e-Polymers 2020; 20: 443–457

Review Article

Yunqing Gu, Lingzhi Yu, Jiegang Mou*, Denghao Wu, Peijian Zhou, and Maosen Xu

Mechanical properties and application analysis

of spider silk bionic material
https://doi.org/10.1515/epoly-2020-0049 conveniences to people’s lives, but also caused serious
received April 02, 2020; accepted July 15, 2020 “white pollution” problems due to their inability to
Abstract: Spider silk is a kind of natural biomaterial with recycle and the lack of biodegradability. Now that
superior performance. Its mechanical properties and sustainable development has become a common theme
biocompatibility are incomparable with those of other in today’s world, it is increasingly urgent to develop
natural and artificial materials. This article first sum- materials that meet sustainable development. So, the
marizes the structure and the characteristics of natural research and development of biomaterials has become a
spider silk. It shows the great research value of spider silk research hotspot (1,2). Among the natural biological
and spider silk bionic materials. Then, the development materials, spider silk has attracted more and more
status of spider silk bionic materials is reviewed from the scholars with its excellent comprehensive properties.
perspectives of material mechanical properties and Natural spider silk is a natural protein biomaterial
application. The part of the material characteristics secreted by spiders through their silk glands. It belongs
mainly describes the biocomposites based on spider silk to a type of bioelastic fiber. It is one of the best materials
proteins and spider silk fibers, nanomaterials and man- produced in nature (3). As early as thousands of years
made fiber materials based on spider silk and spider-web ago, people had a certain understanding of the applica-
structures. The principles and characteristics of new tion value of spider silk. The ancient Greeks used spider
materials and their potential applications in the future silk to stop bleeding and heal wounds. Indigenous
are described. In addition, from the perspective of people used spider silk as a fishing line. By the time of
practical applications, the latest application of spider World War II, spider silk was used as a crosshair in the
silk biomimetic materials in the fields of medicine, optical device of the sighting system of telescopes, guns
textiles, and sensors is reviewed, and the inspiration, (4–7), etc. It can be seen that there have been many
feasibility, and performance of finished products are research works on spider silk and it has obtained
briefly introduced and analyzed. Finally, the research preliminary applications in many fields. Spider silk has
directions and future development trends of spider silk also been one of the hot research topics in recent years
biomimetic materials are prospected. and has shown great application and commercial value
in various fields (8–10).
Keywords: spider silk, characteristics, biomimetic mate- Natural spider silk is favored by researchers mainly
rials, composite, structural material for its outstanding mechanical strength, temperature
adaptability, and its composition, while spider silk fiber
has high specific strength, excellent elasticity, and super
toughness, which is incomparable to those of other
1 Introduction natural fibers and synthetic fibers (11). The unit weight of
spiderline (Dragline silk) is three times stronger than
For more than half a century, the rise of synthetic that of aramid, five times stronger than that of steel, and
polymer materials has not only brought many two times more flexible than nylon (12). It is no
exaggeration to say that spider silk is one of the best
 structural materials produced in nature. The excellent
* Corresponding author: Jiegang Mou, College of Metrology & comprehensive performance of spider silk makes it to be
Measurement Engineering, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou,
considered an ideal material for parachutes and body
310018, China, e-mail: [email protected]
Yunqing Gu, Lingzhi Yu, Denghao Wu, Peijian Zhou, Maosen Xu:
armor. In addition, the good biodegradability and
College of Metrology & Measurement Engineering, China Jiliang biocompatibility of spider silk also make it to have
University, Hangzhou, 310018, China good medical applications (13), such as artificial tendons

Open Access. © 2020 Yunqing Gu et al., published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License.
444  Yunqing Gu et al.

and ligaments, tissue repair materials, surgical su-

tures, etc.
Because spiders are carnivorous animals and do not
like to live in groups, it is difficult to raise them in large
quantities (14). An effective method is to use the bionic
technology to apply the spider silk structure and
principle to other man-made materials. In recent years,
with the development of high-tech such as genetic
modification, polymers, and nanotechnology, re-
searchers have conducted an in-depth exploration of
the composition, structure, and characteristics of spider
silk. For example, the DNA sequence of spider silk
proteins has long been determined (15); spider genes are
transferred to silkworms or other animals and plants and
Figure 1: Appearance of natural spider silk.
microorganisms to produce a large amount of spider silk
protein by transgenic technology (16). With the devel-
opment of science and technology and people’s demand spider silk are glycine, alanine, and a small amount of
for new materials, the research and development of serine. It is thin and soft in appearance and has excellent
spider silk materials have received more and more elasticity and strength.
attention, and new materials related to spider silk Natural spider silk is similar to natural silk, but its
appear sequentially. This article summarizes the re- performance is slightly better than that of natural silk in
search status and application of typical bionic structural all aspects (23). The mechanical properties of spider silk
materials of spider silk in different fields from the are shown in Table 1. The elongation of spider silk is
perspective of research value and application methods, slightly higher than those of silk and nylon, and the
and further looks forward to its development prospects. elongation at break can even reach two to four times its
length (24), which is much higher than those of steel and
Kevlar, so spider silk is very elastic. The tensile strength
of spider silk is about five times that of steel, similar to
2 Characteristics and structure of that of Kevlar, and far better than those of silk, rubber,
spider silk and nylon. Spider silk has the highest breaking energy,
so its toughness is much better than those of other
As one of the oldest species in the world, spiders materials (25). Based on the above characteristics, the
have been living on earth for 400 million years. Except spider web can withstand great impact forces without
in Antarctica, they are distributed all over the world. Up being damaged, and its static load and impact resistance
to 3,000 spider species are currently recorded (17). are better than those of other artificial and natural
Spider silk is secreted by the glands of spiders. Spiders materials (26).
use spider silk to carry out predation, reproduction, In addition, the ability of silk to absorb vibration
nesting, and other life activities, which are important after forming a spider web is also amazing. When flies,
tools for spiders to survive. At present, there are more
research studies on Nephila clavipes (18,19), Araneus
diadematus (20), Araneus ventricosus (21), Latrodectus Table 1: Comparison of the mechanical properties of spider silk and
other materials (25–29)
hesperus (22), etc. These spiders have a similar tossing
mechanism and their towing wire is the main research
Material Elongation at Tensile Breaking
object.
break (%) Strength energy (J/kg)
(N/m2)

