Introduction to Computer Networks

1.1 Data Communication:

- When we communicate, we are sharing information.
- This sharing can be local or remote. Between individuals, local communication usually
occurs face to face, while remote communication takes place over distance.

1.1.1 Components:
- A data communications system has five components.

1. Message.
- The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender (Transmitter)
- The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver.
- The receiver is the device that receives the message.
- It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium.
- The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to
receiver.
- Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable, and radio waves
5. Protocol.
- A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
- It represents an agreement between the communicating devices.
- Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a
person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

1.1.2 Data Flow

- The flow of data between the two communicating devices can occur in three forms i.e.
simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex
a) Simplex Mode:
- In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional i.e. data is sent only in one
direction from the sender to the receiver, with no return communication possible. (You
can think of it as on a one-way street where traffic flows only in one direction)
 - Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive
- Examples include:
o Keyboards or mouse inputs to a computer
o CPU output to a monitor
o Computer to printer
o Scanner to computer.

b) Half-Duplex Mode
- In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time.
- When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa
- In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by
whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time.
- Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.

- The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in
both directions at the same time;
c) Full-Duplex Mode
- In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously
- The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions
at the same time.
- In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with
signals going in the other direction. This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the
link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the
other for receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided between signals traveling
in both directions.
- One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network i.e.
when two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at
the same time.
 - The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all
the time.

Network Topology
- Topology refers to physical layout including computers, cables, and other resources; it
determines how components communicate with each other.
- Network topology refers to the arrangement of various elements—such as nodes (computers,
switches, routers) and links (communication channels)—in a computer network.
- It defines how these components are interconnected and how data flows between them.

There are several primary types of network topologies, each with distinct characteristics:

1. Bus Topology:
- All devices share a single central cable, known as the bus.
- Data sent by any device is available to all others on the network, but only the intended
recipient processes it.
- While it's cost-effective due to minimal cabling, a failure in the main cable can disrupt the
entire network.

2. Star Topology:
- All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.
- The central node manages data transmission, forwarding data from one device to another.
- It's easy to install and manage; however, the central hub represents a single point of
failure—if it fails, the entire network fails.
3. Ring Topology:
- Devices are connected in a circular sequence, with each device linked to two others,
forming a closed loop.
- Data travels in one direction around the ring, passing through each device until it reaches
its destination.
- While this setup can handle high volumes of traffic, a failure in any single connection can
disrupt the entire network.

4. Mesh Topology:
- Every device is connected to every other device. This provides high redundancy and
reliability, as multiple paths exist for data transmission.
- However, the complexity and cost increase significantly with the number of devices,
making it less practical for large networks.
5. Tree Topology:
- Also known as a hierarchical topology, it combines characteristics of star and bus
topologies.
- Devices are arranged in a tree-like structure, with groups of star-configured networks
connected to a linear bus backbone.
- This allows for easy expansion and is commonly used in large organizations.

6. Hybrid Topology:
- This topology integrates two or more different topologies to leverage their advantages and
mitigate their disadvantages.
- For example, a combination of star and mesh topologies can offer both centralized control
and redundant pathways.
- Hybrid topologies are adaptable to various needs but can be complex to design and
manage.
 - Choosing the appropriate network topology is crucial, as it impacts the network's
performance, scalability, fault tolerance, and maintenance requirements.
- Factors such as the organization's size, budget, and specific needs should be considered
when selecting a topology.

Trainee Activity
 Which of the topologies uses the longest networking cables?
 Using Packet Tracer, design a simple office network with 12 computers and one printer.
Basic Networking Component and their specifications

1. Network Interface Cards (NICs):

- Hardware components that connect computers to a network, available in wired (Ethernet)
and wireless (Wi-Fi) forms.
- They can be integrated into the motherboard or added as expansion cards.

Key NIC Specifications

1. Form Factor
 PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) – Common in desktop and
server NICs.
 USB (Universal Serial Bus) – Portable and easy to install, but lower performance.
 Onboard (Integrated NIC) – Built into the motherboard.
 M.2 – Used in laptops and compact devices.
 Ethernet Module – For embedded systems and industrial use.
2. Speed
 10 Mbps (Ethernet) – Outdated, rarely used.
 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet) – Still found in some legacy systems.
 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet) – Standard in modern desktops and servers.
 2.5 Gbps, 5 Gbps – High-speed alternatives to standard Gigabit Ethernet.
 10 Gbps, 25 Gbps, 40 Gbps, 100 Gbps – Used in high-performance networks and
data centers.
3. Connector Type
 RJ-45 – Standard Ethernet connector for twisted-pair cables (Cat5e, Cat6, Cat7,
etc.).
 SFP (Small Form-factor Pluggable) – Used for fiber-optic connections, including
SFP, SFP+, and SFP28.
  QSFP (Quad Small Form-factor Pluggable) – Supports high-speed fiber optics
(40GbE, 100GbE).
4. Supported Protocols
 Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) – This is the standard for wired networks.
 Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) – Used in wireless NICs.
 Bluetooth – Used for short-range communication.
 TCP/IP Offload Engine (TOE) – Reduces CPU load by handling networking
tasks.
5. Bus Interface
 PCIe (x1, x4, x8, x16) – Determines bandwidth and compatibility.
 USB (2.0, 3.0, 3.1, Type-C) – Mostly for external adapters.
 M.2 (Key A/E or Key B/M) – Compact form factor for laptops.
6. Additional Features
 VLAN Support (802.1Q) – Allows segmentation of networks.
 Wake-on-LAN (WoL) – Enables remote startup of a device.
 Power over Ethernet (PoE) – Delivers power and data through the same cable.
 IPv6 Support – Ensures compatibility with modern networks.
 Checksum Offload & Jumbo Frame Support – Optimizes performance.

