SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

UNIT – II – ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES – SMTB1212

Binary Operations
Definition
Let bSe a set. A binary operation on S is a mapping ∗: S × S → S,
which we will usually denote by ∗ (a, b) = a ∗ b.

Also, we’ve written ∗ as a function from S ×S to S, which means

two things in particular:
1. The operation ∗ is well-defined: given a, b ∈ S, there is exactly
one c ∈ S such that a ∗ b = c. In other words, the operation is
defined for all ordered pairs, and there is no ambiguity in the
meaning of a ∗ b.
2. S is closedu nder ∗: for all a, b∈ S, a ∗ b is again in S.

Example
Here are some examples of binary operations.
• Addition and multiplication on Z are binary operations.
• Addition and multiplication on Zn are binary operations.
• Addition and multiplication on Mn(R) are
binary operations.
• The following are non -examples.
• Define ∗ on R by a ∗ b = a/b. This is not a binary operation, since
it is not defined everywhere. In particular, a ∗ b is undefined
whenever b = 0.
• Define ∗ on R by a ∗ b = c, where c is some number larger
than a + b. This is not well-defined, since it is not clear
exactly what a ∗ b should be. This sort of operation is fairly
silly, and we will rarely encounter such things in the wild.
It’s more likely that the given set is not closed under the
operation.
• Matrix multiplication is a binary operation on GLn(R).
Recall from linear algebra that the determinant is
multiplicative, in the sense that
det(AB) = det(A) det(B).

1
 Properties of binary operation
i) A binary operation ∗ on a set S is commutative if
a ∗ b = b ∗ a for all a,∈ bS .

Example
Let’s ask whether some of our known examples of binary operations are actually
commutative.
1. + and · on Z and Zn are commutative.
2. Matrix multiplication is not commutative (on both Mn(R) and GLn(R)).

ii) A binary operation ∗ on a set S is associative if

(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) for all a, b, c ∈ S.

Example
The following are examples of associative (and non- associative) binary operations.
1. + and · on Z (and Zn) are associative.
2 Matrix multiplication is associative.
. Subtraction on Z is a binary operation, but it is not associative. For example,
3 (3 − 5) − 1 = −2 − 1 = −3,
. While 3 − (5 − 1) = 3 − 4 = −1.
4. The cross product on R3 is a binary operation, since it combines two vectors to produce
a new vector. However, it is not associative, since
a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c − b × (c × a).

5. (Composition of functions) Let S be a set, and define

F(S) = {functions f : S → S} .
if f, g, h ∈ F(S), then (f ◦ g) ◦ h = f ◦(g ◦h). To show that two functions are equal, we need
to show that their values at any element x ∈S are equal.
For any x ∈ S, we have (f
◦ g) ◦ h(x) = (f ◦ g)(h(x)) = f (g(h(x))) and
f ◦ (g ◦ h)(x) = f ( (g◦ h)(x)) = f (g(h(x)))
In other words, (f ◦g◦)h(x) = f ◦(◦gh)(x) for all x ∈ S,
so (f ◦g)h◦ = f (gh),◦ an◦d composition of functions is associative.

2
 Groups
A group is a set G together with a binary operation: ∗G× →G G satisfying

Closure: For all a, b ∈ G, we have a ∗ b ∈ G

Associativity:
For all a, b, c ∈ G, we havea ∗ (b ∗ c) = a( ∗ b) ∗ c.

Identity:
There exists an element e ∈ G with the property that
e ∗ a = a ∗ e = a for all a ∈ G.

Inverses:
For every a∈ G, there is an elemenat −1∈ G with the property that
a ∗ a−1 = a−1a ∗= e.
Example
Here are some examples of groups and not a group

1 (Z, +) is a group, as we have already seen.

