Machine Element I (MEng 3152)

Chapter 2: stress calculations

By: Daniel Mengistu Acc. Year: 2023/24

Contents
Failures Resulting from Static Loading
Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable Loading

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Photographs of Failed Parts

Fig.1 (a) Failure of a truck

drive-shaft spline due to
corrosion fatigue. (b) Direct
end view of failure

Fig.2 Fatigue of an overhead-

pulley retaining bolt on a
weightlifting machine. A
manufacturing error caused a
gap that forced the bolt to take
the entire moment load.
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 Factor of safety
While designing a component, it is necessary to provide sufficient reserve
strength in case of an accident. This is achieved by taking a suitable factor of
safety (fs).
The allowable stress is considered as a
The factor of safety is defined as stress, which the designer expects will
not be exceeded under normal operating
conditions. For ductile materials, the
allowable stress s is obtained by the
following relationship:
For brittle,

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 Load
It is defined as any external force acting upon a machine part. The following
four types of the load are important from the subject point of view:
1. Dead or steady load. A load is said to be a dead or steady load, when it
does not change in magnitude or direction.
2. Live or variable load. A load is said to be a live or variable load, when it
changes continually.
3. Suddenly applied or shock loads. A load is said to be a suddenly applied
or shock load, when it is suddenly applied or removed.
4. Impact load. A load is said to be an impact load, when it is applied with
some initial velocity.

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 Tensile Stress and Strain

When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pulls P, then the stress
induced at any section of the body is known as tensile stress as shown in Fig. 4.1
(b). The ratio of the increase in length to the original length is known as tensile
strain.
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Tensile Stress and Strain cont.

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 Shear Stress and Strain
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting
tangentially across the resisting section, as a result of which the body tends to
shear off the section, then the stress induced is called shear stress.

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 Shear Stress and Strain cont.
The corresponding strain is known as shear strain and it is measured by the
angular deformation accompanying the shear stress.
Mathematically,

It may be noted that when the tangential force is resisted by one cross-section
of the rivet (or when shearing takes place at one cross-section of the rivet),
then the rivets are said to be in single shear.

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 Shear Stress and Strain cont.

In case two plates connected by the two cover plates, the tangential force P
tends to shear off the rivet at two cross-sections as shown in Fig. 4.7.
When the tangential force is resisted by two cross-sections of the rivet then
the rivets are said to be in double shear

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Shear Stress and Strain cont.

Shear stress on the

rivet cross-section,

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Stresses due to bending moment
A straight beam subjected to a bending moment Mb is shown in Fig.
4.5(a). The beam is subjected to a combination of tensile stress on one
side of the neutral axis and compressive stress on the other.
Such a stress distribution can be visualized by bending a thick leather belt.
Cracks will appear on the outer surface, while folds will appear on the
inside.
Therefore, the outside fibres are in tension, while the inside fibres are in
compression. The bending stress at any fibre is given by,

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Stresses due to bending moment

The bending stress is maximum in a fibre, which is farthest from the

neutral axis.
The distribution of stresses is linear and the stress is proportional to the
distance from the neutral axis.

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Stresses due to bending moment cont.

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 Stresses due to bending moment cont.
Equation (4.12) is based on the following assumptions:
1. The beam is straight with uniform cross-section.
2. The forces acting on the beam lie in a plane perpendicular to the axis of
the beam.
3. The material is homogeneous, isotropic and obeys Hooke’s law.
4. Plane cross-sections remain plane after bending.
The moment of inertia in Eq. (4.12) is the area moment of inertia. For a
rectangular cross-section

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Stresses due to bending moment cont.

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 Stresses due to torsional moment
A transmission shaft, subjected to an external torque, is shown in Fig. 4.8 (a). The
internal stresses, which are induced to resist the action of twist, are called torsional shear
stresses. The torsional shear stress is given by

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Stresses due to torsional moment cont.

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Stresses due to torsional moment cont.

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Stresses due to torsional moment cont.