 Routers:
- These are devices that direct data packets between different networks, determining the
optimal (best) path for data transmission.
- A router comes in various sizes / form, depending on the user requirements
- The router manages the flow of data between devices within your network and between a
local network and the internet.
- It usually includes a firewall for security and multiple Ethernet ports for wired
connections.
Key Router Specifications
- Router specifications vary depending on the type and use case (home, office, enterprise,
gaming, etc.). The key specifications to consider when choosing a router, include:
1. Wireless Standards
 Wi-Fi 6E (802.11ax) – Latest standard, better speed, efficiency, and low latency.
 Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax) – High-speed, supports more devices, better range.
 Wi-Fi 5 (802.11ac) – Common for home use, good speed, dual-band.
 Wi-Fi 4 (802.11n) – Older standard, slower but still used.
2. Frequency Bands
 Single-band (2.4 GHz) – Better range but slower speed.
 Dual-band (2.4 GHz & 5 GHz) – Balanced speed and range.
 Tri-band (2.4 GHz, 5 GHz & 6 GHz) – Best for high-performance needs.
3. Speed Ratings
 Measured in Mbps or Gbps (e.g., AC1200, AX5400)
 AC (Wi-Fi 5) and AX (Wi-Fi 6) ratings indicate speed class.
 Higher numbers mean better speeds under ideal conditions.
4. Ports and Connectivity
 Ethernet Ports – Gigabit LAN (1 Gbps) or Multi-Gig (2.5/5/10 Gbps).
 WAN Port – Connection to ISP; should be at least 1 Gbps.
 USB Ports – For file sharing, printer connectivity, etc.
5. Range and Antennas
 External vs. Internal Antennas – External antennas offer better coverage.
 Beamforming – Directs signal towards connected devices for better performance.
 Mesh Networking Support – For extending coverage with multiple routers.
6. Security Features
 WPA3 Encryption – Latest and most secure Wi-Fi encryption.
 Firewall & VPN Support – Protects network from threats.
 Parental Controls – Restrict access and monitor usage.
7. MU-MIMO & OFDMA
 MU-MIMO (Multi-User, Multiple Input, Multiple Output) – Handles multiple
devices efficiently.
  OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access) – Improves data
transmission for multiple users.
8. QoS (Quality of Service)
 Prioritizes traffic for gaming, streaming, or work-related applications.
9. Smart Features
 App-Based Management – Allows control of router settings from a mobile app.
 Voice Assistant Support – Works with voice recognition e.g Alexa or Google
Assistant.
10. Additional Considerations
 Mesh Router Systems – Better for large homes.
 Gaming Routers – Optimized for low latency and high-speed gaming.
 Enterprise Routers – Advanced features like VLAN, VPN, and multi-WAN.

 Hubs:
- These are basic networking devices that connect multiple computers in a network,
broadcasting incoming data to all ports without filtering.
- Are also regarded as switches

Key Network Hub Specifications

- A network hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple computers or network
devices within a local area network (LAN).
- It simply broadcasts data to all connected devices.
1. Ports
 This is number of ports the hub has. The number indicates how many devices can be
connected to the hub, Typically 4, 8, 12, 16, or 24 RJ45 Ethernet ports
 One should acquire a hub that can at least accommodate the existing number of nodes
in the network, with an allowance for extra two free nodes for network expansion
 Some models may have an uplink port for connecting to another hub or switch
2. Data Transfer Speed
 This is basically the maximum data transmission speeds the hub can support. The
higher the speed, the better
 10 Mbps (Old hubs)
 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)
 1 Gbps (Gigabit hubs, rare since switches are more common at this speed)
3. Network Topology
 Typically star topology (all devices connect to a central hub)
 4. Transmission Mode
 Half-duplex (cannot send and receive data at the same time)
 Causes collisions due to simultaneous data transmission
5. Power Requirements
 This is the connection to power, typically 5V–12V DC adapter
 Some hubs support PoE (Power over Ethernet)
6. MAC Address Handling
 Hubs do not store MAC addresses; they simply forward data to all ports.
7. Types of Hubs
 Active Hub – Requires external power, amplifies signal
 Passive Hub – No amplification, just a connection point
 Intelligent Hub – Includes management and monitoring features
8. Alternative Devices
 The following devices can be used in place of hubs
 Switch (More efficient, sends data only to the intended device)
 Router (Connects different networks, provides internet access)
 Switches:
- These are advanced devices that connect multiple devices within a network, using MAC
addresses to forward data only to the intended recipient, thereby enhancing network
efficiency
- Its specifications are similar to a hub