. (Mn(R), +) is a group.
2 3. (Zn, +n) is a group.
. (Z, ·) is not a group, since inverses do not always exist. However, ({1, −1}, ·) is a group.
4. We do need to be careful here—the restriction of a binary oper- ation to a smaller set need
not be a binary operation, since the set may not be closed under the operation. However,
{1, −1} is definitely closed under multiplication, so we indeed have a group.
(Mn(R), ·) is not a group, since inverses fail. However, (GLn(R), ·) is a group. We already
5.
saw that it is closed, and the other axioms hold as well.
(Zn, ·n) is not a group, again because inverses fail. However, (Z×n , ·n) will be a group.
6. Again, we just need to verify closure: if a, b ∈ Z×n , then a and b are both relatively prime
to n. But then neither a nor b shares any prime divisors with n, so ab is also relatively
prime to n. Thus ab ∈ Z×n .

Definition

A group (G, ∗) is said to be abelian if ∗ is commutative, i.e.

a∗b=b∗a
for all a, b ∈ G. If a group is not commutative, we’ll say that it inso nabelian.

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Definition
The order of a group G, denoted by |G|, is the number of elements Gin.
If a group G has infinitely many elements, we will write |G| = ∞.3
Definition
A group G is said to bef inite if |G| < ∞.

Example For any n, the additive group Zn is a finite group, with |Zn| = n.
Cayley Tables
One of the things that makes finite groups easier to handle is that we can write down a
table that completely describes the group. We list the elements out and multiply “row
by column.”

Example Let’s look at Z3, for example. We’ll write down a “multiplication table” that tells us
how
the group operation works for any pair of elements. As we mentioned, each entry is
computed as “row times column”:
+ 0 1 2
0 0 1 2
1 1 2 0
2 2 0 1

(Of course we have to remember that “times” really means “plus” in this example.) This is called
a group table (or a Cayley table).
Exercise
Show that any group of order 4 is abelian. [Hint: Compute all possible Cayley tables.
Up to a reordering of the elements, there are two possible tables.]

Exercise
Show that any group of order 5 is abelian. [Hint: There is only one possible Cayley
table, up to relabeling.

Basic Properties of Groups

Property.1
Let G be a group. The identity element e ∈ G Gisu. nique, i.e., there is only one element e of G
with the property thatae = ea = a for all a ∈

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Proof
For this proof, we need to use the standard mathematical trick for proving uniqueness:
we assume that there is another gadget that behaves like the one in which we’re
interested, and we prove that the two actually have to be the same.
Suppose there is another f ∈ G with the property that
for all a ∈ G. Then in particular, af = fa = a

But since e is an identity, Therefore ef = fe = eSince e is unique, f.e = e.f = f.

Property.2.
(Cancellation laws). Let G be a group, and let a, b, c
∈ G. Then:

(a) If a*b = b*c, then b = c.

(b) If b*a = c*a, then b = c.

Proof. (a) Suppose that ab = ac. Multiply both sides on the left by a−1:
a−1(ab) = a−1(ac.)

By associativity, this is the same as

(a−1a)b = (a−1a)c,
and since a−1a = e, we have eb = ec
Since e is the identity, b = c. The same sort of argument works for (b), except we
multiply the equation on the right by a−1.

The cancellation laws actually give us a very useful corollary. You may have
already guessed that this result holds, but we will prove here that inverses in a group
are unique.
Property 3.
Let G be a group. Every a ∈ G has au nique inverse, i.e. to each
a ∈ G there is exactly one element a−1with the property that

aa−1= a−1a= e.
Proof. Let a ∈ G, and suppose that b ∈G has the property that ab = ba = e. Then in
particular,
ab = e = aa−1,
and by cancellation, b = a−1. Thus a−1is unique.

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Property 4.
If a ∈ G, then (a−1)−1a =.

Proof. By definition, a−1(a−1)−1 = e. But a−1a= aa−1 = e as well, so by unique-ness of

inverses, (a−1)−1 =a .
Property 5.

For any a, b ∈ G, (ab)−1 = b−1a−1.

Proof. We’ll explicitly show that b−1a−1 is the inverse of ab by computing:

(ab)(b−1a−1) = ((ab)b−1)a−1
= (a(bb−1))a−1
= (ae)a−1
= aa−1
= e.

Of course we also need to check that (b−1a−1)(ab) = e, which works pretty much the
same way:

(b−1a−1)(ab) = b−1(a−1(ab))
= b−1((a−1a)b)
= b−1(eb)
= b−1b
= e.

Thus (ab)−1 = b−1a−1.

