THE MATRIX S23

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MATHEMATICS

Mathematics in the Modern World
GEC 05 – MIDTERM
BATCH 2027-2028 | 1st SEMESTER|
GEC O5 ➢ We try to make inferences or conclusions
from samples to populations, also this
STATISTICS makes use of probability.

➢ originated from the Latin word “status” ➢ In Inferential statistics, we also test
which means state hypothesis on a certain claim Some other
examples of inferential statistics include:
➢ In plural sense, that is statistics as an
actual number or a set of facts and figures. 1. Predicting the occurrences of
rainfall using statistical models.
➢ In singular sense it can be defined as
follows: 2. Formulating conclusions from data
gained in a sample to describe a
❖ Statistics is the science of collecting, population.
organizing, summarizing, analyzing,
and drawing conclusions from data. Note: It is important to distinguish
between a sample and a population.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
POPULATION
➢ Descriptive Statistics deals with the
techniques used in the collection, ➢ is a collection of all elements under
presentation, organization, and analysis of consideration in a statistical inquiry or a
data. collection of all subjects (human or
otherwise) that are being studied.
➢ It describes a situation or a subject of
interest Some other examples of ➢ ex. All business establishments in Quezon
descriptive statistics include: Province.

1. A balance sheet describing a SAMPLE

business’ assets, liabilities, and
shareholders’ equity at a specific ➢ a group of elements/subjects selected from
time. a population or simply a subset of a
population from which raw data are to be
2. An online survey administered to obtain.
selected people using google forms.
➢ ex. Business establishments in Infanta,
3. A transcript of records of a specific Mauban, and Lucban were selected from
student which lists the student’s Quezon Province.
grades and remarks.
PARAMETER
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
➢ It is a numerical value that describes the
➢ Inferential Statistics deals with the population. It is derived from
techniques used in analyzing the sample measurements of the individuals in the
data that will lead to generalizations about population and is usually unknown
a population from which the sample came
from. ➢ Example. If we attempt to determine the
average daily rice consumption of all

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 Filipinos then getting the mean is a DATA STRUCTURES
parameter which can be termed as a
population mean. ➢ A data set consist of some basic
measurement/s of individual items or
STATISTICS elementary units of interest. Here are some
ways of classifying data set:
➢ a numerical value that describes the 1. By the number of variables.
sample. It is derived from measurements of (univariate, bivariate, multivariate)
the individuals in the population and is
usually used to estimate or make inference 2. By the kind of information
about the parameter (quantitative or numerical, and
qualitative or categorical)
➢ Example. – If number of Filipinos were Note: Quantitative or Numerical Data
selected at random, say 2,000 Filipinos can be classified into Discrete or
and their average daily rice consumption Continuous.
were determined, we say that the mean of
the selected Filipinos is a statistic, or a 3. By its level of measurement
sample mean (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio).

4. By whether the data set is a time

sequence or cross-sectional data.

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

➢ Measurement levels also known as

measurement scales are classified under
the kind of information a data

STATISTICAL INQUIRY NOMINAL

➢ It is level of measurement is the first level
➢ It is a designed research that provides or lowest level of measurement. It
information, in the form of processed data, classifies data into mutually exclusive (non-
needed to answer a research problem. overlapping) categories in which no order
or ranking can be imposed on the data.
Simply, variables classified by labels,
names, or categories without any implicit or
TYPES OF STATISTICAL INQUIRY explicit ordering. Examples: zip code,
student ID number, species,
★ Designing a Plan for Data Collection
★ Exploring the Data ORDINAL
➢ Level of measurement classifies data into
★ Estimating Unknown Quantity
categories that can be ranked; however,
★ Hypothesis Testing precise differences between the ranks
does not exist. Examples: military rank,
CATHEGORIES OF STATISTICS racing finishers (first place, second place,
etc.), and people classified according to
➢ Variable – characteristic or attribute of the build (small, medium, or large).
elements in a collection that can assume
different values for different elements INTERVAL
➢ Level of measurement ranks data, and
➢ Observation – realized value of a variable precise differences between units of
measure exist; however, there is no true
➢ Data – collection of observations. zero. Examples: IQ, temperature, etc.