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 Example
Two plates, subjected to a tensile force of 50 kN, are fixed together by means of three
rivets as shown in Fig. 4.10 (a). The plates and rivets are made of plain carbon steel 10C4
with a tensile yield strength of 250 N/mm2. The yield strength in shear is 50% of the tensile
yield strength, and the factor of safety is 2.5. Neglecting stress concentration, determine (i)
the diameter of the rivets; and (ii) the thickness of the plates.

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Example

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Example

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 Theories of Failure Under Static Load
Several theories have been proposed, each assuming a different hypothesis of
failure. The principal theories of elastic failure are as follows:

1. Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine’s theory)

2. Maximum shear stress theory (Coulomb, Tresca and Guest’s theory)
3. Distortion energy theory (Huber von Mises and Hencky’s theory)
4. Maximum strain theory (St. Venant’s theory)
5. Maximum total strain energy theory (Haigh’s theory)

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 Theories of Failure Under Static Load
Since ductile materials usually fail by yielding i.e. when permanent
deformations occur in the material and brittle materials fail by fracture,
therefore the limiting strength for these two classes of materials is normally
measured by different mechanical properties.
For ductile materials, the limiting strength is the stress at yield point as
determined from simple tension test and it is, assumed to be equal in tension or
compression. For brittle materials, the limiting strength is the ultimate stress in
tension or compression.

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 Theories of Failure Under Static Load
Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory)
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member
when the maximum principal or normal stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches
the limiting strength of the material in a simple tension test.
Taking factor of safety (F.S.) into consideration, the maximum principal or
normal stress (σt1) in a bi-axial stress system is given by;

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 Theories of Failure Under Static Load
cont.
Since the maximum principal or normal stress theory is based on failure in
tension or compression and ignores the possibility of failure due to
shearing stress, therefore it is not used for ductile materials.
However, for brittle materials which are relatively strong in shear but weak
in tension or compression, this theory is generally used.
Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky and Von Mises Theory)
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member
when the distortion strain energy per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system
reaches the limiting distortion energy per unit volume as determined from a
simple tension test.
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 Theories of Failure Under Static Load
cont.
Mathematically, the maximum distortion energy theory for yielding is
expressed as;

This theory is mostly used for ductile materials in place of maximum strain energy theory.

Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member
when the maximum shear stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches a value
equal to the shear stress at yield point in a simple tension test.
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 Theories of Failure Under Static Load
cont.

Since the shear stress at yield point in a simple tension test is equal to one-
half the yield stress in tension, therefore the equation (i) may be written as
This theory is mostly used for designing
members of ductile materials.

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Example

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Example cont.

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Example cont.

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Example cont.

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Example cont.

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Failures Resulting from Static Loading
Stress Concentration:
Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross-
section, the simple stress distribution no longer holds good and the
neighbourhood of the discontinuity is different. This irregularity in the
stress distribution caused by abrupt changes of form is called stress
concentration.
It occurs for all kinds of stresses in the presence of fillets, notches,
holes, keyways, splines, surface roughness or scratches etc.

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 Failures Resulting from Static Loading cont.

The material near the edges is stressed considerably higher

than the average value. The maximum stress occurs at
some point on the fillet and is directed parallel to the
boundary at that point.
Fig. 3. Stress Concentration

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Stress Concentration Factor cont.
Stress concentration factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum
stress in a member (at a notch or a fillet) to the nominal stress at the
same section based upon net area.
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
Mathematically, 𝐾𝑡 = = or 𝐾𝑡𝑠 =
𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 𝜏𝑛𝑜𝑚

The value of Kt depends upon the material and geometry of the part.
How can stress concentration be reduced?
The presence of stress concentration can not be totally eliminated but
it may be reduced to some extent.

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 Stress Concentration Factor cont.
A device or concept that is useful in assisting a design engineer to
visualize the presence of stress concentration and how it may be
mitigated is that of stress flow lines.
The mitigation of stress concentration means that the stress flow lines
shall maintain their spacing as far as possible.