Property. 6. The equations ax = b and xa = b have unique solutions in G.

Proof. The solution to ax = b is x = a−1b, and for xa = b it is x = ba−1. These are unique
since inverses are unique.
Property.7. Let G be a group, and let a, b G. If either ab
∈ = e or ba = e, then
b = a−1.
Proof. This really amounts to solving the equation ax = e (or xa = e). We know from
Proposition5, that there is a unique solution, namely x = a−1e = a−1 (in either case).
Therefore, if ab = e or ba = e, then b is a solution to either ax = e or xa = e, so b = a−1.

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 Exercise
Prove that if G is a group anda , b∈
G with ab = a, then b = e.

The Order of an Element and Cyclic Groups

Let G be a group. We say that an elemenat∈ G has finite order if there exists n ∈ Z+ such
that an = e. The smallest such integer is called theo rder of a, denoted by o(a) (or |a|). If no
such integer exists, we say that a hains finite order.
Example.1
The identity element in any group has order 1.
Example.2

2. In Z12, we see that o(2) = 6 and o(3) = 4.

We’ll calculate the powers of 2 first:

1·2=2
2 · 2 = 2 +12 2 = 4
3 · 2 = 2 +12 2 +12 2 = 6
4·2=8
5 · 2 = 10
6 · 2 = [12]12 = 0
7 · 2 = [14]12 = 2
8 · 2 = [16]12 = 4
and so on. What about powers of 3?

1·3=3
2 · 3 = 3 +12 3 = 6
3 · 3 = 3 +12 3 +12 3 = 9
4 · 3 = [12]12 = 0
5 · 3 = [15]12 = 3
6 · 3 = [18]12 = 6
and so on. Notice that the lists repeat after a while. In particular, we reach 0 (i.e., the
identity) after a certain point. We quantify this phenomenon by saying that these
elements have finite order.

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Proposition
Let G be a finite group. Then every element a ∈ G has finite order.

Proof. Consider the set{a n: ≥ 0n} = {e, a, a , . . .2} Since G is finite, this list of powers
can’t be infinite. (This follows from the Pigeon- hole principle, for instance. We have
an infinite list of group elements that need to fit into only finitely many slots.)
Therefore, two different powers of a must coincide, say ai = aj, with j ƒ= i. We can
assume that j > i. Then
aj−i = aja−i = aia−i = e,
so a has finite order. (In particular, o(a) ≤ j − i.) Since a ∈ G was arbitrary, the result
follows.

Let’s get on with proving some facts about order. First, we’ll relate the order of an
element to that of its inverse.
Proposition
Let G be a group and let a ∈ G. Then o(a) = o(a−1).

Proof. Suppose first that a has finite order, with o(a) = n. Then
(a−1)n = a−n = (an)−1 = e−1 = e,
so o(a−1) ≤ n = o(a). On the other hand, if we let m = o(a−1), then
am = ((a−1)−1)m = (a−1)−m = ((a−1)m)−1 = e,

so n ≤ m. Thus n = m, or o(a) = o(a−1).

Now suppose that a has infinite order. Then for all n∈ Z+, we have an ƒ= e.
But then
(a−1)n = a−n = (an)−1 ƒ= e
for all n ∈ Z+, so a−1 must have infinite order as well.

Let’s continue with our investigation of basic properties of order. The first one
says that the only integers m for which am = e are the multiples of o(a).
Proposition
If o(a) = n and m ∈ Z, then am= e if and only if n divides
m.
Proof. If n | m, it is easy. Write m = nd for some d ∈ Z. Then
am = and = (an)d = ed = e.