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RATIO which treatment each group receives. Bias
➢ It is level of measurement possesses all can be a major issue with experiments.
the characteristics of an interval level of
measurement but with true zero. ➢ An observational study is about the same
Examples: Height, Weight, Salary, etc. as an experiment. However, the researcher
does not use control groups or assign
treatments

DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE

➢ It may also be emphasized that

samples that are too large may waste
resources and samples that are too
small may lead to inaccurate results.
MANAGING AND UNDERSTANDING Below are some approaches to
DATA USING DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS determine sample size:

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ➢ Using censuses for small populations.

➢ deals with the techniques used in the ➢ Using published tables by well-
collection, presentation, organization, and established authors (Cochran’s
analysis of data. In this section, we focus formula).
on the application of descriptive statistics in
managing and understanding data, which ➢ Using sample size calculator.
includes: Data Collection Methods,
Sampling Techniques, Data Presentation ➢ Other fomulas (Slovins Foemula).

DATA GATHERING TECHNIQUES SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

PRIMARY DATA ➢ To properly select samples from

➢ These are original observations collected populations, it is important to employ
by the researcher for the first time for any appropriate sampling techniques.
investigation.
➢ Sampling techniques can be
SECONDARY DATA categorized into two: Probability
➢ Secondary data came from established Sampling and Non-Probability
information that are already collected by Sampling
other researchers or institutions.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
DATA COLLECTION METHODS ➢ Probability sampling uses random
selection wherein each element in the
➢ A census is a survey of a whole population. sampled population has equal chances of
Censuses can be very expensive and being selected. All the elements that
timeconsuming, if the population is large. belong to the population must be included
in the selection process.
➢ A sample survey takes a fraction of the
population. Sample surveys are cheaper NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
than censuses, but are not as accurate. ➢ based on personal choice. It does not
Bias can also be an issue. follow the randomization mechanism in
identifying the sampling units. It allows the
➢ An experiment is a controlled study of a researcher to choose the elements in the
group. Experiments are very common in sample subjectively (examples include
the medical fields. The researcher controls Quota sampling, Purposive Sampling
how members are placed study groups and Convenience Sampling).
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 TERMINOLOGIES SAMPLING TECHNIQUES subjects within strata, one can use SRS
➢ It is the process of selecting a
SAMPLING representative group from the
or systematic sampling.
population under study
➢ It is a list of all the items in CLUSTER SAMPLING
your population. It is a
complete list of everyone or
➢ A sample of groups or clusters of units in
everything you want to study. the population such as geographic area or
SAMPLING FRAME The difference between a schools in a large district are selected, and
population and a sampling
frame is that the population is
information are obtained from all
general, and the frame is elementary units sustained in the
specific groups/clusters selected.
TARGET ➢ Is the total group of
POPULATION individuals from which the
SAMPLE sample might be drawn
➢ refers to the extent to which
we can apply the findings of
GENERALIZABILITY
our research to the target
population we are interest
➢ The group of people who take
part in the investigation. The
SAMPLE people who take part are
referred to as “participants” or
“respondents”.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

➢ Assigns an equal chance of selection to
each element in a population.
➢ There are two types of SRS: with
replacement and without replacement METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION
➢ ex. Fishbowl method
PRESENTATION OF TABLES
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING ➢ summarizing and arranging classified data
➢ Subjects are selected using a sampling in rows and columns
interval (predetermined pattern) where
the first unit in the sample is selected CONSTRUCTION OF GRAPHS
randomly ➢ presenting data in graphical form such as
➢ For example, say we wanted to sample Line, Bar, Pie, Pareto, and Stem-and-Leaf
100 subjects from a population of 1000. Charts
We set an interval such as 1000/100 =
10. Then from the first randomly FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
selected unit in the sample, we select ➢ grouping ungrouped data into a frequency
every 10 th subject until we get 100 distribution table which can be presented in
subjects in the sample. histogram, frequency polygons, or Ogive

STRATIFIED SAMPLING DESCRIPTIVE SUMMARY MEASURES

➢ Subjects are selected by dividing the ➢ computation of descriptive summary
population into groups known as strata, measures that describes the data based on
then subjects are randomly selected Central Tendency, Disperion/Variation, and
within group Position.
➢ For example, a researcher wanted to Here are the common measures:
study the preference of students on
blended learning in a university, the
researcher divided the university into
colleges then randomly selected
students per college. Note: In selecting

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 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY ➢ Analysts frequently use the mean to
summarize the center of population or a
➢ summary statistic that represents the process. While the mean is relevant,
center point or typical value of a dataset. people often react to variability even more.
When a distribution has lower variability,
the values in a dataset are more
consistent. However, when the variability is
higher, the data points are more dissimilar
and extreme values become more likely.
Consequently, understanding variability
helps you grasp the likelihood of unusual
events.