Fig. 4. Stress flow-lines

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 Stress Concentration Factor cont.
In Fig. 4 (a) we see that stress lines tend to bunch up and cut very close to the
sharp re-entrant corner. In order to improve the situation, fillets may be
provided, as shown in Fig. 4 (b) and (c) to give more equally spaced flow lines.

Stress Concentration Factor for Various types of Machine Members

Table. 1. Theoretical stress concentration factor (Kt) for a plate with hole (of diameter d) in tension.

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 Stress Concentration Factor cont.
Table. 2. Theoretical stress concentration factor (Kt) for a shaft with transverse hole (of diameter d) in
bending.

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Stress Concentration Factor cont.

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Example

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Example cont.

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Example cont.

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 Combined Steady and Variable Stress
There are several ways in which problems involving this combination of
stresses may be solved, but the following are important from the subject point
of view:
1. Gerber method,
2. Goodman method, and
3. Soderberg method.

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Combined Steady and Variable Stress

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 Gerber Method for Combination of Stresses
A parabolic curve drawn between the endurance limit (σe ) and ultimate tensile
strength (σu) was proposed by Gerber in 1874. Generally, the test data for
ductile material fall closer to Gerber parabola as shown in Fig. 6.15, but
because of scatter in the test points, a straight line relationship (i.e.
Goodman line and Soderberg line) is usually preferred in designing machine
parts.

Or
According to Gerber,
variable stress,

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Gerber Method for Combination of Stresses

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 Goodman Method for Combination of
Stresses
A straight line connecting the endurance limit (σe ) and the ultimate strength
(σu), as shown by line AB in Fig. 6.16, follows the suggestion of Goodman.
A Goodman line is used when the design is based on ultimate strength and
may be used for ductile or brittle materials.
If a suitable factor of safety (F.S.) is applied to endurance limit and ultimate
strength, a safe stress line CD may be drawn parallel to the line AB. Let us
consider a design point P on the line CD.

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Goodman Method for Combination of
Stresses

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 Goodman Method for Combination of
Stresses cont.
Since many machine and structural parts that are subjected to fatigue loads
contain regions of high stress concentration, therefore equation (i) must be
altered to include this effect. In such cases, the fatigue stress concentration
factor (Kf) is used to multiply the variable stress (σv). The equation (i) may
now be written as

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 Goodman Method for Combination of
Stresses cont.
Considering the load factor, surface finish factor and size factor, the equation
(ii) may be written as

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 Goodman Method for Combination of
Stresses cont.
Here we have assumed the same factor of safety (F.S.) for the ultimate tensile
strength (σu) and endurance limit (σe ). In case the factor of safety relating to
both these stresses is different, then the following relation may be used :

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Soderberg Method for Combination of
Stresses
Soderberg line is used when the design is based on yield strength.
The line AB connecting σe and σy , as shown in Fig. 6.17, is called
Soderberg's failure stress line. If a suitable factor of safety (F.S.) is
applied to the endurance limit and yield strength, a safe stress line CD
may be drawn parallel to the line AB. Let us consider a design point P on
the line CD. Now from similar triangles COD and PQD,

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Soderberg Method for Combination of
Stresses cont.

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 Soderberg Method for Combination of
Stresses cont.
For machine parts subjected to fatigue Considering the load factor, surface
loading, the fatigue stress finish factor and size factor, the
concentration factor (Kf) should be equation (ii) may be written as
applied to only variable stress (σv ).

Thus the equations (i) may be written

as Since σeb = σe × Kb and Kb = 1 for
reversed bending load, therefore
σeb = σe may be substituted in the
above equation.

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Example

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Example cont.

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 Example cont.

Solve by using Soderberg method.

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Example cont.

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Example cont.

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 References

1. A Textbook of Machine Design by R.S.KHURMI AND J.K.GUPTA

2. Design of Machine Elements by Bhandari, V.B.

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