulate
learning by engaging students on multiple levels. Some researchers theorize that
many students have an area of sensory learning strength, sometimes called a
learning style. This research suggests that when students are taught using
techniques consistentwith their learning styles, they learn more easily, faster, and
can retain and apply conceptsmore readily to future learning. Most students, with a
disability or not, enjoy the engaging variety that multisensory techniques can offer
(Logsdon, 2009). Multisensory techniques enable students to use their personal
areas of strength to help them learn. They can range from simple to complex,
depending on the needs of the student and the task at hand.

Multisensory techniques that stimulate visual reasoning and learning are called
visualtechniques. Those techniques that focus on sound and stimulate verbal
reasoning are called auditory techniques. Multisensory techniques that
involveusing body movement are called Kinesthetic Methods (Logsdon, 2009). For
instance, the visual teaching methods include strategies such as using text or
pictures on paper, posters, models, projection screens, or computers, student-
created art, and images. Auditory techniques include strategies such as using
hearing aids, video, film, or multi-image media with accompanying audio; and
music, song, instruments, speaking, rhymes, chants, and language games.
Moreover, multisensory methods involve games such as jumping rope, clapping,
stomping or other movements paired with activities while counting, and singing
songs related to concepts.
Generally speaking, students learn more when information is presented in a variety
of modes than when only a single mode is used. The point is supported by a
research study carried out several decades ago. Felder and Henriques (1995, p.28)
claim that students retain 10 percent of what they read, 26 percent of what they
hear, 30 percent of what they see, 50 percent of what they see and hear, 70 percent
of what they say, and 90 percent of what they say as they do something. Thus,
what must be done to achieve effective foreign language learning is tobalance
instructional methods, so that all learning styles are simultaneously accommodated.
However, teaching styles are made up of the methods and approaches with which
instructorsfeel most comfortable; if they tried to change to completely different
approaches they wouldbe forced to work entirely with unfamiliar, awkward, and
uncomfortable methods, probably with disastrous results from the students’ point
of view. Fortunately, instructors who wish to address a wide variety of learning
styles need not make drastic changes in their instructional approach. The way they
normally teach addresses the needs of at least three of the specified learning style
categories; regular use of at least some of the instructional techniques given below
should suffice to cover the remaining five (Felder &Henriques, 1995, pp.28-29).
• Motivate learning. As much as possible, teach new material (vocabulary, rules of
grammar) in the context of situations to which the students can relate in terms of
their personal and career experiences, past and anticipated, rather than simply as
more material to memorize (intuitive, global, inductive).
• Balance concrete information (word definitions, rules for verb conjugation and
adjective-noun agreement) (sensing) and conceptual information (syntactical and
semantic patterns, comparisons and contrasts with the students’ native language)
(intuition) in every course at every level. The balance does not have to be equal,
and in elementary courses it may be shifted heavily toward the sensing side, but
there should periodically be something to capture the intuitors’ interest.
• Balance structured teaching approaches that emphasize formal training
(deductive, sequential) with more open-ended unstructured activities that
emphasize conversation and cultural contexts of the target language (inductive,
global).
• Make liberal use of visuals. Use photographs, drawings, sketches, and cartoons to
illustrate and reinforce the meanings of vocabulary words. Show films, videotapes,
and live dramatizations to illustrate lessons in texts (visual, global.)

2.4. Applications of Learning Styles in the Classroom

Various researchers have attempted to provide ways in which learning styles can
take affecting the classroom. Two such scholars are Dr. Rita Dunn and Dr.
Kenneth Dunn (1978). Dunn and Dunn write that “learners are affected by their:
(1) immediate environment (sound, light, temperature, and design); (2) own
emotionality (motivation, persistence, responsibility, and need for structure or
flexibility); (3) sociological needs (self, pair, peers, team, adult, or varied); and (4)
physical needs (perceptual strengths, intake, time, and mobility)” (Dunn &Dunn,
1978). They claim that not only can students identify their preferred learning
styles, but that students also score higher on tests, have better attitudes, and are
more efficient if they are taught in ways to which they can more easily relate.
Therefore, it is to the educator’s advantage to teach and test students in their
preferred styles (Dunn and Dunn, 1978).

