CHAPTER 1

SENTENCE STRUCTURE:
CONSTITUENTS
I. STRUCTURE

A sequence of words is considered as a syntactic structure

when:
a. It is divisible into parts (called constituents)
b. There are different kinds of parts. (different
categories of constituents)
c. The constituents are arranged in a specifiable way.
d. Each constituent has a certain specifiable function in
the structure of the sequence of words as a whole.

Moreover, when the parts or constituents themselves consist of

parts which may in turn consist of further parts, this is a
hierarchical structure.

EXAMPLE: I am interested in the school.

*I am the in school.

The first sentence is a syntactic structure because it can be

divisible into constituents with their categories: I is a pronoun,
am is a verb, and in the school is a prepositional phrase.
Furthermore, the constituents are arranged in a specifiable, that
is, am and in the school combine together to make a verb
phrase, then the verb phrase combines with I to form a
sentence I am in the school. Finally, each constituent has its
function: I is a subject of verb, am is a predicate, and in the
school is a subject predicate.

So a full syntactic description of the English language (indeed,

of any language) consists in analyzing linguistic expressions
5
 into their constituent parts, identifying the categories of those
constituents, and determining their functions.

A tree-diagram is to show how things can be analyzed into

their constituent parts.

II. ESTABLISHING CONSTITUENTS

Sequences of words that can function as constituents in the

structure of sentences are called phrases. There are five tests to
identify constituents in a sentence.

1. OMISSION TEST:

If a sequence of words can be omitted from a sentence leaving

another good sentence, this is a good indication that the
sequence is a phrase functioning as a constituent in the
structure of the sentence.

EXAMPLE: I have studied English in this evening class for

three months.

In this evening class is a constituent in this sentence because if

this group of words is omitted from the sentence, it still leaves
a full sentence: I have studied English for three months. So in
this evening class is a phrase.

6
2. REPLACEMENT TEST

If a sequence of words in a sentence can be replaced with a

single word without changing the overall structure of the
sentence, then that sequence functions as a constituent of the
sentence and is therefore a phrase.

EXAMPLE: I consider this beautiful girl as my friend.

This beautiful girl is a phrase because when this sequence of

words is replaced by the word her the overall structure does
not changed: I consider her as my friend.

3. QUESTTION TEST

Answers to WH-question (that is, questions that contain one of

the question words who, which, what, why, where, when,
whose, and how) are phrases.

EXAMPLE: We elected the intelligent boy our monitor.

The intelligent boy is a phrase because this group of words can

be used to answer the question who did we elect as our
monitor?

4. MOVEMENT TEST

The movement of a sequence of words in forming a

construction indicates that the sequence is a phrase.

EXAMPLE: I will come back in ten minutes.

In ten minutes is a phrase because it can move to the front of

the sentence but still leave the overall sentence: In ten minutes
I will come back.

7
5. SENSE TEST

Any sequence of word which can be fill in blank “what does

______________ mean?” is a phrase.

EXAMPLE: I usually come to the beautiful landscape.

The beautiful landscape is a phrase because it is reasonable to

make the question: “What does the beautiful landscape
mean?”

8
CHAPTER 2

SENTENCE STRUCTURE: FUNCTIONS

I. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

At first, a sentence can be divided into two constituents, the

first of which is said to function as subject, and the second as
predicate.

EXAMPLE: [The ducks] [are paddling away].

Subject Predicate

Question movement test for subject:

To find out the subject of a sentence, turn the sentence into

yes/no question in which the phrase functioning as subject is
moved after the operator.

EXAMPLE: Are the ducks paddling away?

In the sentence the ducks are paddling away, the phrase the
ducks is moved after the operator are to form the yes/no
question. So it is the subject of this sentence.

II. NOUN PHRASE AND VERB PHRASE

The subject of the sentence is a noun phrase (NP) immediately
dominated by a sentence. And a predicate is a verb phrase
(VP) immediately dominated by a sentence. The NP and the
VP together form a sentence (S)

9
 EXAMPLE: [The pianist] [has rejected the chiropodist]

This sentence can be showed in a tree diagram or a phrase

marker as following:

NP VP

The pianist has rejected the chiropodist.

III. DEPENDENCY AND FUNCTION

When two constituent nodes are immediately dominated by the

same single node, they are said to be sisters. The sisters are
said to have the functions in respect of each other. The single
node is called to be mother of the two constituents.

EXAMPLE: [The pianist] [has rejected the chiropodist]

NP VP

The pianist has rejected the chiropodist.

The subject NP and the predicate VP are sisters the NP (the

pianist) has its subject‟s function in respect of its sister, the
predicate VP (has rejected the chiropodist) ; and the VP has its
predicate‟s function in respect of the subject NP.

10
1. MODIFIER AND HEAD

In a phrase if any word or group of words can be omitted

leaving other well-form phrase, the word or the group of words
functions as a modifier.

EXAMPLE: The NP their rather dubious jokes is

showed in its following tree diagram:

PHRASE-a

their PHRASE-b

PHRASE-c jokes

rather dubious

In this tree diagram, there are three sister relations of

modification.
 Their and PHRASE-b (rather dubious joke)
 PHRASE-c (rather dubious) and jokes
 Rather and dubious
In PHRASE-c rather is dependent on dubious because if
dubious were omitted, we have an ill-formed string *their
rather jokes. In contrast, rather can be omitted and the
omission still leave a perfectly good phrase their dubious
jokes. This is a one-way function or dependency. In this case
rather has a function of modifier in respect of its sister
dubious. The same thing happens to PHRASE-b in which
PHRASE-c has a function of modifier in respect of its sister.
Jokes, and PHRASE-a in which their has a function of
modifier in respect of its sister PHRASE-b rather dubious
jokes.

11
 In a phrase containing a modifier, the element that is
modified forms the essential center of the phrase and is said
to be the head of the phrase.

So in the example above, dubious functions as a head of

rather, jokes as a head of rather dubious, and rather dubious
jokes as a head of their. These are the relation between
modifiers and heads.

M H
Their

M H

M H
Rather dubious

2. HEAD AND COMPLEMENT

In a structure when the presence of one element determines the

presence of another and vice verse, there is a two-way
dependence in this structure.

EXAMPLE: Old Sam sunbathed beside the stream.

In this sentence, the prepositional phrase beside the stream

includes the preposition beside and the noun phrase a stream.
If we omit beside or a stream we are left ill-formed sentences:
* Old Sam sunbathed the stream and * Old Sam sunbathed
beside. So the relation between beside and a stream is two-way
dependence. In this relation, beside functions as head in
respect of a stream, and a stream functions as complement in
respect of beside. So in the two-way dependences
complements typically follow their heads in English.

12
 H C

beside
M H
A stream

The relation between a subject and a predicate is also a two-

way dependence.
EXAMPLE: He slept.

S P

He slept
IV. Exercises
1. For each of the following sentences, identify the
subject NP and the predicate VP by drawing the
phrase markers:
a. I am accepting your invitation.
b. The income received from fines can't be taken into
account.
c. Grishkin and the man in brown are in league.
d. One day, my boy, all this will be yours.
e. One day will be enough for this job.
f. A gorilla swinging about in the trees above our heads
interrupted this already lengthy story.
g. Next Sunday or the Sunday after that would be
convenient dates.
h. Last week it rained solidly.
i. The existence of stars of such extreme density that not
even light can escape them has not been doubted
recently.
j. The temptation to identify less than the whole of the
relevant phrase crops up in all constituents analysis.

13
 k. Not everyone who accepted that afternoon's invitation
to visit the slaughterhouse found it quite as edifying as
you.
l. The many meetings in Downing Street and elsewhere
between the Prime Minister and other leaders involved
in the crisis have failed to yield any solution acceptable
to them or to the United Nations.

2. Below are five phrases and four phrase-markers. On

the basis of your understanding of them, assign each
phrase to the appropriate phrase-marker.
a. Refurbished citrus d. Gas appliances
fruit markets. from Italy.
b. New central fruit e. Free-range egg
markets. packager.
c. Animals from the
zoo.
(a) PHRASE (b) PHRASE

PHRASE PHRASE word PHRASE

word word word word word PHRASE

word word
(c) PHRASE

(d)PHRASE
PHRASE word

PHRASE word word PHRASE

word word
PHRASE word

word word
14
3. Identify the subjects and predicates of the following
sentences
a) Her memory for names and dates was a constant source
of amazement to him.
b) The prune fritters left something to be desired.
c) There are too many uninvited guests here
d) Only six of the thirty domino-toppling contesttants
came properly equipped.
e) It was Lydia who finally trapped the pig.
f) The fact that you received no birthday greetings from
Mars doesn‟t mean that it is uninhabited.
g) In the machine, the gremlin could be heard juggling
with ball-bearings.