Spider silk 35–50 5 × 109 1 × 105

2.1 The characteristics of natural spider silk Nylon 18–26 5 × 108 8 × 104
Kevlar 2–5 4 × 109 3 × 104
Silkworm silk 15–35 6 × 108 7 × 104
The net structure of natural spider silk in its natural state
Steel 8.0 1 × 109 5 × 103
is shown in Figure 1. The main chemical components of
 Mechanical properties of spider silk bionic material  445

moths, and other flying insects hit the spider web, the different functions according to different needs. The
spider silk is stretched and tends to shrink back to its glands used in spider webs and the types of spider silk
original state. When the silk shrinks, part of the they secrete are shown in Table 2. Among the various
mechanical energy will be converted into thermal types of spider silk secreted by spiders, the dragline silk
energy, which will prevent the spider web from is the best and most representative natural protein fiber
rebounding. With the cohesiveness of the spider web, and one of the most used research objects by
it will be difficult for flying insects to escape once they researchers.
enter the web (30). Take the dragline silk produced by the major
Spider silk has good temperature characteristics. The ampullate gland as an example, whose constituent
spider silk still has good stability at 200°C, and its structure proteins are MaSp1 and MaSp2. Both of these proteins
will be destroyed when the temperature goes beyond 300°C. have a repeating sequence consisting of approximately
Spider silk also performs well in low-temperature environ- 3,500 amino acid residues (48), and on both sides of the
ments and still retains the elasticity at low temperatures of protein repeating sequence region are non-repetitive
−40°C (31,32), and will not harden until reaching lower regions consisting of approximately 100 amino acid
temperatures. Therefore, the advantages of spider silk residues. The molecular weight of natural MaSp1 and
materials are particularly significant in certain high- and MaSp2 proteins is roughly 250–320 kDa (42).
low-temperature applications. In order to better understand the characteristics of
Spider silk is biocompatible (33). The main compo- spider silk, an in-depth analysis of the high-level
nent of spider silk is spider silk protein, which is protein structure of the secondary structure of different regions
in nature and non-toxic. At present, no immune rejection of the protein is necessary. The atoms of the polypeptide
reaction to spider silk protein has been found in the chain in the spider silk protein form a certain spatial
human body, so it has good biocompatibility. And spider arrangement due to rotation of the single chain, forming
silk can be degraded under specific conditions, and the a peculiar spatial structure of the spider silk protein.
degradation products can be absorbed by human tissues According to the different angles between the various
(34), so it is an ideal wound suture and prosthesis amide planes, different main chain conformations are
making material. formed. These different molecular conformations are
Spider silk is very sensitive to water. When related to its physical properties and biological func-
immersed in water, spider silk fibers will shrink and tions. The spatial configurations of spider silk include
affect the mechanical properties of spider silk. This (49): (1) α-spiral: the helix formed by the backbone of
shrinkage phenomenon of spider silk is called super the polypeptide chain rising around the helix axis. (2) β-
contraction. Influenced by humidity, the size of spider Sheet (50): multiple peptide chains or several peptide
silk fibers will change, and its tensile properties will also segments of a chain are arranged in parallel, and a
change (35). certain fold is formed to form a sheet structure. (3)
These excellent properties of spider silk are not Irregular curl: that is, there is no regular partial peptide
available in many natural or artificial materials. Through
an in-depth research work on its structure and char-
acteristics, researchers have concluded the relationship Table 2: Types and composition of spider silk secreted by different
between its structure and function (36–39). Optimize or glands (40–47)
compound spider silk to obtain more powerful and more
complete spider silk materials, or apply its structural Glands Type of spider silk Composition
theory to other man-made materials to improve certain Aggregate Aqueous cement ASG1, ASG2
characteristics of the material. These are two important Pyriform Core fiber of capture PySp1, PySp2
directions for the development of spider silk bionic spiral
materials today. Tubuliform Egg-case silk TuSp1, ECP-1,
ECP-2
Flagelliform Spiral silk Flag
Aciniform Capture silk AcSp1
Minor ampullate Dragline silk, MiSp1, MiSp2
2.2 Microstructure of spider silk framework silk
Major ampullate Dragline silk, MaSp1, MaSp2
framework silk,
Spiders generally have seven glands for the production
radial silk
of spider silk proteins, which can secrete spider silk with
446  Yunqing Gu et al.

chain conformation except the above two conformations, different, so it is difficult to collect spider silk with a
including random coils, free folding, free rotation, U- completely uniform performance; and due to the
shaped structure, etc. differences among spider individuals, the living environ-
There are three main types of amino acid sequence ment, survival mode, self-control ability, and silk
modules in the dragline silk: GPGXX, An/(GA)n, and GGX forming conditions will affect the quality of spider silk,
(51). Among them, the arrangement of GPGXX amino so there is no uniform performance standard for natural
acids will form a β-turn structure. The aggregation of spider silk. In addition, the processing of natural spider
multiple structures will cause a series of β-turns to fold silk is extremely difficult, and the formed spider silk is
together in series to form a β-turn spiral. This structure is difficult to be processed into other specific shapes.
similar to a “spring” and will greatly enhance the elastic Therefore, the application range of natural spider silk is
properties of the protein (52). When β-turn is subjected greatly limited, and new methods and approaches need
to an external stress, a “spring” structure of proline will to be sought to obtain a large number of new materials
produce a corresponding restoring force to balance the with similar structure and function to natural spider silk.
torque acting on it. An/(GA)n is a sequence of alanine Based on the principles of bionics and the understanding
and glycine abundance, and the amino acid sequence of the structure and function of natural spider, the
will be neatly arranged to form a β-turn sheet structure design of new bionic materials with the advantages of
(53). A sequence will form a “cable-like” structure, natural spider silk has great scientific significance and
which will greatly enhance the stability of the crystalline application value.
region. The β-turn lamellar area also determines the
strength properties of the spider silk, and due to the
large amount of this area, the spider silk is also difficult
to dissolve in water. GGX is a rich region of glycine, 3.1 Biocomposite
which will form a 310 helix structure, that is, every three
amino acids will form a helix structure by the action of High stiffness and toughness are usually two mutually
covalent bonds. This structure is the transitional exclusive properties in a material. At the same time,
connection between the rigid region and the elastic achieving the strength and elasticity of a material is an
region of the crystalline region. In short, the An/(GA)n extremely important and complex task (55,56). With the
sequence constitutes the hydrophobic crystalline region development of biocomposites, researchers have begun to try
of the protein, giving spider silk protein its high tensile to produce materials with both high stiffness and toughness.
strength, while the GPGXX sequence forms the hydro- Pezhman et al. (57) combined the silk-inspired triblock
philic region of the protein, contributing to the excellent proteins with aligned nanocellulose to develop a nanocom-
elastic properties of the protein. Together, they guar- posite material with high stiffness, high strength, and high
antee many excellent properties such as high strength toughness. First, they used a repetitive region from the ADF3
and high elasticity of spider silk (48). dragline spidroin from Araneus diadematus. A part of the
wild-type spidroin sequence (called ADF3) and an engineered
version having a repeating consensus sequence (called
eADF3) were used. Then, cellulose-binding modules (CBMs)
were added at each of its two ends. Finally, the modified
3 Mechanical properties of spider DNA was used to produce proteins, CBM-ADF3-CBM and
silk bionic material CBM-eADF3-CBM, with a triblock protein structure. Recombi-
nant proteins with triblock architecture combine structurally
Natural spider silk originates from the web formed by the modified spider silk with terminal cellulose affinity modules.
spider or is manually drawn from the silk gland of the Flow alignment of cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) and triblock
spider, but the yield is very low and cannot meet protein allowed continuous fiber production. Protein as-
the actual application requirements. Spiders are carni- sembly involved phase separation into concentrated coacer-
vorous animals and are highly combative. When put vates, with subsequent conformational switching from
together, spiders often attack each other. The survival disordered structures into β-sheets. This process gave the
rate of rearing is extremely low, so it is difficult to raise matrix a tough adhesiveness, forming a new composite
spiders in large numbers like domestic silkworms (54). material with high strength and stiffness combined with
There are many silk gland organs in spiders, and the increased toughness. Figure 2 shows the performance test
properties of silk produced by different glands are results of this new material. It can be seen from Figure 2 that
 Mechanical properties of spider silk bionic material  447