Although learning styles will inevitably differ among students in the classroom,
Dunn and Dunn says that teachers should try to make changes in their classroom
that will be beneficial to every learning style. Some of these changes include room
redesign, the development of small-group techniques, and the development of
Contract Activity Packages. Redesigning the classroom involves locating dividers
that can be used to arrange the room creatively, clearing the floor area, and
incorporating student thoughts and ideas into the design of the classroom (Dunn &
Dunn, 1978). Small-group techniques often include a “circle of knowledge” in
which students sit in a circle and discuss a subject collaboratively as well as other
techniques such as team learning and brainstorming. Contract Activity Packages
are educational plans that facilitate learning by using the following elements: 1)
clear statement of what the students’ needs to learn; 2) multisensory resources
(auditory, visual, tactile, kinesthetic) that teach the required information; 3)
activities through which the newly-mastered information can be used creatively; 4)
the sharing of creative projects within small groups of classmates;5) at least 3
small-group techniques; 6) a pre-test, a self-test, and a post-test (Dunn &
Dunn,1978).

2.5. Learning Styles and Academic Achievements

There have been many attempts made to enhance students’ academic
achievements. It has always been the main concern of many dedicated teachers and
parents that their students and children be as much successful as possible. In
relation to this, many teachers are convinced that students need the positive attitude
to succeed academically. Often, one’s learning style is identified to determine
strengths for academic achievement. Dunn, Beaudry and Klavass (1989) assert that
through voluminous studies, it has been indicated that both low and average
achievers earn higher scores on standardized achievement and attitude tests when
they are taught within the realm of their learning styles. Chuah Chong-Cheng
(1988) discusses the importance of learning styles as being not only necessary, but
also important for individuals in academic settings. Most students favor to learn in
particular ways with each style of learning contributing to the success in retaining
what they have learnt. As such, studies carried out conclude that students retain
10% of what they read, 26% of what they hear, 30% of what they see, 50% of what
they see and hear, 70% of what they say, and 90% of what they say as they do
something (Chuah; Chong-Cheng 1988). These facts reveal that each learning style
has its own strengths and weaknesses. Some students learn in many ways, while
others might only favor one or two. Those students with multiple learning styles
tend to gain more and obtain higher scores compared to those who rely solely on
one style (Dunn, Beaudry&Klavas, 1989). Additionally, the differences in learning
styles have also been reported between gifted and the underachievers; between the
learning disabled and average achievers; among different types of special
education students; and among secondary students in comprehensive schools and
their counterparts in vocational education and industrial arts (Dunn & Dunn, 1986).
Some special students favor kinesthetic instruction, such as experiential, active and
hands-on, while many others are more auditory and visually oriented (Dunn,
1991).
Dunn and Dunn (1986) also believe that low achievers tend to have poor
auditory memory. Although they often want to do well in school, their inability to
remember information through lecture, discussion, or reading causes their low
achievement especially in traditional classroom environment where teachers
dominate and students mostly listen or read. It is not only the low achievers learn
differently from the high achievers, they also vary among themselves. Impulsive
students for instance, when compared to reflective ones, show poor academic
achievement (Kagan and Kagan, 1970). Other studies show that Field Independent
students achieve more than Field Dependent ones (Chapelle, 1995). Studies also
reveal that matching teaching and learning styles can significantly enhance
academic achievement at the primary and secondary school levels (Smith
&Renzulli, 1984). According to Felder (1995), students learn more when
information is obtainable in a variety of approaches than when only a single
approach is applied. Although many teachers are aware that their students favor
different learning styles, lecture tends to be the main form of teaching. Some
faculties simply decide to use a wide variety of teaching activities, hoping that they
will cover most student learning preferences along the way.