4. Identify the category of the following phrases (as Noun

Phrase, Verb Phrase, or „other‟)
a) Installed for only £199.95
b) Were being given away
c) too far to drive in a day
d) obsolescent washing machines
e) ten long holidays at the Hotel Mortification
f) which I had bought only the day before
g) have made me realise that „chep‟ does indeed mean
„nasty‟

15
CHAPTER 3

SENTENCE STRUCTURE:
CATEGORIES

Words of the language are assigned to several distinct

categories to show that each word has a restricted range of
possible functions and that there are restrictions on how the
words can combine to form phrases.

When words have the same distribution, that is, they have the
same range of functions, can combine with the same other
elements, and can occupy the same positions, they belong to
the same category.

EXAMPLE: Their rather dubious joke.

Their very dubious joke.

In the two phrases, rather and very have the same function of
modifying the adjective dubious, can combine with the same
adjective dubious, and can occupy the same position before
the adjective dubious so they belong to the same category.

Each single word has its lexical category and each phrase
also has its phrasal category. As whole phrases, they have
the same distribution- they will be able to occupy the same
position in sentence structure and have the same range of
function.

EXAMPLE: Their rather dubious joke.

Their very dubious joke.

Rather dubious and very dubious belong to the same phrasal

category because they have the same distribution- they can
modify, combine with and occur before the noun joke.
16
I. NOUN and NOUN PHRASE

1. DEFINITION OF THE NOUN

According to traditional definition, a noun is the name of a

person, place, or thing. For example, inspector and joke are
nouns. Furthermore, inspector and joke are nouns because they
have the same distribution: they occupy the same range of
positions such as after adjectives and have the same range of
functions such as subject of verb.

2. NOUN PHRASE

In a modifier-head relation it is the category of the head word

that determines the category of the phrase a whole. So a noun
phrase is a phrase that contains, and is centered on a noun as
the head of the phrase. Only one noun in a noun phrase can
function as its head. It is the head noun that determines the
number (singular or plural) and the gender (masculine,
feminine, or neutral) of the noun phrase as a whole.

EXAMPLE: The extremely nice girl is my daughter.

In this sentence, The extremely nice girl is a noun phrase

because it takes the noun girl as its head.

The tree diagram or phrase marker of the extremely nice girl is

below
NP

The PHRASE-b

PHRASE-c N

Extremely nice girl

17
A noun phrase can consist simply of a head noun.

EXAMPLE Max confuses me.

NP VP

Max confuses me

Nouns and noun phrases can be replaced by pronouns. So in

substituting a pronoun, we test more specifically whether the
phrase is a noun phrase or not.

EXAMPLE: Max and Adrian were talking.

They were talking.

Some common pronouns are

 Definite pronouns: she/her, it, I/me, we/us, you,

they/them.
 Indefinite pronouns some, something, someone,
anything
 Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those
 Interrogative pronouns: who, which, what, whose
 Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, her, ours,
yours, theirs, whose.:

Because a pronoun can replace a noun phrase, it assumes the

position and function of a full noun phrase. In terms of a
phrase marker, it could be represented as in the following
example.
EXAMPLE: They are paddling away.

18
 S

NP VP

PRO

They are paddling away

II. ADJECTIVE PHRASE and ADVERB PHRASE

Adjective phrase (AP) is centered on adjective (A). And, again

like noun phrases, an adjective phrase can consist of an
unmodified head, a simple adjective.

EXAMPLE: My very colourful book.

Very colourful is an adjective phrase modifying the noun book,

and colourful is a simple adjective modifying the noun book.

By contrast with adjectives and nouns, degree adverbs such as

very, rather, too, so, quite etc. which occupy only the position
before adjectives or adverbs cannot themselves be modified.
So there is no distinction between a degree adverb and a
degree adverb phrase. In a tree diagram, we employ the label
„DEGREE‟ (shortened to „DEG‟).

EXAMPLE: They work so hard everyday.

Degree adverb

Another kind of adverb is general adverbs which can

themselves be modified by degree adverbs to form adverb
phrases- for example, very oddly, quite frankly. Since
modification of a general adverb by a degree adverb is
optional, an adverb phrase (like a noun phrase and an adjective
phrase) can consist of just a simple general adverb.

19
III. PREPOSITIONS and PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Prepositions are generally short words that express relations,

often locational relations in space or time. Prepositions take
complements and their complements are always noun phrases.
The tree diagram of a preposition is in the following example.

EXAMPLE: In the school.

PP

P NP

In the school

IV. CO-ORDINATE PHRASES

Noun phrases can have more than one head. For example, the
man and the woman has two noun heads: man and woman.
Such phrases are called co-ordinate phrases. The words linking
two heads are called co-ordinators including and, but and or.

The whole co-ordinate phrase and the elements that are co-
ordinated in them have the same distribution and so are of the
same category. So the tree diagram of a co-ordinate noun
phrase is the below.
NP

NP and NP

The man the woman

To sum up any constituent, of any category, can consist of a

co-ordination of constituents of the same category. It follows

20
 from this that only constituents of the same category can be co-
ordinated. The mother and the sisters of the co-ordinator all
have the same category label.

Below are the examples of the tree diagrams of co-ordinate

adjective phrase and co-ordinate prepositional phrase.
AP PP

AP and AP
PP and PP

.
A A P NP P NP

nice beautiful on the desk under the book

V. Exercises
1. In the following sentences, a co-ordinator has been
italicized. In each case, identify the constituents it co-
ordinate sand their category, attending carefully to the
meaning.

a. It was icy and her vimpish friends simply refused to go

swimming.
b. He kept a towel and razor hidden in one of the
lifeboats.
c. The driver stopped the car and offered them a lift to the
castle.
d. She wouldn't take John's dog or any of the pets from
the cage.
e. They were slowly but surely getting to grips with
syntax.
f. All the applause during the performance and at the
following party made him feel quite elated.

21
2. Identify the following lexical categories in the passage
below: (a) nouns, (b) adjectives, (c) degree adverbs, (d)
general adverbs, (e) prepositions:

On the court, she openly displayed a perfectly outrageous

check towards the officials who had recently been appointed
by the club. At home, she was an incredibly warm and loving
human being, full of sensitivity for people‟s feelings.

3. Between the black pages of the album, ancient

photographs dimly revealed the grim faces of ancestors
nervelessly paralysed in differenet attitudes of thought and
apparent concentration.

a) Identify all the (i) nouns, (ii) adjectives, (iii) adverbs,

(iv) prepositions in the above sentence.
b) Identify its subject.

22
CHAPTER 4

THE VERB PHRASE

The one constituent that a verb phrase (VP) must contain is the
verb group (Vgrp). The verb group consists of a lexical verb
which is optionally preceded by other auxiliary verbs.

EXAMPLE: I will be here tomorrow.

Verb group

Verb phrase

Verb groups are sub-categorized according to what other

elements must appear with them in the verb phrase. In other
words, they are sub-categorized in terms of their
complementation types.

I. MONOTRANSITIVE VERB GROUPS

A mono-transitive verb group is one which requires a single

noun phrase to complement it. This noun phrase is said to
function as its direct object.

EXAMPLE: Students met their dean.

Mono-transitive verb Direct object

Since the verb group and the noun phrase are in a functional
relationship, the noun phrase needs to be represented as a sister
of the verb group (and therefore as a daughter of the verb
phrase.

23
 S

NP VP

Vgrp NP
[trans]

The student met their dean.

When a noun phrase is the sister of a verb group bearing a

[trans] feature, we know that the function of the noun phrase is
that of direct object.

II. INTRANSITIVE VERB GROUPS

An intransitive verb group is one that does not require any
further constituent as a sister in the verb phrase.
Since an intransitive verb group does not require any further
element to form a complete predicate, a single-word verb can
count not only as a complete verb group but also as a complete
verb phrase. So, a very simple sentence like the girl slept is
represented as follow.
S

NP VP

Vgrp
[intrans]

The girl slept

III. DITRANSITIVE VERB GROUPS

A ditransitive verb group is one which requires two noun

phrases as its complementation. The first complement noun

24
phrase functions as the indirect object, and the second
complement noun phrase functions as the direct object.

EXAMPLE:
John gave his father a present.
Ditransitive verb Indirect object Direct object

NP VP

N Vgrp NP NP
[ditrans]

John gave his father a present.

The indirect object noun phrase can be replaced the

prepositional phrase introduced by the preposition to or for.

EXAMPLE: John gave a present to his father.