Figure 2: Properties of composites of spidroin proteins and nanocellulose (57). (a) Stress–strain curves of triblock spidroin composites and
CNF fibers. (b) Stress–strain curves of protein and CNF composites with different protein-to-CNF ratios. (c) Stress–strain curves of
composite fibers from different protein variants. (d) Performance comparison of composite fibers from different protein variants.
(e) Toughness values of composite fibers from different protein variants. (f) Stress–strain curves of the oriented (fiber) and non-oriented
composites and CNF. Copyright 2019, American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).

after the triblock spider silk protein is compounded with improved. With the increase in the proportion of spider silk
nanocellulose, its toughness and tensile strength are greatly protein, the hardness of the composite fiber increased
448  Yunqing Gu et al.

significantly. By comparison, it was found that only the proteins. In fact, the composition of spider silk fibers
triblock structure of the spider silk protein can increase the and the structure of spider webs have a greater appeal
fracture energy, stiffness, and yield strength at the same time. for materials science. Through an in-depth under-
Comprehensive test results show that the composite material standing of the cobweb structure and the use of the
achieves the bionic goal of combining strength and tough- principles of the cobweb structure to build other
ness. Currently, this material is expected to be made into molecules, it is often possible to enhance the original
cloth, packaging, and even medical implants. In the future, material or to obtain new materials with a better
this composite material can also become a substitute for performance than natural cobwebs.
ordinary plastic, which is convenient and environmentally Spider silk has good mechanical properties. The
friendly. reason for such good properties is that it contains many
Another research result further amplifies the excellent nanosized crystals. These tiny crystals are oriented and
properties of spider silk and produces materials with a better dispersed in the spider silk protein matrix, which plays a
performance based on the natural spider silk. In recent years, good role in enhancement. Liff et al. (62) embedded the
graphene and its modified materials have attracted much laponite into elastane by imitating the special structure
attention (58,59). Luca et al. (60) dispersed graphene micro of spider silk to produce a nanomaterial with good
flakes and carbon nanotubes in water to make a special elasticity and toughness. They first dissolved clay flakes
breeding solution to feed spiders, which successfully in water, exchanged it with water by solvent replace-
increased the strength of spider silk by three times and the ment using dimethylacetamide (DMAc) solvent capable
toughness by ten times. Finally, a reinforced spider silk of dissolving polyurethane, and then added the poly-
composited with graphene and carbon nanotubes was urethane elastomer to the laponite–DMAc mixture. By
obtained. So far, this is the toughest fiber with strength evaporation, a clay sheet–polyurethane elastomer nano-
comparable to that of the strongest carbon fiber. The study composite film with a thickness of 80–120 µm can be
paves the way for the production of enhanced bionic silk obtained. Hard clay sheets are randomly distributed in
fibers using a natural and efficient spider spinning process, the composite film, strengthening the material in all
thereby further improving one of the most promising strong directions.
materials. Three-dimensional carbon materials have great
There is a new research result that creatively uses the application prospects as electrode materials for super-
super contraction phenomenon of spider silk and cleverly capacitors due to their advantages such as high
exerts the huge value of the super contraction character- electrical conductivity and fast electrolyte diffusion rate
istics of spider silk. Super contraction of spider silk has a (63–66). During the electric double-layer capacitor
typical water-responsive shape memory function. Based reaction, the diffusion of electrolyte ions and the rate
on the existing research work on super contraction of electron transfer have important effects on the
mechanism and the understanding of shape memory electrochemical reaction speed, and the electrode/
polymers, Gu et al. (61) were inspired by the shape electrolyte interface greatly affects the performance of
memory behavior of spider silk and proposed a heat- electrochemical energy storage (67–70). Deng et al. (71)
responsive shape memory peptide with a β-sheet struc- were inspired by the spider-web structure and used the
ture. A novel water-sensitive two-way shaped memory zeolite imidazolate framework (ZIF) as a precursor to
material was developed by incorporating the spider silk fabricate a 3D carbon network (3DCN) with a bionic
protein with a β-sheet structure into polyvinyl alcohol. The surface. The preparation process is shown in Figure 3.
β-fold structure makes the material have good shape 3DCN is produced as the matrix by the salt-template
recovery ability and high shape fixability. This material method. ZIF-8 particles are added and fused into a
not only has the characteristics of biocompatibility and continuous network-like, which is closely attached to
non-toxicity, but is also easy to manufacture and has a 3DCN by a calcination process. The ZIF-8 particles act as
high application potential in biomedical fields. the “spider” to introduce a “spider web” pattern on the
surface of 3DCN. After the metal elements of ZIF were
etched, a spider-web-like carbon pattern was formed on
the surface of 3DCN. Such a modified surface mor-
3.2 Cobweb-like structure material phology endows the carbon hybrid (S-3DCN) with
enhanced mass-transfer ability and fully takes advan-
Spider silk bionic materials are not limited to biological tage of the ZIF-derived carbon. Further research work
materials, and their composition is not limited to shows that the Laplace force differences in
 Mechanical properties of spider silk bionic material  449