This method, though convenient, may not be the most effective way to address
student learning preferences. Caudil (1998) stated that planning for multiple
modalities within each lesson is important because once a teacher focuses on one
modality, “students who learn best in one of the other ways may lose interest or
have difficulty staying focused” (p. 11).

Much experiential research indicates that learning styles can either hamper or
increase academic performance in several aspects even though not much research
has been conducted on the relationship between instructional design of learning
materials and learning styles (Riding &Cheema, 1991). In general, a rich data have
been obtained through studies on learning styles; however, the data have rarely
been exploited by designers of instructional programs thereby a greater
understanding of learners’ approaches to learning can be obtained.

2.6. Listening
No one can deny the importance of listening skills in foreign language learning
because the key to acquire a language is to receive language input. Krashen,
Terrell, Ehrman, & Herzog (1984) claim that acquisition takes place only when
students absorb enough comprehensible input. The same claim was supported by
Rost (1994) who confirmed that listening is vital in language classrooms because it
provides input for learners. As an input skill, listening plays a crucial role in
students’ language development. Krashen (1985) argues that people acquire
language by understanding the linguistic information they hear. Thus language
acquisition is achieved mainly through receiving understandable input and
listening ability is the critical component in achievingunderstandable language
input. Without understanding inputs at the right level, any kindof learning simply
cannot occur. Thus listening is a fundamental language skill, and as such it merits a
critical priority among the four skill areas for language students. As Hasan (2000)
pointed out, “listening comprehension provides the right conditions for language
acquisition and development of other language skills” (p.138). Listening, therefore,
is essential not only as a receptive skill but also to the development of spoken
language proficiency.
Vandergrift (2007) points out that while listening comprehension lies at the heart
of language learning, it is the least understood and last researched skill. Listening
comprehension is not a passive activity. It is a complex active process in which the
student must discriminate sounds, understand vocabulary and grammatical
structure, interpret stress and intonation and associate it into the context.
(Vandergrift, 1999).
In fact, listening is at the heart of language learning due to its role in the
construction of other language abilities Dunkel 1991, Rost (2002 cited by
Vandergrift 2007). Vandergrift (1999) points out that listening comprehension is a
highly integrative skill as it is usually the first skill that learners develop. In
addition, listening comprehension skills help to facilitate the acquisition of
vocabulary and grammatical competence. Terrell and Krashen (1983) argue that
teachers should not force student to produce utterances in the target language until
they have an opportunity for the acquisition process to begin. For this reason, it is
important for teachers to find effective strategies for presenting audio input in
order to help students develop listening strategies and take the maximum
advantage of language learning opportunities. The importance of finding effective
strategies for teaching listening was demonstrated in research done by Hasan
(2000), Kim (2002) and Graham (2003, cited by Vandergrift (2007), who
concluded that language learners perceive listening as the most challenging skill to
be developed. The grade of difficulty in understanding specific listening input in
L2 may generate in learners a feeling of frustration and anxiety (Graham, 2003 as
cited by Vandergrift, 2007).
Listening plays an important role in communication as it is said that, of the total
time spent on communicating, listening takes up 40-50%; speaking, 25-30%;
reading, 11- 16%; and writing, about 9% (Gilakjani&Ahmadi, 2011). According to
Goh (2000),listening is the primary means by which incoming ideas and
information are taken in. Gilbert (1988), on the other hand, noted that students
from kindergarten through high school were expected to listen 65-90 percent of the
time. Wolvin and Coakley (1988) concluded that, both in and out of the classroom,
listening consumes more of daily communication time than other forms of verbal
communication. Listening is central to the lives of students throughout all levels of
educational development (Coakley&Wolvin, 1997). Listening is the most
frequently used language skill in the classroom (Ferris, 1998; Vogely, 1998). Both
instructors (Ferris &Tagg, 1996) and students (Ferris, 1998) acknowledge the
importance of listening comprehension for success in academic settings. Numerous
studies indicated that efficient listening skills were more important than reading
skills as a factor contributing to academic success (Coakley&Wolvin, 1997).
Nevertheless, it is evident that listening is more important for the lives of students
since listening is used as a primary medium of learning at all stages of education.
In spite of its importance in foreign language learning, the teaching of listening
comprehension has long been ―somewhat neglected and poorly taught aspect of
English in many EFL programs (Mendelsohn, 1994, p. 9). EFL learners have
serious problems in English listening comprehension due to the fact that
universities pay more attention to English grammar, reading and vocabulary.
Listening and speaking skills are not important parts of many course books or
curricula and teachers do not seem to pay attention to these skills while designing
their lessons. Most teachers take it for granted and believe that it will develop
naturally within the process of language learning. Persulessy (1988, p.50) states
that one of the reasons for the opinion that listening is a skill that tends to be
neglected is the feeling among language teachers that this skill is automatically
acquired by the learner as he learns to speak the language. Most teachers also
assume listening is synonymous to breathing— automatic (Ina Thomas and Brian
Dyer, 2007). Another reason why this skill is not given serious attention is the fact
that incompetence in it is easy to hide through nodding and shaking of the head,
which may give the impression of understanding even there, is none. Still another