NP VP

N Vgrp NP PP
[ditrans]

John gave a present. to his father

IV. INTENSIVE VERB GROUPS

An intensive verb group requires a single complement, which
can take the form of an adjective, or a noun phrase, or a
prepositional phrase. The intensive verbs are called linking
verbs including: be, seem, become, get, look, remain, appear,
taste, feel, smell, sound etc. The complement of an intensive

25
verb group functions as a subject predicate or subjective
complement.

EXAMPE:
You look tired. (adjective)
Ed becomes a doctor. (noun phrase)
They are in danger (prepositional phrase)
Intensive verbs Subject predicates

S S S

NP VP NP VP NP VP

Pro Vgrp AP N Vgrp NP Vgrp PP

[intens] [intens] [intens]
Pro
A

You look tired Ed becomes a doctor They are in danger

V. COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERB GROUPS

A complex transitive verb takes two complements: a direct

object and an object predicate or object complement. Again,
the predicate can take the form of an adjective phrase, or a
noun phrase, or a prepositional phrase.

EXAMPLE:

Melvin found his own jokes extremely funny.(AP)

They are making Stella their spokesperson.(NP)
Lisa is putting the liquor on the bed.(PP)

Complex verb groups Direct object Object predicate

26
 S

NP VP

N Vgrp NP AP
[Complex]

Melvin found his own joke extremely junny.

S

NP VP

N Vgrp NP PP
[Complex]

Lisa is putting the liquor on the bed

VI. PREPOSITIONAL VERB GROUP

A prepositional verb group must be complemented by a
prepositional phrase which functions as prepositional
complement. Glance, reply, refer etc are the samples of the
prepositional verb groups.

EXAMPLE: The man glanced at the shop.

Prepositional verb group prepositional complement

27
 S

NP VP

Vgrp PP
[Prep]

The man glanced at the shop

VII. EXERCISES
1. For each of the following sentences
a) Identify the Verb Group
b) Identify all the major functions: subject (S), direct object
(dO), indirect object (iO), subject -predicative (sP), object-
predicative (oP), prepositional complemetnt (PC)
c) Give the sub-category of the Vgrp. Make sure the sub-
category is consistent with the functions you have assigned
(in (b) above) to the other constituents
d) Give the category of each of the constituents you have
identified under (c) above

1. Petrol is getting more expensive.

2. Alexander's father left him.
3. Alexander's father left him the theater.
4. Alexander's father left him in the care of the bishop.
5. Several of the men he had hired were complaining.
6. He may have been referring to the fact that you had no
clothes on.
7. Customers must not sit their children on the counter.
8. Her mother and father didn‟t approve of Matilda's
behaviour.
9. Most of the students will have done the work you set.
10. Col. Mustard has locked Miss Scalet in the library.

28
 11. Children in ragged clothes were shinning up the
drainpipes.
12. Your Kentucky Fried Chicken and chips have gone
cold and greasy.
13. The obliging manager poured everyone a gigantic glass
of wine.
14. Joan placed it in the gaping hole.
15. Karen peered into gaping hole.
16. The new chef is liquidizing last week's uneaten fritters.
17. This would make a perfect picnic place.
18. Bill has made a brilliant picnic table.
19. This so-called music makes me mad.
20. He should have made the men a decent meal.
21. The exhausted team members made for the nearest pub.

2. Identify all the major functions in the following sentences:

subject (S), direct object (dO), indirect object (iO), subject-
predicative (sP), object-predicative (oP), prepositional
complemetnt (PC). Identify the Vgrp and sub-categorize them.
1. The girl in the palace has dyed her hair deep purple.
2. The balloons are ascending.
3. Richard has promised me his spaghetti machine.
4. This sedan-chair should prove useful.
5. Someone has stolen my contact-lenses.
6. It doesn‟t sound much fun.
7. The candidate‟s antics did not amuse the board of
examiners.
8. The committee nominate her Acrobat of the Year.
9. Egbert has been feeding the cat smoked salmon.
10. I would like my curry as hot as you can make it
11. We don‟t allude to his third ear.
12. The main witness for the prosecution has dissappered.
13. He has applied for a gun licence.

29
CHAPTER 5

ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS

I. ADJUNCT ADVERBIALS IN THE VERB PHRASE

When a constituent is optional and can occur with almost any

verb in sentences, it is said to function as an adjunct adverbial.
It is not functioning as complement; but as modifier to give
additional, though not essential, information.
EXAMPLE: Old Sam sunbathed beside a stream
Adjunct adverbial.

Adjuncts express a wide range of ideas, including manner,

means, purpose, reason, place, and time. They tend to answer
questions like where?, why?, when?, how?, what for?, how
long?, how often?, how many times?
EXAMPLE: I will come there to meet everybody
Adjunct of purpose
.
The students study very hard.
Adjunct of manner

Prepositional phrases, adverb phrases, and certain noun

phrases can function as adjunct adverbials.
EXAMPLE:
The students study very hard. (Adverb phrase)
They are having a party at home. (prepositional phrase)
They will be there next week (noun phrase)

II. LEVELS OF VERB PHRASE

Adjunct adverbials are modifiers of verb phrases, not only of
verb groups. So the difference in function between obligatory

30
complements of the verb and optional modifying adjunct
adverbials is to be represented in phrase-markers as follow.

 Complements of the verb are sisters of verb group (Vgrp)

 Adjunct adverbials are sisters of verb phrase. (VP)

EXAMPLE:
Max spotted those wildcats in the Spring.
Direct object Ajunct adverbial

NP VP1

N VP2 PP

Vgrp NP
[trans]

Max spotted those wildcats in the spring

This analysis has the effect of creating two levels of VP and

thus allowing us to represent the difference in function
between the complement and the modifier.

NOTE:
A pro-form is one which is used to replace a constituent in the
sentence. For example, a pronoun is used to replace a noun
phrase. Do so is used to replace a verb phrase in the sentence,
so it is a pro-form.

31
EXAMPLE:

I mended my car in the garage and he mended his car in the

lay-by

I mended my car in the garage and he did so in the

lay-by
S

S S

NP VP1 NP VP1

Pro VP2 PP Pro VP2 PP

Vgrp NP
[trans]

I mended my car in the garage and he did so in the lay-by

III. THE MOBILITY OF ADVERBIALS

When a constituent can move around a sentence, it is said to

function as an adjunct adverbial. This characteristic is called
the mobility of adverbials.

EXAMPLE: She put the cake under the bed surreptitiously.

She surreptitiously put the cake under the bed.

32
 S

NP VP1

Pro VP2 AdvP

Vgrp NP PP Adv
[complex]

Pro

She put it under the bed surreptitiously.

S

NP VP1

Pro Adv P VP2

Adv Vgrp NP PP
[complex]

Pro

She surreptitiously put it under the bed

33
IV. PRASAL VERBS

A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a particle such as up, off,

down, over. The particle of a phrasal verb can move over the
noun phrase. This particle movement provides a very reliable
test for distinguishing between [phrasal verb + direct object]
and [verb + prepositional phrase]

EXAMPLE: He called up the tree.

He called up the boss.

The first sentence consists of a verb plus prepositional phrase

because the preposition up cannot be moved over the noun
phrase the tree; if not, we have a ill-formed sentence *He
called the tree up. Meanwhile, the second sentence consists of
a phrasal verb because the particle up can be moved over the
noun phrase the boss: He called the boss up.
S S

NP VP NP VP

Pro Vgrp NP Pro Vgrp NP Prt

[trans] [trans]
[Phrasal] [ Phrasal]

He called up the boss. He called the boss up

V. ELLIPSIS

The omission from sentences of required elements capable of

being understood in the context of their use is called ELLISIS.
Ellipsis creates acceptable, but nonetheless grammatically
incomplete sentences.

34
 EXAMPLLE: William gave his friend a present.
William gave a present.
In the second sentence there is a omission of the noun phrase
his friend from the first sentence.
S S

.NP VP NP VP

N Vgrp NP NP N Vgrp NP NP
[ditrans] [ditrans]

William gave his friend a presen William gave E a present

VI. SENTENCE ADVERBIALS.

A sentence adverbial (S-adverbial) provides some comment by
the speaker or writer about the fact she is reporting or about
how she feels she herself is expressing what she has to say. If
the S-adverbial appears at the beginning, it should be
represented as a preceding sister of the sentence it modifies.

EXAMPLE: Frankly, Boster admitted everything.

S

AdvP S

Adv NP VP

N Vgrp NP
[trans]

Pro

Frankly, Boster admitted everything.

35
VII. Exercises

Here are three sets of sentences, illustrating all the points

made in the last two chapters. Draw phrase-markers for
them. Allow yourself plenty of room. Ambiguous examples
will need two phrase-markers.