microstructures enable the liquid drops to arrange Spider silk is rich in alanine and glycine, and the
quickly, and the carbon hybrid material can deliver protein molecules containing alanine are tightly arranged
energy much faster in supercapacitors and exert a and crystalline, which make the spider silk extremely
promising performance in electrolyte-based energy strong. The glycine-containing protein molecules are ar-
storage devices. This work has universal significance ranged in a disorderly manner, which makes the spider silk
on carbon-based applications, such as catalysis, sen- have good elasticity and stretchability. Gu et al. (73)
sing, and energy conversion. proposed a method for synthesizing spider silk fibers by
The spider-web structure is responsible for in- connecting a polypeptide to a compliant polymer segment.
creasing the mechanical strength. Pant et al. (72) They used polybenzyl glutamate to simulate the structures
reported for the first time the preparation of a hybrid of α-helix and β-sheet in spider silk, and further connected
spider-web-like mat of polymer and oligomer using a to the random coiled segments composed of polytetra-
simple electrospinning technique. They added viscous methylene ether glycol. The resulting material has extre-
nylon-6 to methoxy poly(ethylene glycol) (MPEG) and mely high toughness and tensile strength. Tensile experi-
applied a high voltage to the spinning solution during ments show that the modulus of the polymer increases with
the electrospinning. The hydrogen bonds between MPEG the increase in the peptide component. The polymer fiber
and nylon-6 molecules appeared. And finally, a MPEG with a polypeptide content of 41.5% has a tensile strength
oligomer with a viscous nylon-6 supporting solution was of about 100 MPa and an elongation at break of 750%. The
fabricated. Strongly interconnected thin MPEG spider- toughness of the obtained spider silk fibers (387 MJ/m3) is
web-like nanofibers with thick nylon-6 nanofibers are more than twice that of ordinary spider silk drawing
responsible for increasing the mechanical strength and toughness (160 MJ/m3). Compared with polyurethane ma-
hydrophilic nature of the nylon-6 mat. This material can terials with a similar structure, this material has an
be used for effective air filtration and different biome- unprecedented tensile strength, and its fracture strain and
dical applications. strength have also been significantly improved.

Figure 3: Product process and SEM image of S-3DCN (71). (a) Schematic diagram of the S-3DCN synthesis process. (b) SEM image of ZIF/
3DCN and an enlarged image of ZIF particles on the carbon wall. (c and d) SEM image of S-3DCN. Copyright 2019, Elsevier.
450  Yunqing Gu et al.

Figure 4: Artificial blood vessel preparation process (78). (a) Spider silk scaffold. (b) C2C12 and ST1.6R were cultured on both sides of the spider silk
scaffolds. (c) Constructed blood vessels were induced by pulsatile flow in the bioreactor. (d) Tissue-engineered vascular graft after 3 weeks of
induction. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

4 Application analysis of spider ability of natural spider silk to stop bleeding and
promote wound healing, researchers hope to develop a
silk bionic material new vascular graft. A significant drawback of today’s
artificial blood vessels is their instability and lack of
The application fields of spider silk bionic materials are very
vascular resistance. Therefore, it is necessary to find
wide. Common areas such as medicine, construction,
alternative biological methods to improve the physical
automobile industry, and aerospace have included the
properties of artificial blood vessel walls. Spider silk has
appearance of spider silk materials. And the application of
been proven to be degradable, flexible, and has strong
spider silk bionic materials is constantly expanding.
mechanical properties and good biocompatibility in
research (75–77). For example, Dastagir et al. (78)
4.1 Medical applications developed a new type of artificial blood vessel using
natural spider silk as a supporting matrix. C2C12 and
In recent years, many biologically derived materials have ST1.6R cells were seeded on the two surfaces of the
gained attention in the medical field (74). Inspired by the spider silk scaffold, respectively, and cultivated under
 Mechanical properties of spider silk bionic material  451

Figure 5: Comparison of the effects of Perma-Hand sutures with 6mer and 6mer-HNP1 coating on Staphylococcus (MRSA) and E. coli at 37°C
(79). Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

pulsatile flow in a bioreactor, and finally induced to form infection. First, they inserted the DNA encoding the
a vascular prosthesis. The main processes of its antibacterial peptide HNP1 into the DNA of the recombi-
preparation are shown in Figure 4. Tests show that this nant spider silk protein 6mer and then cultivated E. coli
artificial blood vessel has extreme biocompatibility, has to produce a more antibacterial spider silk protein 6mer-
mechanical properties equivalent to those of natural HNP1. Comparative tests on 6mer-coated, 6mer-HNP1,
blood vessels, and can make cells adhere, differentiate, and uncoated sutures show that the coating has little
and proliferate. effect on the mechanical properties of the sutures and
After an extensive surgery or other types of does not affect the maximum tensile strength and
healthcare practices, doctors generally fix and connect breakpoint of the sutures. It does not have much effect
the edges of the wound tissue with surgical sutures to on the degradation ability of the suture itself, and the
promote wound healing and avoid infection. However, antibacterial ability of the suture containing the coating
the suture itself is susceptible to bacteria, which easily is significantly improved. It can be seen from Figure 5
causes infection of the biofilm and is difficult to treat. In that the coating reduces the number of bacteria
order to prevent the formation of bacterial biofilms, an significantly, compared to the uncoated suture. Com-
extra layer of antibiotic-based antibacterial coating is pared to 6mer-coated or uncoated sutures, Perma-Hand
added to the sutures. However, the resistance of sutures coated with 6mer-HNP1 have significant inhibi-
microorganisms is getting stronger and stronger, which tory effects on Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli. The
has prompted researchers to find new alternatives with application of artificial spider protein 6mer-HNP1 as an
antibacterial capabilities. Spider silk protein solves antibacterial coating can develop a new class of drug-
many problems in the field of biomedicine with its free sutures instead of antibiotic sutures. Not only that,
unique chemical and physical properties, excellent the coating also has great application space in surgical
biocompatibility, minimal immune response, and con- instruments, biological grafts, and other fields.
trolled biodegradability. Albina et al. (79) used recombi- Cancer is one of the major causes of death world-
nant DNA technology to modify chimeric spider silk wide. Chemotherapy is the most common treatment, but
proteins with antibacterial properties and developed a due to the low efficiency of the targeted delivery, the
suture coating that can effectively avoid wound anticancer drugs have toxic side effects by causing
452  Yunqing Gu et al.