On the other hand, if m ≥ n, we can use the Division Algorithm to write

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 m = qn + r with 0 ≤ r < n. Then
e = am = aqn+r = aqnar = (an)qar = ear = ar,
so ar = e. But r < n, and n is the smallest positive power of a which yields the
identity. Therefore r must be 0, and n divides m.
Note that this tells us something more general about powers of a: when we proved
that elements of finite groups have finite order, we saw that ai = aj implied that aj−i =
e. This means that n = o(a) divides j − i. In other words, i and j must be congruent
mod n.
Proposition

Let G be a group, a ∈ G an element of finite order n. Then

ai = aj if and only if i≡ j(modn).
Along the same lines, we observed that if ai = aj with j > i, then aj−i = e, so a has
to have finite order. Taking the contrapositive of this statement, we get the following
result.
Cyclic Groups
Let’s take a few steps back now and look at the bigger picture. That is, we want to
investigate the structure of the set (a) for a ∈ G. What do you notice about it?
Closure: aiaj = ai+j ∈ (a) for all i, j ∈ Z.
• Identity: e = a0 ∈ (a)
• Inverses: Since (aj)−1 = a−j, we have (aj)−1 ∈ (a) for all j ∈ Z.
•
It other words, (a) is itself a group. That is, the set of all powers of a group element is
a group in its own right. We will investigate these sorts of objects further in the next
section, but let’s make the following definition now anyway.
Definition
For a ∈ G, the set (a) is called the cyclic subgroup generated by a.
For now, let’s look at a particular situation. Is G ever a cyclic subgroup of itself? That
is, can a “generate” the whole group G? Yes, this does happen some times, and such groups
are quite special.
Definition
A groupG is called cyclic if G = (a) for some a ∈ G. The elementa is called a generator for
G.

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Example
1. One of our first examples of a group is actually a cyclic
one: Z forms a cyclic group
under addition. What is a generator for Z? Both 1 and −1 generate it, since every integer
n ∈ Z can be written as a “power” of 1 (or −1):
These are actually the only two generators.
2. How about a finite cyclic group? For any n, Zn is cyclic, and 1 is a generator in much
the same way that 1 generates Z. There are actually plenty of other generators, and we
can characterize them by using our knowledge of greatest common divisors. We’ll
postpone this until we’ve made a couple of statements regarding cyclic groups.
3. The group (Q, +) is not cyclic. (This is proven in Saracino.)
4. The dihedral group D3 is not cyclic. The rotations all have order 3, so
(r1) = (r2) = {i, r1, r2}.
On the other hand, all of the reflections have order 2, so
(m1) = {i, m1}, (m2) = {i, m2}, (m3) = {i, m3}.
Now let’s start making some observations regarding cyclic groups. First, if G =
(a) is cyclic, how big is it? It turns out that our overloading of the word “order” was
fairly appropriate after all, for |G| = o(a).
Theorem

If G = (a) is cyclic, then |G| = o(a).

then
Proof.we
If know that ai =order,
a has infinite aj if and only
then i ≡ jbe
|G| ifmust mod n, so the
infinite. elements
On the of G are
other hand, if o(a) = n ,
{e, a, a2, . . . , an−1 }of which there are n = o(a).
If we pair this result with Theorem, we can characterize the generators of any finite
cyclic group.
Proposition
Let G be a finite cyclic group. Then for any∈ b G, we have

o(b) | |G|.
Theorem 1.
Every cyclic group is abelian.
Proof. Let G be a cyclic group and let a be a generator for G, i.e. G = (a). Then
given two elements x, y ∈G , we must have x = ai and y = aj for some i, j ∈ Z. Then
xy = iaj=a a i+j = aj+i = ajai = yx,
and it follows that G is abelian.

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 SATHYABAMA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, DISCRETE MATHEMATICS-SMTA1302, UNIT III

Remark
The converse to Theorem1 is not true. That is, there are abelian groups that are not cyclic.
Saracino gives the example of the non-cyclic group (Q, +). However, this is a good place
to introduce a different group—th7e Klein 4-group, denoted V4. The Klein 4-group is an
abelian group of order 4. It has elements V4 = {e, a, b, c}, with
a2 = b2 = c2 = e and ab = c, bc = a, ca = b.
Note that it is abelian by a previous exercise (Exercise 2.1).8 However, it is not cyclic,
since every element has order 2 (except for the identity, of course). If it were cyclic, there
would necessarily be an element of order 4.
Subgroups
Let (G, ∗) be a group. A subgroup of G is a nonempty subset
H ⊆ G with the property that (H, ∗) is a group.