Set 1
1. The trainees got much quicker during the Autumn
months.
2. I shall make this the main point of my argument.
3. The plane will be landing in twenty minutes.
4. The unfortunate wizard looked up queriously.
5. The new arrival wished everyone present a very Merry
Christmas.
6. Matilda had polished off the toast by eight thirty.
7. She never had believed in ghosts.
8. He opened his post very reluctantly on that particular
day.
9. Martha left the bathroom in an awful hurry.
10. Martha left the bathroom in an awful mess.
(Ambiguous)
11. They decided on the train (ambiguous, elliptical on one
interpretation).

Set 2
2. It was raining extremely hard on the Continent last
night.
3. That would be a rather silly question to ask obviously.
4. They often are nervous of the parachutes at first.
5. Incredibly, she allowed him total freedom without a
thought for the consequences.
6. You've turned the high-wire into a death-trap, for your
information!

36
 7. The management of the citrus and the ringmaster were
hoping for an early meeting with the trapeze artists.
8. Floyd's supposedly surprise puddings always blew up
in your face.
9. You can cook a most delicious meal for a family of ten
with just semolina and ketchup for the price of a Coke.
(Two analyses possible)
10. The 'younger' architects had positioned the ground-
floor windows too close to each other in the earlier
building.
11. The ferryboat is much too overloaded for a crossing in
rough seas in my opinion.

Set 3
1. He never looked back on his years at sea with much
nostalgia, however.
2. The drunken new recruits to the unit were tripping over
guy ropes repeatedly until the early hours.
3. Unfortunately, his newly invented rotting compound
quickly leaked into the foundation.
4. Several figures gingerly edged towards the precipice in
full view of the waiting police.
5. The dogs were barking at the gate. (ambiguous)
6. You should ignore all those people in the studio.
(ambiguous)
7. You should keep all those people in the studio.
(ambiguous)
8. The butler usually mopped up the crumbs after each
course in the old days. (This last will need careful
attention to the meaning in deciding what constituents
each of the several adverbials is modifying)

37
 CHAPTER 6

VERB GROUP
A verb group has a lexical verb as its head and auxiliary verbs
as modifiers. A simple verb group contains only a lexical verb
and a complex verb group consists of auxiliaries and a lexical
verb.

EXAMPE:
I was reading this book last night when he came.
complex verb group Simple verb group

COMPLEX Vgrp SIMPLE Vgrp

AUX V V

I. THE SIMPLE FINITE VERB GROUP

If a verb group contains a tensed verb, it is a finite verb group;

if not it is a non finite verb group. Every sentence must contain
one finite verb group.

EXAMPLE:
He often comes to her house to study with her
Finite verb group non finite verb group

It is customary to recognise just present and past as tenses of

English.
Vgrp Vgrp
[ditrans] [ditrans]

V V
[pres] [past]

give gave

38
II. AUXILARY VERBS IN THE COMPLEX VERB
GROUP

There are two kinds of auxilary verb:

a. Primary auxilary which can also be lexical verb: be,

have, and do
b. Modal auxilary: can, may, must, shall, will, and need

Modal and primary verbs have some differences

 In questions: an auxiliary verb can stand the subject

NP. A lexical verb cannot.
 The negative particle (not) can attach to an auxiliary
verb, not to a lexical verb.
 A lexical verb can take a direct object NP. An auxiliary
verb cannot.
 The verb after a lexical verb can be introduced by the
infinitive particle to, but after an auxiliary verb it
cannot. So need is both auxiliary and lexical verb.

EXAMPLE:
He need go. He needs to go.
Auxiliary Lexical

III. THE STRUCTURE OF AUXILARY

A verb group can contain up to four auxiliaries as its
immediate constituents:

 MODAL (M)
 PERFECT ASPECT (PERF)
 PROGRESSIVE ASPECT (PROG)
 PASSIVE VOICE (PASS)

39
These auxiliaries have some common characteristics as
following:

 All are optional

 Any combination of them is possible.
 They appear in the order given.
 Each may only appear once.
 Only the first verb is tensed.
 All four auxiliaries determine the form of the next
verb in the verb group.

1. MODAL (M)

This auxiliary always carries tense. Some modals have a

present or past tense form: can, will, shall, may (could, would,
should, might), but must and need have only present tense.
Vgrp Vgrp
[ditrans] [ditrans]

AUX V AUX V

M M
[pres] [past]

can give could give

Modal auxiliaries do not exhibit subject-verb agreement. and

the verb following them appears in its basic stem form.

2. PERFECT ASPECT (PERF)

The perfect auxiliary is the primary auxiliary have. The verb

that follows have always appears in its (non-finite) perfect
particle form.

Vgrp
40
 [ditrans]

AUX V

PERF
[pres]

have given

3. PROGRESSIVE ASPECT (PROG)

The primary be is the progressive auxiliary and the following

verb adopts V-ing form called progressive particle.

Vgrp
[ditrans]

AUX V

PROG
[pres]

is giving

4. PASSIVE VOICE (PASS)

The primary be is also the passive auxiliary, but unlike the

progressive auxiliary be the following verb adopts V-ed form
called the passive particle.
Since the object in the active becomes the subject of the
passive, the object position the verb group won‟t be filled. The
gap is denoted „o‟. Furthermore, the subject of the active
becomes a prepositional phrase introduced with by. This
preposition functions as VP-adjunct so it is optional.

41
 EXAMPLE: My cat was chased by your dog.

S S

NP VP NP VP
VP PP
VP PP

Vgrp NP Vgrp NP NP
[monotrans] [ditrans]

AUX V AUX V

PASS PASS
[past] O [past] O

My cat was chased by your dog. The girl was bought a dress by my aunt.

5. NEGATIVE AND AUXILARY DO

The negative particle not is placed immediately after the

auxiliary carrying the tense. In the negative sentence the
auxiliary do, empty of meaning, is used to carry the tense when
other auxiliaries are absent. It is dominated immediately by
tense.
Vgrp Vgrp
[intrans] [intrans]

AUX V AUX V

M TENSE
[past] [past]

could not escape did not escape

42
 6. FRONTING THE AUXILIARY IN QUESTIONS

In forming questions the auxiliary verb that carries the tense

moves in front of the subject. And again, do is required to
carry the tense in the absence of any other auxiliary. it is do
that moves in front of the subject to form questions. As with
passive, the fronting of the auxiliary has left a gap „o‟ under
the AUX node.

The new node „S‟ called „S-bar‟ is used to represent a

interrogative sentence. A fronted auxiliary is represented as a
sister of the original sentence „S‟. Both the fronted auxiliary
and „S‟ are dominated immediately by „S-bar‟.

S S

PERF S TENSE S
[pres] [past]

NP VP NP VP

Vgrp Vgrp
[intrans] [intrans]

AUX V AUX V
O
PROG
O

Has she been laughing. Did he speak

7. MORE ON HAVE AND BE

Have and be can be lexical verbs or primary auxiliaries. When

they are lexical verbs they can also be moved in front of the
subject to form a question. In this case they leave a gap in the
verb group.

43
 S

V S
[pres]

NP VP

Vgrp AP
[intens]
Kubla

O
extravagant
Is

IV. Exercises

For each of the italicized form of the verb be in the following

sentences, say whether it is an instance of the lexical (copula)
verb, the progressive auxiliary, or the passive auxiliary. Some
of them admit of discusssion, in particular, is problematic.
Can you say why?

1. His behaviour may be peculiar.

2. It was becoming noticeable.
3. He was overheard by Polonius.
4. The letter was found in his pocket.
5. It was unexpected.
6. Hamlet was being offensive.
7. Ophelia was being driven mad.
8. He had been going mad.
9. He could have been her husband.
10. They were very disturbed by the play.
11. The play was unnerving.
12. The play was unnerving the King.
13. The wine was drunk by Hamlet.
14. Hamlet was drunk by midnight.
15. Yorick had been buried for years.
16. Hamlet was buried the next day.

44
Give phrase-markers for the following sentences using the
triangle notation for all NPs, APs, PPs, and AdvPs (but not
VPs or Vgrps). Set II (but not Set I) includes questions and
passives.

Set 1
1. She may have been watching the play.
2. They can't have brought up the children properly.
3. They were having a miserable time.
4. We don't lend our toothbrushes to anybody.
5. The exercises should not have been so easy.
6. They don't need drinks today.

Set 2
1. Could she have put it behind the radiator?
2. You will have been seen by the doctor within the five
minutes.
3. Does Max never sit quietly?
4. Have all the applicants been interviewed already?
5. Shouldn‟t the stores be being loaded now?
6. They will be drunk soon. (Ambiguous)

45
CHAPTER 7

MORE ON NOUN PHRASE

A NP has just two immediate constituents: determiner (DET)
and nominal (NOM). NOM represents a level of NP-structure
immediate between the NP level and the lexical N level. NOM
is the immediate head of NP, and N is the head of NOM.