Figure 6: SEM images and EDXS quantitative results of the selected elements of MS1 and MS1/IONP spheres, MS2 and MS2/IONP spheres,
and EMS2 and EMS2/IONP spheres (83). Copyright 2019, PLOS.

damage to healthy tissues. Side effects limit the was detected in EMS2/IONP spheres. Through analysis, it
effectiveness of chemotherapy (80). Iron oxide nanopar- was confirmed that iron oxide particles still existed in
ticle (IONP) is regarded as an excellent drug delivery the sphere, and the β-sheet structure dominated the
vehicle (81), especially as its high-temperature therapy composite particles. In addition, the composite sphere
can help in cancer treatment (82), but its toxicity has good magnetic properties, excellent biocompat-
severely hinders its practical application. Kucharczyk ibility, and non-toxicity, doubles the load efficiency of
et al. (83) composited bioengineered spider silk protein doxorubicin, and achieves a more accurate drug
EMS2 with iron oxide nanoparticles into a composite targeting. The results show that cytocompatible spheres
sphere, which created conditions for the application of made of iron oxide/spider silk composites have high
iron oxide nanoparticles. They tested three engineering magnetic properties and the ability to enhance che-
spider silk protein spheres including MS1, MS2, and motherapeutic drug loading. This composite sphere has
EMS2, mixed the spider silk protein sphere solution with great potential for drug delivery to cancer cells in
iron oxide nanoparticles, and added a high-concentra- magnetic resonance imaging and thermotherapy.
tion potassium phosphate buffer solution to produce a
new composite sphere by salting out with a potassium
salt. The new composite spheres are MS1/IONP, MS2/ 4.2 Textile applications
IONP, and EMS2/IONP. It can be seen from Figure 6 that
the three kinds of bioengineering spider silk proteins are Natural spider silk can be used to make clothing like
spherical and still retain the spherical shape after being silk, and clothes made from spider silk have good
compounded with iron oxide particles. IONP tends to breathability, can absorb sweat, and are more resistant
gather in tight clusters and cover the surface of the to wear and tear. However, because the production
sphere in the form of small bumps. The highest IONP efficiency of spider silk is low, spider silk clothing has
 Mechanical properties of spider silk bionic material  453

4.3 Sensor application

Nanocobweb fiber has also been widely used in the field of

sensors. The radiation on the spider web extends radially
outward, supporting and transmitting signals. Liu et al. (86)
inspired a unique assembly method of spiral and radiation
microstructures in spider webs, proposed a new structure of
electronic devices, and developed a new type of multi-
resolution graphene tactile sensor. They used a highly
sensitive aerogel as a sensing material and a graphene tape
with high conductivity and stability as a transmission
material to realize the orientation, distance, and position
identification of the new tactile sensor. The electronic skin
integrated by this sensor can sensitively sense various
contacts, and the minimum force it can measure can reach
3.83 × 10−3 Pa. At present, the research work has attracted
great attention in related fields such as robotics, wearables,
and human–computer interaction.
Taking advantage of the very sensitive nature of silk
fibroin to environmental humidity, Liu et al. (87) made a new
type of high-sensitivity humidity sensor using spider egg-sac
silk (SESS). The structure and experimental results are shown
in Figure 8. Using a part of single-mode fiber and a part of
SESS to make an interference cavity, changes in ambient
humidity will cause a change in the diameter of the SESS,
Figure 7: (a) UV-visible spectra of pristine nylon-6 and different which will cause a change in the interference length. The
nylon-6/TiO2 nanocomposite mats. (b) Antimicrobial efficiency of change in the interference cavity length will cause the
pristine nylon-6 and different nylon-6/TiO2 nanocomposite mats interference spectrum to be redshifted, and the relationship
(85). Copyright 2011, Elsevier. between the spectral offset and the ambient relative humidity
(RH) can be obtained, thereby achieving the measurement of
the ambient RH. The results show that the sensor probe has
always been a luxury. Nanocobweb material is suitable excellent stability, repeatability, and temperature resistance.
for the manufacture of clothing, especially protective The higher the ambient humidity, the higher the sensitivity.
clothing. Pant et al. (84,85) obtained a composite The maximum value of the sensitivity is 0.99 nm/%RH in the
nanocobweb fiber mat with UV and antibacterial func- humidity range of 90–99%.
tions by adding TIO2 particles to PA6. Among them, TIO2
can absorb near-ultraviolet light waves and form highly
charged electrons with negative charges, while gener-
ating positively charged holes in the valence band. As 4.4 Acoustic applications
shown in Figure 7(a), as the content of TIO2 increases,
the UV absorbance of the cobweb fiber mat increases and Spider web is composed of different radiation silk and
the UV reflectance decreases. Photoelectron or hole catching silk. The ring in the center of the web can resonate
reacts with water or dissolved oxygen in the water to at a specific frequency, which can effectively reduce and
generate hydroxyl radicals and superoxide ions, which absorb the vibration of various frequencies. Based on this
can biochemically react with microbial cells. Therefore, natural structure, Miniaci et al. (88) designed a sonic
as shown in Figure 7(b), the bacterial survival rate metamaterial, which consists of several square units with a
decreases with increasing TIO2 content. By adjusting the Co-vibration ring, and is connected by the ligament structure
cobweb pore size and the number of micropores, the to the center and surroundings of the ring. The sonic
material’s waterproof, moisture-permeable, breathable, metamaterial structure model is shown in Figure 9. Five
and heat-transfer properties can be modified to meet the parameters can be adjusted in the structure, which is
needs of different protective clothing. composed of two parts: hoop and traction. Under the
454  Yunqing Gu et al.

Figure 8: Structure and experimental results of a humidity sensor (87). (a) Microscopic image of a SESS-based humidity sensor probe.
(b) Side view of a SESS-based humidity sensing probe. (c) Front view of a SESS-based humidity sensing probe. (d) Scanning electron
microscope (SEM) photograph of the SESS profile (partially enlarged). (e) SEM photograph of the SESS data. (f) The experimental result of
the redshift of interference spectrum from 50% to 60% RH at 1.8° nm at 35°C. Copyright 2019, OSA Publishing.