reason is that audio-lingual courses give the impression that they are teaching
listening when in fact they are teaching other skills. In addition to this, Nobuko
Osada, 2004 reported that listening has not drawn much attention of both teachers
and learners, they are generally less aware of its importance. In classrooms,
teachers seem to test, not to teach listening. Meanwhile, students seem to learn
listening, not listening comprehension. As a result, it remains the most neglected
and the least understood aspect of language teaching (Glisan, 1985). In fact,
listening is a complex mental process that involves perception, attention, cognition,
and memory. Comprehending speech in a foreign language is a quite difficult task
for language learners. When listening to a foreign language, many language
learners face difficulties. In order to help students improve their listening ability,
language teachers have to understand students’ listening difficulties in
comprehending spoken texts, and instruct effective listening strategies to help
students solve their listening difficulties.
2.6.1. Importance of Developing Listening Skills
Listening is probably the most important skill that people need to develop to
acquire a second language since it is the principal means by which learners receive
linguistic input. However, it is found that this skill presents the highest level of
difficulty in teaching English as a foreign language to elementary grades.
Rubin (1994), Dunkel (1991), Rost (1990) and Anderson and Lynch (1988) cited
by Soyoun. K (2010) emphasize that listening skills play a crucial role in
communication. Moreover, Oxford (1993) says that “listening is perhaps the most
fundamental language skill”. (p.205)
Richards (1983) cited by Brown (1994), who mentions a list with some micro
skills useful for learners to acquire effective interactive listening strategies. Some
of these micro-skills were taken as criteria to develop listening in this project:
- Retain chunks of language of different length in short- term memory.
- Discriminate among the distinctive sounds of English.
- Recognize reduced forms of words.
2.6.2. Studies on Listening Comprehension Strategies
Since the 1970s, a number of studies were conducted to elucidate the relationship
between listening strategy use and successful learning. Murphy (1985) found that
more proficient listener tended to have an open and flexible use of strategies,
whereas less proficient listeners most frequently had a dependence on the text and
a consistent use of paraphrases.
Zhou (2004) in her study compared the language learning strategies between ESL
and Chinese students. He found that for using listening strategies both groups
looked for opportunities to listen to English. In addition, most of them were aware
of not translating what they had heard into the native language. He found
differences between ESL and Chinese students. For example, ESL had clearer
purpose of listening, and they usually listened for pleasure in English. On the other
hand, Chinese students preferred to make guesses to understand unfamiliar English
words by any clue, such as clues from the context or situation.
Yumiko (2005) investigated the relationship between Japanese EFLlearners'
listening ability and vocabulary gain. The subjects were 156 Japanese female
second-year English-major college students. Three groups (High, Mid, and Low)
were generated according to the quartile scores of the Test of English for
International Communication. In relation to listening strategies, Yumiko has found
that the subjects of the high group are keen to have more opportunities of listening
to English, and use more strategies for listening skills and vocabulary learning than
the mid and low groups.
Tang (2006) has investigated the status of the listening strategy use among58 non-
English major postgraduates of Shandong University of Science and Technology
students through a Questionnaire for Listening Strategies which was based on
Oxford Strategy Inventory for Language Learning. The results showed that from
an overall perspective, the status of the listening strategy use among the subjects
ranged from “sometimes to seldom”. This implied that they lacked the knowledge
of listening strategies, and their consciousness of strategy use was rather low.
Subjects seldom used social strategies. They also showed weak consciousness in
using management strategies. Unsteady use of affective strategies was found far
from sufficient, especially in management strategies and social strategies.
In recent years various scholars have contributed to the study of perceptuallearning
style (Hyland, 1993; Reid, 1987; Rossi-Le, 1995; Stebbins, 1995) and listening
comprehension strategies (Goh, 1998; Kupper, 1989; Teng, 1998; Vandergrift,
1997, 2003) but to the researcher knowledge no study has been conducted to find
the relationship between perceptual learning styles and listening strategy
preferences. Taking the importance of perceptual learning style and listening
comprehension strategies in language learning, this study aims to find out the
perceptual learning style and listening comprehension strategy preferences and
their relationship among Iranian intermediate EFL learners.
Itis impossible for instructors to do all that in a course and still cover the syllabus.
They canmake extensive use of some of the recommended approaches, particularly
those involvingopportunities for student activity during class. The idea, however, is
not to adopt all thetechniques at once but rather to pick several that look feasible
and try them on an occasional basis. In this way a teaching style that is both
effective for students and comfortable for the instructor will evolve naturally, with
a potentially dramatic effect on the quality of learning that subsequently occurs.
It is important for teachers to know their learners’ preferred learning styles because
this knowledge will help teachers to plan their lessons to match or adapt their
teaching and to provide the most appropriate activities to suit a particular learner
group. Therefore, EFL teachers need to recognize the conflict and difference
between teaching and learning to enhance the learning process. Matching the
language instruction methods to student learning styles can enhance academic
achievement.
******TOO MUCH (1/3 should be deleted)!!!******
Indentation to be considered
In the end you should justify why you must do your research … what is the ditch in
literature you want to fill?