NP

DET NOM

ART AP N

The sad clown

I. DETERMINER
DEFINITION

Determiners are a fixed set of „grammatical‟ words which give

information relating to and indefiniteness and definiteness; and
information about quantity and proportion.

CLASSIFICATION

The basic determiners are definite (the) and indefinite (a).

There are small set of words with the same function as the
articles and they cannot appear in sequence with them within
an NP.

 Demonstratives (DEM): this, that, these, those.

46
  Quantifier (Q): some, any, no, each, every, either, neither,
nor, a few, a little.
 Possessives (POSS): my, your, its, her, his, their, John‟s

NP NP NP NP

DET NOM DET NOM DET NOM DET NOM

ART N DEM N Q N POSS N

The book This table Some pens My pencil

For indefinite plural count nouns and non-count nouns, the

determiner position is not filled. An unfilled determiner gives
the NP an indefinite and more general interpretation.

NP NP

DET NOM DET NOM

N N

cars smoke

The NP consisting of a pronoun or a proper noun is not

analysed as having an unfilled determiner position because
proper nouns do not normally accept determiners.
NP NP

Pro N

They Max

It appears that a possessive determiner can consist of a

possessive common noun. So this possessive determiner
consists of an NP + genetive –s.

47
 NP

DET NOM

POSS N

NP „s

DET NOM

ART N

The book colour

PRE-DETERMINER

Some words consisting of both, half, all and double can occur
in front of determiner and pronoun. They are called pre-
determiner.
NP

PRE-DET NP

DET NOM

ART N

all the men

PRE-MODIFIERS IN NOM
QUANLIFYING ADJECTIVES

Much, many, few and little are considered as quantifying

adjectives (QA) because like adjectives they co-occur with and
follow determiners; and they are gradable. Cardinal and
numeral numbers are also treated as quantifying adjectives

48
because they follow determiners. Quantifying adjectives are
heads of Aps and precede other Aps in NOM.

NP NP

DET NOM DET NOM

AP N ART AP N

DEG QA QA

Very many mistakes the one mistake

PARTICIPLE PHRASES
The non-finite forms of verbs consisting of progressive and
perfect participles (V-part, for short) may appear as pre-
modifiers within NOM. Since these forms are verbal rather
than adjectival, they are not gradable.
NP

DET NOM

ART AP N

V-part

The sleeping baby

NOUNS

Nouns themselves may act as pre-modifiers of head nouns. It is

the modifying noun that must appear last- it cannot be
separated from the head noun.

49
 NP

DET NOM

Q AP N

A N N

some expensive roof maintenance

A modifying noun itself can be pre-modified. However, it

cannot be plural as well as cannot take determiners or pre-
determiners and post-modifying. So a modifying noun is
categorized as N even when it is itself pre-modified.

EXAMPLE: Some Japanese print collectors.

The NP is ambiguous and has two interpretations by the tree

diagrams below:

NP NP

DET NOM DET NOM

Q AP N Q N

A N N N N

A N

Some Japanese print collectors. Some Japanese print collectors.

MORE ON THE STRUCTURE OF NOM

When a number of pre-modifiers occur at the same time, each

modifier must be dominated by a NOM, so a NOM can have
NOM as one of its constituents.

50
 NP

DET NOM

ART AP NOM

A AP N

A
A new red car
POST-MODIFIERS
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Within NOM, we have a post-modifying prepositional phrase

as sister to the noun. As usual, the PP itself consists of P and
NP.
NP

DET NOM

ART N PP

P NP

DET NOM

ART N

An expidition to the pub

Like pre-modifier adjectives, a lot of PPs can occur after a

noun. However, in this case there are two possibilities: the two
PPs modify the same noun head or the second PP modifies the
noun head in the NP of the first PP.

51
 NP NP

DET NOM DET NOM

ART N PP ART NOM PP

P NP N PP P NP

DET NOM P NP DET NOM

ART N PP
DET N N

P NP

DET NOM

ART N

An expedition to the pub in the village. An expedition to the pub for wine

ADJECTIVE PHRASE

When a modifying AP includes a complement, it always post-

modifies the head noun within NOM.
NP

DET NOM
ART N AP
A PP
P NP
DET NOM

ART N

the chef responsible for the sauces

52
 MODIFICATION OF PRONOUN

Indefinite pronouns such as something, someone, anything,

anyone, nothing, no-one can take a post-modifying PP or AP.

NP NP

PRO AP PRO pp

A P NP

Anyone intelligent DET NOM

ART N

Someone in the crowd

II. Exercises
1. Decide, for each of the following italicized modifiers,
whether they are (complement) N-modifiers or (adjunct)
NOM-modifiers. Some are ambiguous. In this connection,
notice that A diplomatic appointment can mean either ' an
appointment which was (very) diplomatic' or 'the
appointment of a diplomat' which of these interpretations
does A diplomatic one have? Answering that will help you
correlate the interpretative distinction with the distinction
between N-modifier and NOM-modifier.

a. Contributions from unknown sources.

b. Contributions to the fund.
c. The destruction of the building.
d. The destruction of April 1944.
e. The applicant in the waiting room.
f. The applicant for the job.
g. An adviser to royalty.
h. A royal adviser.

53
i. A nuclear scientist.
j. A charming scientist.
k. An attentive student.
l. A French student.
m. A criminal lawyer.
n. A stellar observatory.
o. A pessimistic engineer.
p. A structural engineer.

2. Draw complete phrase-markers for the following NPs

Set I
a. Melancholy thoughts
b. Some very clever chess moves
c. The boat‟s sudden move the the left
d. The word on the trip of my tongue
e. Some contributions to the fund from unknown
sources
f. All performers absent from the rehearsal.

Set II
a. Coffee and oranges
b. All the devil‟s tricks
c. All the men‟s clothes
d. Three stars visible to the naked eye
e. The king of England‟s short and turbulent reign
f. These well dressed men and women

54
CHAPTER 8

SENTENCES WITHIN SENTENCES

Some clausal structures are called subordinate or embedded
clauses. The structures that contain them are called
superordinate or main clause. Every clause has a verb and is
identified by its verb. The verb of the main clause is the main
verb.

EXAMPLE: superordinate clause

What he said is true.
embeded clause main verb

I. COMPLEMENTISERS THAT AND WHETHER

That is used to introduce embedded clauses. It is a

complementiser (comp). It fills the position occupied by
fronted auxiliaries in questions.
S‟ S‟

COMP S COMP S

That he was in command NP VP

Vgrp AP
[intens]

V A
[past]

That he was intelligent

55
Auxiliaries cannot be fronted to a position filled by a
complementiser. Another complementizer „whether‟ is used to
introduce an embedded interrogative clause

embeded clause
EXAMPLE:
John asked whether those stupid sausages were ready yet.
complementizer

II. THE FUNCTIONS OF THAT- AND WHETHER-

CLAUSES
1. SUBJECT- AND EXTRAPOSED SUBJECT

That or whether clauses function as subjects , they are called

clausal subjects. These subjects are dominated by NP.
S

NP VP

S‟

Comp S

That the king was in his room disconcerned him.

Clausal subjects can be extra-posed from under the subject NP

node to the end of the sentence, leaving behind the empty
pronoun it. This is called expletive or anticipatory it, to
distinguish it from uses of prop it that do refer to things. The
clausal subject at the end of the sentence is called an extra-
posed subject.

EXAMPLE:
It disconcerned him that the king was in his room
Explicit or anticipatory it extraposed subject

56
 It is raining now.
Prop it
S

NP VP S‟

It disconcerned him that the king was in his room

Some verbs including seem, appear, transpire, and happen

cannot have clauses in the normal subjective position. They are
considered as intransitive verb groups in this use and extra-
position of a clausal subject is obligatory.

EXAMPLE: It happened that dinosaurs are extinct.

* That dinosaurs are extinct happened.
S

NP VP S‟

Vgrp Comp S
[intrans]

NP VP
V
[pass]
DET NOM Vgrp AP
[intense]

N V A
[pres]

It happpened that dinosaurs are extinct.

2. COMPLEMENT OF VGRP WITHIN VP

That clauses can function as direct objects in the

monotransitive or ditransitive verb groups and subject
complement only with the copular verb „be”, not with other
intensive verbs, Some verbs such as know, tell and worry can

57
take whether clauses as their direct objects. That– and whether
clauses cannot function as indirect objects of ditransitive
verbs because indirect objects must refer to animate entities,
whereas clauses cannot. They don‟t refer to concrete entities.
S S

NP VP NP VP

N Vgrp NP Pro Vgrp NP NP

[monotrans] [Ditrans]

S‟ S‟
V V Pro
[past] [past]
Comp S Comp S

Arnold claimed that the sea was calm. He told me that you get married
S S

NP VP NP VP

Pro Vgrp NP DET NOM Vgrp NP

[monotrans] [intense]

S‟ N V S‟
[past]
V ‟
[past]
Comp S Comp S

I wonder whether he will come. The question is whether he‟ll pass

the exam

3. COMPLEMENT OF A WITHIN AP

Adjectives can also be complemented by a that-clause or a

whether-clause. So: an AP can consist of the head A plus a
clausal complement.