Figure 9: Structural model of a sonic metamaterial (88). (a) Traction part. (b) Hoop direction. Copyright 2016, AIP.

condition of ensuring that the material is unchanged, by metamaterial exhibits adjustable acoustic properties and is
adjusting these five parameters, research work on different expected to play new roles in the field of vibration, such as
structural parameters is realized. This metamaterial has high strengthening bridges and buildings during earthquakes,
controllability. It can adjust five parameters to design noise reduction, Yabo image technology, and sound stealth
materials that respond to different frequencies. In addition, cloak and more.
under the condition that the structural parameters are not
changed, by changing the material of the hoop and traction
parts, the influence of different materials on the vibration
characteristics can be tested, to find the best material, make 5 Conclusions and outlook
better use of the “cobweb” structure, and achieve a better
acoustic performance. Combined with the ultra-high-strength In summary, based on the analysis of the research and
and anisotropy of spider silk, this spider silk bionic development results of spider silk bionic materials,
 Mechanical properties of spider silk bionic material  455

combined with the application needs in various fields, automotive industry can produce lightweight, abrasion-
the research direction and application of spider silk resistant tires, a stronger body, and bring about a
bionic materials can be prospected. The research work significant reduction in vehicle weight.
on spider silk has gone through different stages from Environmental protection: spider silk-based nano-
appearance, characteristics to structure and molecular composites are similar to plastics and are expected to
composition. The application of spider silk has also replace some common plastics. Because spider silk
experienced the development from natural spider silk to protein can be degraded, using it to make plastic bags
artificial spider silk, from primary to advanced applica- will help protect the environment and reduce white
tions. Today’s spider silk technology involves multiple pollution.
disciplines and fields, such as biology, chemistry, and With the continuous deepening of spider silk
polymers. In the future, the research work on spider silk research, the mysterious veil of spider silk is gradually
should be further micronized, and the mechanical opening up, and the research work on the large-scale
properties and biocompatibility mechanism of spider production of artificial spider silk is also continuously
silk should be further analyzed from the perspective of deepening. A large number of superior properties of
molecular composition and structure, and its application spider silk bionic materials will replace traditional
should be used to improve the design of artificial fibers materials, and spider silk bionic materials will play a
or enhance the performance of other materials. huge role in the military, medical, aerospace, construc-
With the progress and development of science and tion, and automotive fields.
technology, people’s demand for superior performance
materials is getting higher and higher, which puts Acknowledgments: This work is supported by the
forward higher requirements for the research work on Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of
natural spider silk bionic materials and related science. China (No. LY19E050003) and the National Natural
The application of spider silk bionic material in many Science Foundation of China (No. 51779226).
fields has a broad prospect:
Military field: spider silk fibers have excellent
strength and toughness. The body armor and parachute
made from them can not only improve performance but References
also greatly reduce weight. In addition, some cobweb
structures can effectively absorb impact forces and help (1) Sun JY, Liu C, Du HY, Tong J. Design of a bionic aviation
improve the strength of the material. They can be material based on the microstructure of beetle’s elytra. Int J
Heat Mass Transfer. 2017;114:62–72.
applied to the shells of equipment such as tanks,
(2) Yang YJ, Liu ZM, Hu B, Man YH, Wu WJ. Bionic composite
aircraft, and satellites, or the protective cover structures material simulating the optical spectra of plant leaves. J Bionic
of military buildings. Eng. 2010;7:S43–9.
Textile field: spider silk is similar to silk but has a (3) Porter D, Guan J, Vollrath F. Spider silk: super material or thin
better performance than silk. Cloth made from spider silk fibre. Adv Mater. 2013;25:1275–9.
(4) Thangavelu K, Palanisamy G. Sustainability aspects of spider
has the characteristics of light weight, non-breakability,
silk. Chem Fibers Int. 2017;67:150–2.
better breathability, strong water absorption, and UV
(5) Thiel BL, Viney C, Jelinski LW. β sheets and spider silk.
resistance. Promote the development of spider silk Science. 1996;273:1477–80.
spinning technology, spider silk cloth will bring revolu- (6) Heim M, Keerl D, Scheibel T. Spider silk: from soluble protein
tionary changes to the field of apparel textiles. to extraordinary fiber. Angew Chem. 2009;48:3584–96.
Medical field: there is still huge room for develop- (7) Kluge JA, Rabotyagova O, Leisk GG, Kaplan DL. Spider silks
and their applications. Trends Biotechnol. 2008;26:244–51.
ment in the field of spider silk. With its excellent
(8) Lewis RV. Spider silk: ancient ideas for new biomaterials.
biocompatibility, it can be considered to make artificial Chem Rev. 2006;106:3762–74.
materials such as prostheses, ligaments, and skin. (9) Gu YQ, Yu SW, Mou JG, Wu DH, Zheng SH. Research progress
Material field: the high strength of spider silk fiber on the collaborative drag reduction effect of polymers and
can be used to make a bionic material to replace the steel surfactants. Materials. 2020;13:444.
(10) Wolfgang AL. Biomaterials: Spider strength and stretchability.
bars in concrete. It will greatly reduce the weight of the
Nat Chem Biol. 2010;6:702–3.
building in the construction, and the spider silk material
(11) Albertson AE, Florence T, Weber W. Effects of different
is resistant to humidity and cold, and will not rust, post-spin stretching conditions on the mechanical properties
which is especially suitable for building bridges and of synthetic spider silk fibers. J Mech Biomed.
other buildings. Combining spider silk materials with the 2014;29:225–34.
456  Yunqing Gu et al.