3. Methodology

3.1 Introduction

The main purpose of the present descriptive quantitative-qualitative research was

to focus on the realm of listening comprehension as part of teachingvia using

different techniques of teaching according to VAK (Visual, Auditory and

Kinesthetic) learning styles in hopes of finding some solution for achievement in

learning. The present chapter tries to elaborate on participants, instrumentation,

procedure, design of the study, and method of data analysis.

3.2 Participants

This research concentrated on an in-depth understanding of the meaning in the

particular and did notaim to lose the individual stories, so 8-10 homogenous
participants were chosen in both genders, between the ages of 7and 18, but as an
iteration process, selection of participants remained open as long as possible so that
after initial accounts weregathered and analyzed, additional participants could be
added who could fill gaps in the initial description or could expand or even
challenge it. They would be considered elementary student according to the
language centers standards and placement test that they had taken (such as oxford
placement test)yes but it is not enough… you should at least document his fact…
inkefaghatmoassesse in raelamkonadkafinistyanishoma be
onvanepajuheshgarnabayadektefakonid, …. The homogeneity of our participants
was attributed to the sameness of the area of their living, types of their attitudes,
their culture, beliefs and point of views.

3.3 Instrumentation

One of the primary instrumentswas“Perceptual Learning Style Preference

Questionnaire” (PLSPQ) (Reid, 1987) that was administered forassigning
participants in three different above-mentioned learning styles. Reid (1987)
developed PLSPQ particularly for learners of foreign language, and two
researcher-made listening comprehension achievement tests as Pretest and Posttest.
 For collecting data from our participants, different ways of data collection, like
various types of text filed notes, diary, questionnaire, interpersonal and
intrapersonal assessments were used. They were developed during the course of
fieldwork.There are a number of orthodoxies propagated in the
researcher’steaching of listening, and in the treatment of listening which includes
the three learning styles.