58
 S

NP VP

Pro Vgrp AP
[monotrans]

A S‟
V
[past]
Comp S

He seemed angry that he had not been chosen.

4. COMPLEMENT OF N WITHIN NP

A feature of noun-complement clauses is that they can only

complement abstract nouns like fact, rumor, idea, news,
question, claim, suggestion, etc. to denote the content of these
nouns. So the noun-complement clauses are a sister of the head
N.

NP VP

Pro Vgrp NP
[monotrans]

AUX V DET NOM

PERF ART N S‟
[PRES]

Comp S

I have known the rumor that they love each other

59
 5. COMPLEMENT OF P WITHIN PP

An interrogative clause can function as the complement of a

preposition within prepositional phrases.

PP

P NP

S‟
.
Comp S

About what he did last week

After (etc.) is itself functioning as a kind of complemnetiser

introducing the clause. On the assumption that Comp cannot
be filled twice over, this approach offers an explanation for the
ungrammaticality of e.g. *After that she left.

6. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

What distinguishes adverbial clauses from that– and whether–

clauses is that they take subordinating conjunctions as
complementisers. Some subordinating conjunctions are before,
after, until, since, although, unless, if, etc.

S‟

Comp S

if John leaves

60
III. Exercises

1. Give abbreviated Clausal Analyses (either by means of

trees or by means of bracketings) of the following sentences.
For each subordinate clause, say what its function is. Look
at...

a. He told me Rory was an abstract expressionist at our first

meeting.
b. That anyone would actually like his paintings came as a
surprise.
c. The big idea here is that we all become rich and famous as
quickly as possible.
d. The announcement that Frank has resigned will be made
after the plane takes off.
e. It's well known that Max thinks syntax is good for the brain.
f. Before the exhibition opened, the gallery had been certain
his paintings would sell extremely well.
g. That Savonarola came to power is a direct consequence of
Lorenzo's insistence that his sermons were harmless.
h. Once it was certain that all the paintings were copies, the
exhibition closed.
i. The gallery's defense was that they didn‟t realize they were
copies until it was too late.
j. In case you were hoping that I would be grateful for the gift
of all these masterpieces, I am aware the exhibition only closed
because no one else wanted them.

2. Draw complete phrase-markers for the following sentences

a. Do you think she's good at syntax?
b. This is a proposal that we should support the workers.
c. Whether Frank and Bill would be promoted wasn't entirely
clear.
d. His friends were certain he would not pass the test.
e. It was unfortunate the first lecture was cancelled.

61
f. Is it so obvious that she doesn't like the painting?
g. The exhibition closed because all the paintings were copies.
h. Max was under the impression that Cynthia was glad he had
arrived.

3. Consider the following sentences carefully. How do you

suggest the function of the subordinate clauses should be
described? This possibility has not been mentioned in the
chapter, but it is related to functions that have been
mentioned. Suggest a phrase-marker representation for (1)
consistent with the discussion in this chapter.
1. He thought it a shame that no one had crushed the monocle.
2. She considered it odd that so few had signed the petition.
3. She declared it in the worst taste that they'd left nothing for
Mr. Manners.

4. A syntactic possibility not mentioned in the chapter is that

interrogative (whether-) clauses can function as adverbials.
Make up a sentence that includes an adverbial whether-
clause.

Another possibility not mentioned is illustrated by the

following
1. The thought occurred to him that he should have done the
washing up.
2. The claim was made that syntax is actually good for the
brain.
3. A rumor is spreading that the Prime Minister has resigned.

5. After, before, since and until were treated as subordinating

conjunctions and dealt with in the section on adverbial
clauses. But look now at (1)-(4) below and try to identify
what is interesting (and mildly problematic for the present
treatment) about the form and function of the italicised
constituent. (5)-(7)are given for comparision.
1. The discussionafter you left was fascinating.
62
2. During his long wait until the pubs opened, Gomez knitted
quietly.
3. The weeks before the fighting started were known as 'The
Phoney War'.
4. His behaviour since he got married is unaccountable.
5. * The discussion unless you go is fascinating.
6. * His behaviour as if you weren't there dismayed us.
7. * The lack of activity although war has been declared was
unnerving.

6. Draw complete phrase-makers for the following NPs:

a. The chef who I fired
b. A style I think appropriate
c. The spy who loved me
d. The place where we had the picnic
e. The reason why it spits
f. The woman in whose care we left you

7. Draw complete phrase-makers for the following sentences:

1a. The man they cheated is furious.
1b. The reason they cheated is clear.
2a. I have an idea we should think about.
2b. I have an idea we should think about exams
3a. The fact that I communicated with Mona is irrelevant.
3b. The fact that I communicated to mona was irrelevant.

63
CHAPTER 9

WH-CLAUSES
Wh-clauses include a Wh-word. They can appear in main
clauses or subordinate clauses. A main clause with a Wh-
word makes a kind of question called a Wh-question. Wh-
questions question some particular constituent. Meanwhile,
yes/no questions question whether something is the case or
not.
EXAMPLE: Who is taking Violetta‟s icon to Athens?


A Wh-clause or A Wh-question

I. WH-QUESTIONS
In Wh-questions, there is always a wh-fronting (the fronting of
the Wh-phrase) and an auxiliary-fronting (the fronting of the
tensed auxiliary).

EXAMPLE:
What is Vince taking to Athens?
 
Wh-fronting Auxiliary-fronting

Wh-fronting leaves a gap (0) of the appropriate category, and

auxiliary-fronting leaves a gap (0) in the auxiliary structure.

What is Vince • taking • to Athens?

In tree markers wh-questions are presented by a “S double bar”
abbreviated S‟‟. The “S double bar” dominates the “S bar”,
which presents a yes/no question, and the comp position,
which site for fronted Wh-phrases. So the comp position can
be defined as daughter of S-double-bar, sister of S-bar

64
 S‟‟

Comp-2 S‟

Comp-1 S
We have two Comp positions as follow:
- Comp-1 (lower): Daughter of S and sister of S.
o Filled, in subordinate clauses, by that, whether, and
subordinate conjunctions.
o Filled, in main clauses, by fronted tensed auxiliaries.
- Comp-2 (higher): Daughter of S and sister of S.
o Filled, in both main and subordinate clauses, by
fronted Wh-expressions.
S‟‟

Comp2 S‟

PROG S
[pres]

NP VP

VP PP

Vgroup NP P NP
[trans]
N

AUX V NOM

0 0 N

What is Vince taking to Athens

65
II. SUBORDINATE WH-CLAUSE
The one structural difference between a main and subordinate
Wh-clause is that only main Wh-clauses display auxiliary
fronting as well as Wh-fronting.

1. Subordinate Wh-interrogative clauses:

The distinction between main Wh-interrogatives (Wh-

questions) and subordinate Wh-interrogative clauses is
exactly the same as that between main yes/no interrogatives
(yes/no questions) and subordinate yes/no interrogatives.
Subordinate Wh-interrogative clauses have the same
functions as that-whether clauses as in the following
sentences.

Martha was enquiring why he wore it on his foot.

Direct object

How he would fare on the trapeze preoccupied.

Subject of verb

It is my affair what I wear at night.

Extraposed subject

Marcel was not certain who he had sent the flowers to.
Compement of adjective

The immediate problem is where they can hide those fritters.

Subject complement

The matter of who has to pay for all this has yet to be resolved
Object of preposition

These subordinate Wh-interrogative clauses have exactly the

same structure as the Wh-questions. Since these interrogative

66
 clauses are subordinate and therefore don‟t display auxiliary
fronting the lower Comp-1 position will be empty.
S

NP VP

Vgroup NP
[trans]

AUX V S‟‟

N PROG Comp2 S‟
(Past)

Comp1 S

NP VP

VP AdvP

Pro VP PP

Vgroup NP P NP 0
[trans]

DET NOM
V Pro
[Past]
POSS N

Martha was enquiring why he wore it on his foot.

2. Relative clauses

Relative clauses are Wh-clauses, but they are not interrogative.