(12) Vollrath F, Knight DP. Liquid crystalline spinning of spider silk. (32) Fuente R, Mendioroz A, Salazar A. Revising the exceptionally
Nature. 2001;410:541–8. high thermal diffusivity of spider silk. Mater Lett.
(13) He QS, Yu M, Dai Z. Adhesion characteristics of a novel 2014;114:1–3.
synthetic polydimethylsiloxane for bionic adhesive pads. (33) Kuhbier JW, Allmeling C, Reimers K, Hillmer A, Kasper C,
J Bionic Eng. 2014;11:371–7. Menger B, et al. Interaction between spider silk and cells.
(14) Maria AC, Carlos VH. Study of spider silk fibers by Raman PLoS One. 2010;5:e12032.
microscopy. J Anal Chem. 2018;9:529–45. (34) Gellynck K, Verdonk P, Forsynth R, Almqvist KF, Nimmen EV,
(15) Rising A, Nimmervoll H, Grip S, Fernandez-Arias A, Gheysens T, et al. Biocompatibility and biodegradability of
Storckenfeldt E, Knight DP, et al. Spider silk proteins–me- spider egg sac silk. J Mater Sci. 2008;19:2963–70.
chanical property and gene sequence. Zool Sci. (35) Liu Y, Sponner A, Porter D, Vollrath F. Proline and processing
2005;22:273–81. of spider silks. Biomacromolecules. 2007;12:1–6.
(16) Alan ME, Justin J, Randolph L, Jason CQ. Economic feasibility (36) Dianna T, Merri LC, Kelly H. Protein and amino acid
and environmental impact of synthetic spider silk production composition of silks from the cob weaver black widow. Biol
from Escherichia coli. New Biotechnol. 2018;42:12–8. Macro. 1999;24:103–8.
(17) Kristina S, Andreas L, Thomas S. Recombinant spider silk (37) Dong Z, Lewis RV, Middaugh CR. Molecular mechanism of
proteins for applications in biomaterials. Macromol Biosci. spider silk elasticity. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1991;284:53–7.
2010;10:998–1007. (38) Osaki S. Is the mechanical strength of spider’s draglines
(18) Lefevre T, Rousseau ME, Pezolet M. Protein secondary reasonable as lifeline? Biol Macromol. 1999;24:283–7.
structure and orientation in silk as reveale by Raman (39) Shao Z, Vollrath F, Sirichaisit J. Analysis of spider silk in native
spectromicroscopy. Biophys J. 2007;92:2885–95. and supercontracted states using Raman spectroscopy.
(19) Rousseau ME, Hernandez D, Reid M, Pezolet M, Hitchcock AP. Polymer. 1999;40:2493–500.
Nephila clavipes spider dragline silk microstructure studied (40) Linke WA. Biomaterials: spider strength and stretchability. Nat
by scanning transmission X-ray microscopy. J Am Chem Soc. Chem Biol. 2010;6:702–3.
2007;129:3897–905. (41) Guinea GV, Elices M, Plaza GR, Perea GB, Daza R, Riekel C,
(20) Lefevre T, Leclerc J, Buffeteau T, Rioux-Dube JF, Paquin MC, et al. Minor ampullate silks from Nephila and Argiope spiders:
Rousseau ME, et al. Conformation of spider silk proteins in tensile properties and microstructural characterization.
situ intact major ampullate gland and in solution. Biomacromolecules. 2012;13:2087–98.
Biomacromolecules. 2007;8:2342–4. (42) Ayoub NA, Garb JE, Tinghitella RM, Colin MA, Hayashi CY.
(21) Pan ZJ, Miura M, Morikawa H, Iwasa M, Liu M. Morphology and Blueprint for a high-performance biomaterial: full-length
microstructure of spider dragline silk from araneus ventri- spider dragline silk genes. PLoS One. 2007;2:e514.
cosus. J DongHua Univ. 2005;22:73–7. (43) Hagn F. A structural view on spider silk proteins and their role
(22) Lawrence BA, Vierra CA, Moore AMF. Molecular and mechan- in fiber assembly. J Pept Sci. 2012;18:357–65.
ical properties of major ampullate silk of the black widow (44) Cranford SW, Tarakanova A, Pugno NM, Buehler MJ. Nonlinear
spider, Latrodectus hesperus. Biomacromolecules. material behavior of spider silk yields robust webs. Nature.
2004;5:689–95. 2012;482:72–6.
(23) Kim O-H, Yoon OJ, Lee HJ. Silk fibroin scaffolds potentiate (45) Geurts P, Zhao L, Hsia Y, Gnesa E, Tang S, Jeffery F, et al.
immunomodulatory function of human mesenchymal stromal Synthetic spider silk fibers spun from pyriform spidroin 2, a
cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2019;519:323–9. glue silk protein discovered in orb-weaving spider attachment
(24) Smahish S, Kladdha S. Spider silk: the miracle materia. China discs. Biomacromolecules. 2010;11:3495–503.
Fiber Inspect. 2010;4:85–87. (46) Chen G, Zhang YL, Yang ZJ, Rising A. Full-length
(25) Meyer A, Pugno NM, Cranford SW. Compliant threads minor ampullate spidroin gene sequence. PLoS One.
maximize spider silk connection strength and toughness. J R 2012;7:e52293.
Soc Interface. 2014;11:20140561. (47) Perry DJ, Bittencourt D, Liberles JS, Rech EL, Lewis RV. Piriform
(26) Jiang C. Spider silk I: super mechanical properties. Mech Eng. spider silk sequences reveal unique repetitive elements.
2013;36:117–9. Biomacromolecules. 2010;11:3000–6.
(27) Gu YQ, Yu LZ, Mou JG, Wu DH, Xu MS, Zhou PJ, et al. Research (48) Tokareva O, Michalczechen-Lacerda VA, Rech EL, Kaplan DL,
strategies to develop environmentally friendly marine anti- Recombinant DNA. production of spider silk proteins. Microb
fouling coatings. Mar Drugs. 2020;18:371. Biotechnol. 2013;6:651–63.
(28) Gosline JM, Guerette PA, Ortlepp CS, Savage KN. The (49) Gronau G, Qin Z, Buehler MJ. Effect of sodium chloride on the
mechanical design of spider silks: from fibroin sequence to structure and stability of spider silk’s N-terminal protein
mechanical function. J Exp Biol. 1999;202:3295–303. domain. Biomater Sci. 2013;1:276–84.
(29) Perera S, Egodage S, Walpalage S. Enhancement of mechan- (50) Young SL, Gupta M, Hanske C, Fery A, Scheibel T, Tsukruk VV.
ical properties of natural rubber–clay nanocomposites Utilizing conformational changes for patterning thin films of
through incorporation of silanated organoclay into natural recombinant spider silk proteins. Biomacromolecules.
rubber latex. e-Polymer. 2020;20:144–53. 2012;13:3189–99.
(30) Kelly SP, Sensing A, Lorentz KA, Blackledge TA. Damping (51) Dick C, Vollrath F, Kenney JM. Spider silk protein refolding is
capacity is evolutionarily conserved in the radial silk of orb- controlled by changing pH. Biomacromolecules.
weaving spiders. Zoology. 2011;114:233–8. 2004;5:704–10.
(31) Elices M, Rez-Rigueiro J, Plaza G. Recovery in spider silk (52) Vollrath F, Knight DP. Liquid crystalline spinning of spider silk.
fibers. J Appl Polym Sci. 2010;92:3537–41. Nature. 2001;410:541–48.
 Mechanical properties of spider silk bionic material  457