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY/DISPERSION

➢ Just as measures of central tendency

locate the center of a data set, measures of
variation measure its spread.

RANGE
➢ is the simplest among the measures of MANAGING AND UNDERSTANDING DATA
dispersion but is greatly affected by USING INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
outliers. This is simply the Highest Value
minus the Lowest Value. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

VARIANCE ➢ allows us to predict trends about a larger

➢ the variance is the average of the squares population based on a study of the samples
of the distance each value is from the
mean. HYPOTHESIS TEST
➢ systematic procedure for testing a claim
STANDARD DEVIATION about a property of a population of interest.
➢ The standard deviation is the square root
of the variance andis denoted by 𝜎 STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS
(population standard deviation) and 𝑠 ➢ It is an assertion or conjecture concerning
(sample standard deviation). the characteristics of one or more
populations
➢ Null Hypothesis (Ho)-) is a statement that
the value of a population parameter (such
as proportion, mean, or standard deviation)
is equal to some claimed value. This is the
one which the researcher always hopes to
reject. In writing, it uses the (=) symbol.
➢ Alternative Hypothesis (H1)-) is the
statement that the parameter has a value
that somehow differs from the null
hypothesis, this is often the claim of the
researcher. The symbolic form of the

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 alternative hypothesis must use one of 2. Set the level of significance; determine the
these symbols: ≠,<,>. test statistic or p-value.
3. Formulate the decision rule (Using critical
region or p-value)
4. Give the decision (Reject or Fail to Reject
the null).
5. Draw conclusions.

TESTING SIGNIFICANT MEANS

In comparing two population means

TEST STATISTICS derived from samples, we have two types of
samples
➢ is a value obtained from different statistical
test procedures of which the decision to STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING INDEPENDENT
reject the null hypothesis depends on its SAMPLES
value. ➢ Sample selected from one of the
➢ One-Tailed Test- – if the claim or the populations has no effect on how the other
alternative hypothesis indicates a direction sample was selected from the other
(greater than, > or less than, <). population. Number of samples from
➢ Two-tailed Test -if the claim or the independent samples maybe different.
alternative hypothesis does not specify a Example: Comparing a group of Filipinos
direction (not equal to, ≠) and non-Filipinos about whether or not they
The type of test is needed to determine the will talk to a stranger in a public transport.
correct decision as well as using appropriate
critical region and significance level. PAIRED/DEPENDENT SAMPLES
➢ Observations in sample 1 is matched or
CRITICAL REGION (REJECTION REGION) paired with observations in sample 2.
Example: Testing the effectiveness of a
➢ is the set of all values of the test statistic certain food supplement on reducing
that cause us to reject the null hypothesis. weight of randomly sampled individuals
The critical value for each test statistic can before and after supplementation.
be determined manually using statistical
tables or via Excel
➢ check if the test statistic falls in the region
of rejection, if yes, reject the null.

SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL

➢ is the probability that the test statistic will

fall in the critical region when the null
hypothesis is true. This is usually set by the
researcher where common choices for 𝛼
are 0.05, 0.01, and 0.10
➢ Using p-value/significance level –
determine the corresponding p-value of the
test statistic, then reject the null hypothesis
if the p-value is less than or equal to the
significance level.

STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING

1. Formulating the null and alternative

hypothesis.
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 DETERMINING RELATIONSHIP OF TWO
VARIABLES

CORRELATION

➢ is a statistical method that determines the

degree of relationship between two
different variables
➢ The relationship between any two
variables can vary from strong, weak, to
none.
➢ When a relationship is strong, this means
that knowing an object’s score on one
variable helps to predict their score on the
second variable. Correlation coefficient
ranges from -1 to 1.

POSITIVE CORRELATION
➢ The correlation is said to be positive
correlation if the values of two variables
changing with same direction.

NEGATIVE CORRELATION
➢ The correlation is said to be negative
correlation when the values of variables
change with opposite direction. One
problem in correlation is that, just because
two variables are correlated, it does not
mean that one variable caused the other.

KYROS ABANICA PUCHERO

23
Vice President of The Matrix S

GOOD LUCK MGA ANAK NI ARCHIMEDES AT BONACCI!!!

Created by: Vice President of The Matrix S23