In contrast to interrogative clauses, they can only be
subordinate. This is because relative clauses only function as
modifiers of nouns in noun phrases. Relative clauses have the
67
same structure as the subordinate Wh-interrogative clauses
with Wh-fronting into the higher Comp-2 position.
It is necessary to distinguish relative clauses from noun
complement clauses. Noun complement clauses give us central
information about the head noun, telling us the actual content
of the noun head, while relative clauses tell something more
peripheral. Moreover, connectors in noun complement clauses
have no function in subordinate clauses after them, but
connectors in relative clauses do.

EXAMPLE:
The conclusion that Mars was inhabited is wrong.
A noun complement clause

The conclusion that you gave us is wrong.

A relative clause

Noun complement clauses are introduced by the Comp-1

complementiser that (dominated by S bar) . Since nothing has
been fronted from within it, the clause itself is complete. By
contrast, the relative clause is a kind of Wh-clause: the Wh-
phrase is in the Comp-2 position (dominated by S-double bar)
and has been fronted, leaving a gap.

In the structure of NPs, noun-complement clauses are N-

modifiers (sisters-of-noun), relative clauses are NOM
modifiers (sisters-of-NOM)

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 S
NP VP
DET NOM Vgroup AP
[intense]

N S‟‟

Comp2 S‟

ART Comp1 S

NP VP V A
(pres)

N Vgroup
[intrans]

V
(past)

The rumor that he died is wrong. S

NP VP

DET NOM Vgroup P

NOM S‟‟ [intense]

Comp2 S‟

ART Comp1 S
NP VP V A
(pres)

N Pro Vgroup NP NP
[ditrans]

V N
(past)

The rumor that you told me E. is wrong

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 a. Omission of the Wh-phrase

The fronted Wh-form cannot be ellipted when it functions as

subject and when other material goes with it. Generally,
ellipsis is possible only when it does not interfere with the
interpretation or with ease of comprehension.

EXAMPLE:

The food that lent you a fiver is here.

A friend whose car we borrowed want sit back.
The man to whom you talked yesterday is my brother.

b. That again

In subordinate clauses introduced by that, relative clauses

always include a gap, but that-clauses themselves are complete
because that in that-clauses has not been fronted.

EXAMPLE:

This is a proposal that we should support • .

This is a proposal that we should support the opposition.

c. Restrictive vs. non-restrictive clauses

The difference between restrictives and non-restrictives lies in

the way they relate to the head noun within the overall NP. In
writing non-restrictives are distinguished from restrictives by
using marked off by commas.

As for the structure of information, restrictive relative clause

specify more exactly which of the things picked out by head
noun are being mentioned. Meanwhile, non-restrictive relative

70
clauses serve to add extra information, without restricting the
set of things being mentioned.

EXAMPLE: The dogs which have rabies, are mines.

A restrictive clause

The dogs, which have rabies, are mines.

A restrictive clause

As the modifier of a complete NP, the non-restrictive clause

must be presented as the sister of that NP within a higher NP.

NP NP

DET NOM NP S

ART NOM S DET NOM

N ART N

The dogs which have rabies. The dogs which have rabies.

III. Exercises
A. Draw complete phrase-markers for the following
Set I
1. Which salami shall we buy?
2. Where have i put my glasses?
3. Where did they have the picnic?
4. Who's been eating my porridge?
5. What drinks are we serving to the visitors?
6. Which of these books does John recommend?
7. Do you know what they ate?
8. What do you think they put in that soup?

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Set II

9a. I don't know who he found an amusing companion?

9b. I don't know whether he found an amusing companion.
10a. Who did Granny say should play?
10b. Who did Capablanca say I should play?
11a. Who is a phonologist?
11b. What is a phonologist?

Set III

(These need care).

12. Which exam was it certain Julia would pass?
13. Who did John ask which films they had seen?
14. Who has been sacked?
15. Who were they given to?

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CHAPTER 10

NON-FINITE CLAUSES
A verb group can form a clause. A finite clause has a finite
verb group, with the first verb of the group tensed (present or
past). In contrast, A non-finite clause is a clause with a non-
finite (tenseless) verb group. Main clauses are always finite. So
non-finite clauses can only be subordinate.

EXAMPLE:
Main finite clause

Finite verb group
He wants her to go out for the dinner with him.
Non-finite verb group


Subordinate non-finite clause

Finite clauses must have an overt subject to agree with in terms

of number, but non-finite clauses lack overtly one or more
major constituents and they frequently lack an overt subject.
When a non-finite clause lacks an overt constituent, this
indicates either:
 The reference of that constituent is general (indefinite, non-
specific)
or
 Its reference is identical to constituent in a higher (super-
ordinate)

When a non-overt element is specific and understood as

identical to an overt constituent in a higher clause, the higher
overt element is said to control the non-overt element. When a
non-overt clause does not have any controller in the main
clause, a non-overt constituent that not controlled is described
as free. A non-overt element is also called covert element.

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EXAMPLE:
Non-finite clauses with free covert subject
 
Chatting with the workers is a way of wasting time.

Non-finite clause with controlled covert subject


Hedda enjoys chatting with the workers.

Non-finite clause with overt subject


Hedda doesn‟t tolerate Anna chatting the workers.

Free covert constituents can be indicated by “o”. For

controlled covert constituents we need to indicate what they
are controlled by. Using the same subscript numbers, so called
index, indicates controlled covert element and the element in
the main clause which controls the controlled covert element.

I. THE FORM OF NON-FINITE VERB GROUPS

There are four types of non-finite verb groups. They are
classified according to the unstressed form taken by the first
verb group.

1. Bare infinitive verb groups

Bare infinitive verb groups are simple. They consist of the un-
tensed stem of a lexical verb. This stem is distinguished from
simple present tense by the feature [-tense] on the verb node.
The feature appears in all non-finite verb groups.

EXAMPLE: She made him darn her socks.

Bare infinitive Vgrp

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 Vgrp
[trans]

V
[-tense]

darn
2. To-infinitive verb groups

To-infinitive verb groups are complex. The verb after the

infinitive particle to has the basic stem form. It is appropriate
to consider to as replacing the modal option. So to is analyzed
as the sole representative of an un-tensed auxiliary. The AUX
node will carry the [-tense] feature.

EXAMPLE:
We declined his invitation to taste the wine.
To infinitive Vgrp

For Max to have been beaten, seemed believable.

Vgrp Vgrp
[trans] [trans]

AUX V AUX V
[-tense] [-tense]

PERF PASS

to taste to have been beaten

3. Passive participle verb groups

Passive participle verb groups are distinguished from bare

infinitives by the features [pass] on the V node.

EXAMPLE:
The palanquin loaded, we took a rest.
Passive participle Vgrp

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 Vgrp
[trans]

V
[-tense]
[pass]

loaded

4. –Ing participle verb groups

-Ing participle verb groups are complex. They have the same
structure as To-infinitive verb groups except that, instead of
the first verb being preceded by to, it takes the –ing suffix.
They are analyzed as having an AUX node with the [-tense]
feature. In simple verb groups this AUX node will be unfilled.

EXAMPLE:
He had difficulty in getting up in the morning.
–Ing participle verb groups

John having been hospitalized, I made a interview.

–Ing participle verb groups

Vgrp Vgrp
[intrans] [trans]
[phrasal]

AUX V AUX V
[-tense] [-tense]

PERF PASS

getting up having been hospitalized

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II. COMPLEMENTISERS AND NON-FINITE CLAUSES
There are two complementiser positions in non-finite clauses.
These are filled by the (un-fronted) Comp-1 complementisers:
for and whether, and (fronted) Comp-2 Wh-phrases. For
simplicity Comp-2 is only used when it is necessary.

1. Comp-1: for and whether

Only to-infinitive clauses are introduced by the Comp-1
complementisers for and the yes/no interrogative whether.
“For” only figures overtly in to-infinitive clauses with an overt
subject.
EXAMPLE: For Angelo to get all the blame seems unfair.
He expected (*for) the bear to disappear.
In the last example the complementiser “for” is not always
possible, so the Comp-1 position is empty.
S
NP VP

S‟ Vgroup AP
[intense]

Comp1 S

NP VP

Vgroup NP
[trans]

PRE-DET NP
AUX V V A
[-tense] [pres]
N DET NOM

ART N

For Angelo to get all the blame seems unfair.

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 S
NP VP

Vgroup NP
[trans]

S‟

Pro Comp1 S

V NP VP
[past]
Vgrp
[intrans]

DET NOM AUX V

[ -tense]

ART N

He expected the bear to disappear.

Yes/no interrogative clauses (whether-clauses) are always to-

infinitive and never have an overt subject. Their subjects are
often controlled by the subject in their main clauses. And when
they are subjects, their subjects are covert and free.

EXAMPLE:
King Louis was doubtful whether to support the Pope.
Whether to permit such activities is a tricky question.

2. Comp-2: fronted Wh-phrases

Non-finite Wh-clauses can be interrogative or relative.