The auditory teaching method included:

 Using plenty of recorded material

 Preparing the learners for listening by setting the scene, introducing the characters,
pre-teaching vocabulary, etc.
 Settinga listening task to direct them to an overall 'gist' understanding of the
passage
 Checking the answers to this task, playing the recording again if necessary
 Setting a further task, or tasks, which direct learners to a more detailed
understanding
 Only using the tape script (if there is one!) as a last resort
 Making the recording, and the tasks, as 'authentic' as possible(source??)
There is a lot to be said about these approachesas they have certainly been very
helpful in spreading a concern for supporting the development of learners' listening
skills, rather than just testing them. But they should not be accepted
unquestioningly, or beused to the exclusion of other approaches.

(headingnemikhahad?!) Interpersonal Activities

One effective and nonthreatening way for students to develop stronger listening
skills is interpersonalactivities, such as mock interviews and storytelling. The
researcher assigned the students to small groups of two or three, and then gave
them a particular listening activity to accomplish. For example, I had one student
interview another for a job with a company or for an article in a newspaper. Even a
storytelling activity, such as one that answers the question "What was your favorite
last year’s movie?" could give students the opportunity to ask one another
questions and then to practice active listening skills.

Group Activities
Larger group activities also serve as a helpful method for teaching listening skills
to students. You can begin with a simple group activity. For the first part, I divided
students into groups of five or larger and instructed them to knowabout one hobby
or interest of at least two other group members. I encouraged them to ask clarifying
questions during the activity, and theywere allowed to take notes if helpful.
However, as time passed and their skills grew, I limited students to only writing
notes after the completion of the first part of the group activity. For the second
part, I had the students sit in a large circle, and then have each individual student
share the name and the hobby or interest of the group members that she or he met.
This second part of the group activity couldalso lend itself to additional listening
exercises. For example, I asked students to name a number of the hobbies and
interests identified during the sharing session.

Audio Segments
I also taught listening skills through audio segments of radio programs, online
podcasts, instructional lectures and other audio messages. I modeledthis interactive
listening process in class with students, and then instructed them to repeat the
exercise on their own. First, I instructed students to prepare for listening by
considering anything that they will wanted to learn from the content of the audio
segment. Once theywrote down or shared these ideas, I played the audio
segmentallowing the students to take notes if helpful. Once they gained confidence
and experience, I repeated this activity but instructed students to not take notes
until the completion of the audio segment. I used shorter or longer audio segments
and chose more accessible or more challenging material for this type of exercise.

Video Segments
Another helpful resource for teaching listening skills was video segments,
including short sketches, news programs, documentary films, interview parts, and
dramatic and comic material. As with audio segments, I selected the portion of the
video segment based on the skill level of students. With my students, first we
watched the segment without any sound and discussed it together. I encouraged the
students to identify what they thought would be the content of the segment. Then,
we watched the segment again, this time with sound, allowing students to take
notes if helpful for their skill level. After the completion of the video segment, I
had students write a brief summary of the segment, or take time to discuss as a
group how the segment compared with their expectations.

Instructional Tips(be nazarinjurghesmat ha azjayikekatalogvartozihdade copy-

paste shode…!)
Whatever method I used for teaching listening, I kept a few key instructional tips
in mind that would help both me and my students navigate the learning process. I
keptmy expectations simple, as ifeven the most experienced listener would be
unable to completely and accurately recall the entirety of a message, and I keptmy
directions accessible and built in opportunities for students not only to ask
clarifying questions, but also to make mistakes. I also helped students navigate
their communication anxiety by developing(in jomleyani chi?)activities
appropriate to their skill and confidence level, and then strengthen their confidence
by celebrating the ways in which they improve, no matter how small.
The Visual Method included Photography and video, Instructional demos, Puppet
show PowerPoint stories, etc.