Note that in order for H to be a subgroup of G, H needs to be a group with respect

to the operation that it inherits from G. That is, H and G always carry the same binary
operation. Also, we’ll write

H≤G

to denote that H is a subgroup of G. Finally, if we want to emphasize that H ≤ G

but H ƒ= G, we will say that H is a proper subgroup of G.
ple
Let’s look at the group Z (under addition, of course). Define 2Z = {even integers} = {2n
: n ∈ Z}. Is 2Z a subgroup of Z? We need to check that 2Z itself forms a group under
addition:
• Closure: If a, b ∈ 2Z, then a = 2n and b = 2m for some n, m ∈ Z. Then

a + b = 2n + 2m = 2(n + m) ∈ 2Z, so 2Z is indeed closed under

addition.
• Associativity: Z is already associative, so nothing changes when we pass to a subset of
Z.
• Identity: The identity for addition on Z is 0, which is even: 0 = 2 · 0 ∈ 2Z.
• Inverses: If a ∈ 2Z, then a = 2n for some n ∈ Z, and −a = −2n = 2(−n) ∈
2Z.
Therefore, (2Z, +) is a group, hence a subgroup of Z.

Examples:.

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 Every group G has two special subgroups, namely
1.
{e} and G.
These are called the trivial subgroups of G.9

2. We saw earlier that 2Z is a subgroup of Z. There is nothing special about 2 in this

example: for any n ∈ Z+,
nZ = {na : a ∈ Z}

is a subgroup of Z. The exact same computations that we performed for 2Z will

show that nZ ≤ Z.
3 The rational numbers Q form an additive subgroup of R.
.
Here is an example from linear algebra. Consider the n-dimensional vector space Rn.
4 Then Rn is, in particular, an abelian group under addition, and any vector subspace of
clno sisu rae s uunbdgerro sucpa olafr R mnu.1lt0ip Ilfi cHa tiiso an sguubarsapnatceee so ft hRant, 0
. R

Definition

The group (a) is called the cyclic subgroup generated bay .

When we say that a “generates” (a), we mean that that (a) is created entirely out of
the element a. In a certain sense, (a) is the a ∈ Hle, tshuebng Hro mupu ostf cGo w
smallest andpossib
contains a. Let’s try to make this more precise. If H G≤
the elements
a, a2, a,3 . . . ,
since H is closed. It also must contain aned a−1, hence all of the elements
. . . , a−2, a−1, e, a, a2, . . . ,
i.e. all powers of a. That is, (a) ⊂ H, and we have proven the following fact:

TLheet oGr ebme a group and let a ∈ G. Then (a) is the smallest subgroup of G containing a, in the
sense that if H ≤ G and a ∈ H, then (a) ⊆ H.
Of course we’ve already encountered several examples of cyclic subgroups in our studies
thus far.
Example

1. Our first example of a subgroup, 2Z ≤ Z, is a cyclic sub- group, namely (2).

Similarly, nZ is cyclic for any n
∈ Z.
2. The subgroup consisting of rotations on Dn,
H = {i, r1, r2, . . . , rn−1} ≤ Dn,
is cyclic since H = (r1).

12
 3. All the proper subgroups of Z4 and V4 that we listed are cyclic. In addition,
Z4 is a cyclic subgroup of itself, but V4 is not.
4.The trivial subgroup {e} is always a cyclic subgroup, namely (e).

Theorem
Let G be a group. A nonempty subset H ⊆ G is a subgroup if and only if whenever a, b ∈ H,
ab−1 ∈ H.
Proof. Suppose that H ≤ G, and let a, b∈ H. Then b−1 ∈ H, so ab−1 ∈ H since H

is cCloosnevde. rsely, suppose that ab−1 ∈ H for all a, b ∈ H. Then for any a ∈ H, we can take a =

b and conclude that e = aa−1 ∈ H,

so H contains the identity. Since e ∈ H, for any a ∈ H we have
a−1 = ea−1 ∈ H,

so H is closed under taking inverses. Finally, we claim that H is closed under the group
operation. If a, b ∈ H, then b−1 ∈ H, so b−1a−1 ∈ H, and therefore

Σ− 1(b−1a−1)−1 ∈ H.
ab .= (ab)−1=

Thus H is closed, hence a subgroup of G.