 Non-finite interrogative clauses:
A Wh-interrogative clause can only be to-infinitive and has a
covert subject which can be free or controlled by an element in
its main clause.

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EXAMPLE:

She asked me how many guests  to expect .

O1 O2 O1 O2

He told me where  to put it  in no uncertain terms.

O1 O2 O1 O2

He never had doubts about who  to vote for .

O1 O2 O1 O2

It was not clear who to nominate .

O1 O1

NP1 VP

Vgrp NP NP
[ditrans]

S‟‟
PRO V
[past]
PRO Comp2 S‟

NP2 Comp1 S

DET NOM NP VP

INTER AP N Vgrp NP
[trans]
0
1
0
A AUX V 2
[-tense]

She asked me how many guests to expect.

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  Non-finite relative clauses

In non-finite relative clauses, the fronted Wh-phrase is never

overt. All forms of non-finite verb group are permitted in
relative clauses except the bare infinitive.

EXAMPLE:

The instrument to use is a scalpel.

Non-finite relative clause

A book for you to review is in post.

Non-finite relative clause

There are no WCs on the overnight train now leaving platform

Non-finite relative clause
3.
A cat fed on smoked salmon will start demanding champagne.
Non-finite relative clause

NP VP

DET NOM Vgrp NP

[intense]

NOM1 S „‟ DET NOM

ART Comp2 S‟
N
Comp1 S

NP VP V
[pres]
01
Vgrp NP ART N
[trans]

0
AUX V 01
[-tense]

The instrument to use is a scalpel.

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III. THE FUNCTIONS OF NON-FINITE CLAUSES
1. Subject and extra-posed

A non-finite clausal subject should be dominated by NP, -ing

participle clauses with overt subject cannot be extraposed.

EXAMPLE:

Stripping wallpaper is a wretched business.

It‟s a wretched business stripping wallpaper.
Oscar attempting the double somersault should amuse you.
*It should amuse you Oscar attempting the double
somersault.
S

NP VP

S‟ Vgrp NP
[intens]

Comp S
DET NOM
NP VP

Vgrp NP V AP N
[trans] [pres]

DET NOM ART

AUX V VPart
[-tense]
N
Stripping wallpaper is a wretched business.

2. Complement of A in AP

There are two main types of adjective complement by to-

infinitive clause, depending on the head adjective itself.

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 EXAMPLE:

Max is reluctant to try it.

That piano is impossible (for the dancers) to move.

Adjectives like reluctant are: eager, keen, happy and liable.

The higher subject controls the covert subject of the adjective
complement clause. Adjectives like impossible are: easy, hard,
and delicious. The higher subject controls the object of that
clause. The lower subject is free or overt.
S S
NP1 VP NP1 VP

N Vgrp AP DET NOM Vgrp AP

[intense] [intense]

A S‟ A S‟

Comp S Comp S

V NP VP DEM N V NP VP
[pres] [pres]
01 Vgrp NP 0
[trans]
VPgrp NP
[trans]
AUX V Pro
[-tense]
AUX V
[-tense] 0

Max is reluctant to try it. That piano is impossible to move.

Note: Sentences with adjectives like impossible correspond to

ones in which the object figures overly (in a clause functioning
as extraposed subject)

EXAMPLE: It would be impossible to move that piano.

To move that piano would be impossible.

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 3. Complement of P in PP

Only –ing particle clauses can complement a preposition

within a prepositional phrase. Assuming that PP always
consists of P and NP, clauses having this function should be
dominated by NP.

EXAMPLE: He was hopeless at writing letters.

S

NP1 VP

Vgrp AP
[intense]

Pro A PP
V
[past]
P NP

S‟

Comp S

NP VP

Vgrp NP
[trans]
01
DET NOM
AUX V
[-tense]
N

He was hopeless at writing letters.

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 4. Adverbial

Non-finite clauses can also function as adverbials. The subject

must be overt if not controlled by the super-ordinate subject.
Non-finite adverbial clauses are introduced by (Comp1)
subordinating conjunctions.
EXAMPLE:
The wine finished, we dozed fitfully in our chairs.
We returned, disappointed by our evening.
S

S‟ S

Comp S NP VP

NP1 VP VP PP

DET NOM Vgrp NP Pro VP AdvP P NP

[trans]

ART N Vgrp Adv DET NOM

[intrans]
V 01
[-tense]
POSS N
[pass]

The wine finished, we dozed fitfully in our chairs.

5. Modifier of NOM in NP

Non-finite clauses also have a function as a modifier of NOM

in NP.
EXAMPLE:
He was the last person to be executed on the guillotine.
Boswell found him a difficult walker to keep up with.
The least likely person for us to appoint would be Max.

84
The pre-modifying adjective in the sentences above clearly
belongs within the post-modifying relative clause below.

EXAMPLE:
He was the person who was last executed on the guillotine.
Boswell found him a walker who was difficult to keep up with.
The person who we are least likely to appoint would be Max.

In these sentences, the non-finite clause functions as

complement of the adjective. The adjective is outside the non-
finite clause. Since the adjective is only there in virtue of its
relation to the non-finite clause, it modifies a NOM composed
of head noun and non-finite clause.
S

NP VP
DET NOM Vgrp NP
[intense]

AP NOM
ART AUX V
DEG A NOM1 S‟‟

Comp2 S‟
N
01 Comp1 S M N
[past]

NP VP

Pro Vgrp NP
[trans]

AUX V 01
[-tense]

The least likely person for us to appoint would be Max.

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 6. Complement of N in NP

Non-finite clauses also have a function as a complement of N

in NP.

EXAMPLE:
We simply ignored his appeals for us to join the folkdance.
His ability to think straight was impaired by the experience.
His proposal to show us the holiday snaps was treated
politely.

In the two last sentences the covert subjects of the infinitive

clauses to think straight and to show us the holiday snaps are
controlled by the determiners of the noun phrases within which
they appear. S

NP VP

DET1 NOM VP PP

N S‟ Vgrp P NP
[trans]

POSS Comp S DET NOM

AUX V
NP VP

01 VP AdvP PASS N
[past]

Vgrp
[intrans]

AUX V
[-tense]
His ability to think straight was impaired by the experience.

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 7. Complement of verb group

Some mono-transitive verb groups take both noun phrases and

non-finite clauses (but not NP) as their complement such as
believe. Others take only non-finite clauses as their
complement such as hope, condescend.

EXAMPLE:

I believe his story.

I believe William to have been in the garden.
Direct object

He condescended to decorate the ceiling.

*He condescended the decoration of the ceiling.

In these sentences the infinitive clause and its overt subject

(William to have been in the garden.) is the direct object.

For verbs complemented by a non-finite clause without overt

subject, it suffices to note that only to-infinitive and –ing
participle clauses are admitted. The covert subject is controlled
by the super-ordinate subject.

Some ditransitive verb groups such as promise, ask take

indirect noun phrases and a direct object that can be noun
phrases or non-finite clauses.

EXAMPLE:

I promise Herzog my spaghetti machine.

I promised Herzog to wear the wig
Direct object Indirect object

Verbs taking non-finite clausal complements can be divided

into two types: those which head verb phrases with analysis I

87
(i.e. verbs taking just a single clausal complement, with overt
subject) and those which head verb phrases with analysis II
(i.e. verbs taking two complement, a direct object noun phrase
and a clausal complement with covert subject).

 Type I verbs include: assume, believe, consider, desire,

dread, expect, feel, hear, like, observe, prefer, regret,
suppose, watch.
 Type II verbs include advise, ask, coax, compel, dare,
encourage, force, promise, persuade.

TYPE I TYPE II
VP VP

Vgrp S‟ Vgrp NP S‟

Comp S Comp S

NP VP NP VP

0
IV. Exercises
Draw abbreviated clausal analyses for the following

1. Who did Sarah try to tell what to say?

2. Tutors can decide whether to insist on the distinctions being
respected at this point. (Ambiguous)
3. Malingering is pretending to be ill with the intention of
avoiding work.
4. Virginia is reluctant to ask any of the players which court it
made them most nervous playing on.
5. Don't you remember suggesting that any circus staff caught
allowing animals on the trapeze should be fired?
6. The invitation to attend the ball sent to Cinderella at her
stepmother's address was intercepted by her ugly sisters, who
were anxious not to be outshone in beauty while dancing and
88
(more prosaically) to have the washing up done in their
absence.

Draw phrase-markers for each of the interpretations of the

following ambiguous sentences. In (c) and (e), the
differences are a matter of indexing only.
a. Richard has plans to leave.
b. I saw the boy studying in the library. (Three possibilities)
c. Flying planes can be dangerous.
d. The chicken is ready to eat.
e. Max thought Jim too old to play

89