 Modem:
- A modem connects your network to the internet via your Internet Service Provider (ISP). It
typically has an Ethernet port for the connection.

 Repeaters:
- As data is transmitted over long distance, it loses strength and may be completely lost.
- Repeaters are the devices in a network that regenerate and amplify network signals to
extend transmission distances

 Bridges:
- Devices that connect multiple network segments, improving traffic management by
filtering data based on MAC addresses
2. Gateways:
 - It’s an interface that enable communication between networks using different protocols by
converting transmission speeds, protocols, or security measures.
3. Firewalls
- Hardware or software solutions that monitor and control incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on predetermined security rules, establishing a barrier between trusted and
untrusted networks.
4. Access Points:
- Devices that allow wireless devices to connect to a wired network, extending the network
coverage area.
5. Network Cables:
- Ethernet cables are required to connect devices like computers, printers, and switches to
the network.
6. Computers and Devices:
- These are the devices one wishes to connect to the network, including computers, laptops,
smartphones, and printers.

Conclusion
- When selecting network equipment, consider factors such as data transfer speed, network
capacity, compatibility with existing infrastructure, and adherence to standards like
ISO/IEC 11801, which defines categories for cabling and performance classes:
 Category 5e (Cat 5e): Supports frequencies up to 100 MHz.
 Category 6 (Cat 6): Supports frequencies up to 250 MHz.
 Category 6A (Cat 6A): Supports frequencies up to 500 MHz.
 Category 7 (Cat 7): Supports frequencies up to 600 MHz.
 Category 7A (Cat 7A): Supports frequencies up to 1 GHz (1000 MHz).
 Category 8 (Cat 8): Supports frequencies up to 2 GHz (2000 MHz).
Ensuring that all components, including cables, routers, and switches, are rated for the desired
speed is crucial, as the overall network performance is limited by the slowest element.

ICT Network Bill of Quantities (BQ)

- It is a detailed document that lists all the materials, equipment, and labor required for the
networking project, along with their estimated quantities and costs
- It is used for accurate cost estimation, budget tracking, and transparent tendering.
- The ICT Network Bill of Quantities (BQ) typically includes detailed cost estimates for the
installation and deployment of an ICT network.
- The contents of an ICT Network BQ generally cover the following sections:
1. General Requirements
 Project Name & Description
 Scope of Work
 Standards & Regulations Compliance
 Contractor's Responsibilities
 Payment Terms & Conditions
2. Passive Network Infrastructure
 Structured Cabling System (SCS)
o Copper cabling (Cat6, Cat6A, Cat7)
o Fiber optic cabling (single-mode, multi-mode)
o Patch panels, faceplates, RJ45 sockets
o Conduits, trunking, cable trays
o Labeling and testing
  Data Racks & Enclosures
o Network cabinets (size, type)
o Power Distribution Units (PDUs)
o Cooling & ventilation systems
3. Active Network Equipment
 Network Switches
o Core switches
o Distribution switches
o Access switches
 Routers & Gateways
o Enterprise routers
o Firewall appliances
o Load balancers
 Wireless Network
o Wireless Access Points (APs)
o Wireless controllers
o Wi-Fi coverage testing
4. Network Security
 Firewalls
 Intrusion Detection & Prevention Systems (IDS/IPS)
 VPN solutions
 Endpoint security software
5. Server & Data Center Infrastructure
 Servers (rack-mounted, blade servers)
 Storage solutions (SAN, NAS)
 Backup solutions
 Virtualization licenses
6. Software & Licensing
 Network Monitoring Software
 Security & Antivirus Solutions
 Cloud Integration Software
7. Telephony & Unified Communications
 IP PBX systems
 VoIP phones & accessories
 Video conferencing systems
8. Power & UPS Systems
 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
 Power Backup Generators
 Surge Protection Devices
9. Installation, Configuration & Testing
 Labor costs
 Installation charges
 Network performance testing
 Documentation & Training
10. Miscellaneous Costs
 Transportation & logistics
 Maintenance & Support Agreements
 Warranty & Service Level Agreements (SLAs)