Kinesthetic Methods included Kinesthetic Thinking Maps, Physical games

involving running, jumping, throwing, Role Play, Floor games and floor mats,
Mime and Pantomime, Constructing life-size models(manzuretanchist?),etc.
(Guyavagheaninharaazjayikandeyidvakhodetanaslanbekarnabasteyid…)

The listening material was listening parts of the English learning book, titled
American English File 1, which was designed for elementary students.

3.4 Procedure

Because the common objectives of all the different types of qualitative methods
is to make sense of a set of (cultural or personal) meanings in the observed
phenomena, it is indispensable that the data should capture rich and
complexdetails. Therefore, in order to achieve such a thick description, almost any
relevant information could be admitted as data.

First, the English level of our participants had been determined via the placement
test of the institution. Second, homogenous participants were selected being 8-10
elementary students in both genders.Such homogeneity was attributed to the
sameness of the area of their living, types of their attitudes, their culture, beliefs
and points of view. We chose them according to the result of some questionnaires
based on their characters and some basic information of them.Third, the “Learning
Style Preference Questionnaire” (PLSPQ)was distributed for assigning students to
three different learning styles (visual, auditory and kinesthetic/tactile). Then out of
all three styles a few(exactly how many!!!) students were selected.
After that, the pretest was given to our participants, which was aresearcher-made
listening comprehension test (how was it VALIDATED?). The results of this test
in comparison with the results of the posttest, in the next steps of the research
procedure helped us to reach the final conclusion more vividly.

The next step was teaching the listening comprehension materials to the
participants using different learning styles techniques and activities (according to
thethree mentioned learning styles) in this teaching approach. During teaching
period the students were observedcarefully followed by thorough note-takingto see
if there were any changes in their learning styles or habits of their learning due to
the VAK-based teaching techniques and whether their learning styles were
developed or not. And for considering the view point of students themselves to
find ways of looking at events through the eyes of an insider, a questionnaire was
run (CHEGUNE?!!!Cheporseshnameyi ?standardbudeyashode?
Esmeshchiye!)based on learning styles and learner’s learning
habits.Anintrapersonal and interpersonal assessment through students’ diary was
also carried out. Finally, after one semester (12 sessions), the researcher-made
listening achievement test was conducted as posttest, and with the help of the
results of this test compared with the results of thepretest, and also according to the
observations and notes, it was figured out whether these applied teaching
techniques had any significant effect on achievement of our students in listening
comprehension skill or not and if yes how.

3.5. Design

In this research the phenomena, after being quantitatively realized via

questionnaire,were observed, explained and their changes or maybe their
development carefully recorded, qualitative data and the concluding reports were
interpreted (i.e. the attitudes, beliefs, thoughts, points of view, habits and acts)
through codifying and thematizing them. So the design was quant-QUAL narrative
and phenomenological study through an ethnographic approach.

3.6. Data analysis

After the data were collected, it was analyzed by help of various kinds of
qualitative and quantitative analysis methods. This collected information consisted
of a mixture of test scores, field notes as well as documents of diverse nature and
length (Explain More). During data processing most qualitative data were
transformed into the textual form to fulfill the process of text analysis, for example
the performance development/changes of the students observed during the study
were transcribed because most qualitative data analysis is done with words and for
quantitative data we would reach the result by the help of some statistical analysis
methods. (mesle chi? Kodamghesmatdaghighan? Ba cheabzari?)

It is a fundamental qual principle that human behavior is based upon meaning

which people attribute to and bring to situations (Punch, 2005) and it is only the
actual participants themselves who can reveal the meaning and interpretations of
their experiences and actions. So this study made use of self-assessment, text
analysis and interaction analysis (based on which model?No doubt, although
qualitative researches also apply various data analysis procedures to make the
investigation more rigorous and systematic, at the heart of any qualitative analysis
are still the researcher’s subjective sensitivity, training and experience.