The next criterion is quite interesting. It obviously reduces the number of things that
one needs to check, but it only works for a finite subset of a group G.
Theorem
Let G be a group and H a nonempty finite subset of G. Then H
is a subgroup if and only if H is closed under the operation on G.

Proof. If H is a subgroup, then it is obviously closed by hypothesis.

∈
On that
H and the other
for every a ∈H
hand, we are
, a−1 ∈ H as well.
assuming that HSince
is closed,
{} ≤e ,so wemay
weG needassume
to verifythat
thatHeis

nontrivial, i.e. that H contains an element a distinct from the identity. Since H is
closed, the elements 3
a, a2, a, . . .
are all in H, and since H is finite, this list cannot go on forever. That is, we must
eventually have duplicates on this list, so
ai = aj
for some 1 ≤ i < j ≤ |H|. Since i < j, j − i ≥ 0 and we have
ai = aj = aj−iai,

13
and using cancellation, we get
aj−i = e.
Therefore, e ∈ H. Now observe that j − i − 1 ≥ 0, so aj−i−1 ∈ H, and
aaj−i−1 = aj−i = e,
so a−1 = aj−i−1 ∈ H. Therefore, H is a subgroup of G.

This theorem has an easy corollary, which is useful when the group is finite.
Corollary

If G is a finite group, a subset H ⊆ G is a subgroup of G if and only if it is closed under the

operation on G.
Definition
The number of distinct (right) cosets oHf in G is called the
index of H in G, denoted by

[G H: . ]
The set of all right cosets of H in G is denoted by G/H, so

#(G/H) = [G H: . ]

Subgroups of Cylic Groups

Let’s return now to the cyclic case. There is one very important thing that we can say
about cyclic groups, namely that their subgroups are always cyclic.
Theorem

A subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

Proof. LetG = ()a be a cyclic group and let H be a subgroup of G. We may assume
otherHth ƒa=n {,}e,{}seiwncheich imsauesltr ehaadvey kthneo wfonrtm o b me fcoyacrl isco. mThee n H
that
m Z since G is cyclic. Assume
this, we need to show
that mis the smallest that if positive
n∈a H, integer
then naifor
s awah iHch∈
power of a m
. . We claim that H = (am). To do
Suppose that n∈a , Hand use the Division Algorithm to write n = qm + r, where 0
≤ r < m.m Then

a n= qam+r= qamr=a ( m)qa.r

Since H is a subgroup, (am)−q∈H , hence (am)−qan∈ H, and it follows that

ar = (ma)−qna

14
 is in H. But r < m and we have assumed that m is the smallest positive integer such that
am ∈ H, so we must have r = 0. In other words, an = (am)q, so an ∈ (am). Since an was
an arbitrary element of H, we have shown that H ⊆ (am). Since am ∈ H, we also have (am)
⊆ H, so H = (am), and H is cyclic. This theorem has a particularly nice corollary, which tells

us a lot about the structure of Z as an additive group.

Lagrange’s Theorem
Theorem

Let G be a finite group and let H ≤ G. Then |H| divides |G|.

Proof. Let Ha1, . . . , Hak denote the distinct cosets of H in G. That is, a1, . . ., ak all
represent different cosets of H, and these are all the cosets. We know that the cosets of H
partition G, so
|G| = O(Ha1) + · · · +O(Hak).
(Here O means the cardinality of the set, or simply the number of elements in that set.)
Therefore, it will be enough to show that each coset has the same number of elements
as H.
We need to exhibit a bijection between H and Hai for each i. For each
i = 1, . . . , k, define a function fi : H → Hai by
f (h) = hai.
If we can prove that f is a bijection, then we will have
|H| =O(Hai)
for all i. if h1, h2 ∈ H with f (h1) = f (h2), then

h1ai = h2ai,

which implies that h1 = h2, so f is one-to-one. To see that it is onto, take h∈ H;

theTnh fu (sh )a =ll hthaei. cosets have the same number of elements, namely |H|, and really
says that
|G| = |H| + · · · + |H| = k|H|.
s ˛¸ ̧ x
k times

this implies |H| divides |G|.

15