(53) Dicko C, Knight D, Kenney JM, Vollrath F. Secondary structures (72) Pant HR, Bajgai MP, Nam KT, Chu KH, Park SJ, Kim HY.
and conformational changes in flagelliform, cylindrical, major, Formation of electrospun nylon-6/methoxy poly(ethylene
and minor ampullate silkproteins. Temperature and concen- glycol) oligomer spider-wave nanofibers. Mater Lett.
tration effects. Biomacromolecules. 2004;5:2105–115. 2010;64:2087–90.
(54) Scheibel T. Spider silks: recombinant synthesis, assembly, (73) Gu L, Jiang Y, Hu J. Scalable spider-silk-like supertough fibers
spinning, and engineering of synthetic proteins. Microb Cell using a pseudoprotein polymer. Adv Mater. 2019;31:1904311.
Fact. 2004;3:14. (74) Shah TV, Vasava DV. A glimpse of biodegradable polymers
(55) Guan J, Vollrath F, Porter D. Two mechanisms for super- and their biomedical applications. e-Polymer.
contraction in nephila spider dragline silk. 2020;19:385–410.
Biomacromolecules. 2011;12:4030–5. (75) Brook S, Todd B, Cheryl H. Spider capture silk: performance
(56) Gu Y, Xia K, Wu D, Mou J, Zheng S. Technical characteristics implications of variation in an exceptional biomaterial. J Exp
and wear-resistant mechanism of nano coatings: a review. Zool Part A. 2007;307:654–666.
Coatings. 2020;10:233. (76) Agnarsson I, Kuntner M, Blackledge T. Bioprospecting finds
(57) Pezhman M, Sesilja A, Christopher PL, Olli I, Kristaps J, the toughest biological material: extraordinary silk from a
Wolfgang W, et al. Biomimetic composites with enhanced giant riverine orb spider. PLoS One. 2010;5:1–8.
toughening using silk-inspired triblock proteins and aligned (77) Schafer-Nolte F, Hennecke K, Reimers K, Schnabel R,
nanocellulose reiforcements. Sci Adv. 2019;5:9–13. Allmeling C, Vogt PM, et al. Biomechanics and biocompat-
(58) Tanveer A. Graphene-based materials: the missing piece in ibility of woven spider silk meshes during remodeling in a
nanomedicine? Biochem Biophys Res Commun. rodent fascia replacement model. Ann Surg.
2018;504:686–9. 2014;259:781–92.
(59) Kartik B, Mithilesh Y, Fang-Chyou C, Kyong Y. Graphene (78) Dastagir K, Dastagir N, Limbourg A, Reimers K, Straub S,
nanoplatelet-reinforced poly(vinylidene fluoride)/high density Vogt PM. In vitro construction of artificial blood vessels using
polyethylene blend-based nanocomposites with enhanced spider silk as a supporting matrix. J Mech Behav Biomed.
thermal and electrical properties. Nanomaterials. 2019;9:361. 2020;101:103436.
(60) Luca V, Nicola P. Nanotube superfiber materials. 2nd edn. (79) Albina RF, Emanuel MF, Marcia TR, Fernando JR, Manuela EG,
Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2019. p. 431–43. Isabel BL, et al. Antimicrobial coating of spider silk to prevent
(61) Gu L, Jiang Y, Hu J. Structure design and property of spider bacterial attachment on silk surgical sutures. Acta Biomater.
silk-inspired shape memory materials. Mater Today. 2019;99:236–46.
2019;16:1491–6. (80) Litman T, Druley TE, Stein WD, Bates SE. From MDR to MXR:
(62) Liff SM, Kumar N, Mckinley GH. High-performance elastomeric new understanding of multidrug resistance systems, their
nanocomposites via solvent-exchange processing. Nat Mater. properties and clinical significance. Cell Mol Life Sci.
2006;6:76–83. 2001;58:931–59.
(63) Zhang L, Zhao X. Carbon-based materials as supercapacitor (81) Laurent S, Forge D, Port M, Roch A, Robic C, Elst LV, et al.
electrodes. Chem Soc Rev. 2009;38:2520–31. Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles: synthesis, stabilization,
(64) Simon P, Gogotsi Y, Dunn B. Where do batteries end and vectorization, physicochemical characterizations, and biolo-
supercapacitors begin? Science. 2014;343:1210–1. gical applications. Chem Rev. 2008;108:2064–110.
(65) Song M, Wang XJ, Wu SZ, Qin Q, Yu GM, Liu ZZ, et al. How the (82) Hildebrandt B, Wust P, Ahlers O, Dieing A, Sreenivasa G,
hindered amines affect the microstructure and mechanical Kerner T, et al. The cellular and molecular basis of
properties of nitrile-butadiene rubber composites. e-Polymer. hyperthermia. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2002;43:33–56.
2020;20:8–15. (83) Kucharczyk K, Rybka JD, Hilgendorff M, Krupinski M,
(66) Simon P, Gogotsi Y. Materials for electrochemical capacitors. Slachcinski M, Mackiewicz A, et al. Composite spheres made
Nat Mater. 2008;7:845–54. of bioengineered spider silk and iron oxide nanoparticles for
(67) Lobato B, Suarez L, Guardia L, Centeno TA. Capacitance and theranostics applications. PLoS One. 2019;14:e0219790.
surface of carbons in supercapacitors. Carbon. (84) Pant H, Bajgai MP, Yi C, Nirmala R, Nam KT, Baek W, et al.
2017;6:434–45. Effect of successive electrospinning and the strength of
(68) Yan J, Fan Z, Sun W, Ning GQ, Wei T, Zhang Q, et al. Advanced hydrogen bond on the morphology of electrospun nylon-6
asymmetric supercapacitors based on Ni(OH)2/graphene and nanofibers. Colloids Surf A. 2010;370:87–94.
porous graphene electrodes with high energy density. Adv (85) Pant HR, Bajgai MP, Nam KT, Seo YA, Pandeya DR, Hong ST,
Funct Mater. 2012;22:2632–41. et al. Electrospun nylon-6 spider-net like nanofiber mat
(69) Frackowiak E, Beguin F. Carbon materials for the electro- containing TiO2 nanoparticles: a multifunctional nanocom-
chemical storage of energy in capacitors. Carbon. posite textile material. J Hazard Mater. 2011;185:124–30.
2001;39:937–50. (86) Liu L, Huang Y, Li F, Ma Y, Li WB, Su M, et al. Spider-web
(70) Zhu S, Li J, Deng X, He C, Liu E, He F, et al. Ultrathin- inspired multi-resolution graphene tactile sensor. Chem
nanosheet-induced synthesis of 3D transition metal oxides Commun. 2018;54:4810–3.
networks for lithium ion battery anodes. Adv Funct Mater. (87) Liu Z, Zhang M, Zhang Y, Zhang YX, Liu KQ, Zhang JZ, et al. Spider
2017;27:1605017. silk-based humidity sensor. Opt Lett. 2019;44:2907–10.
(71) Deng X, Zhu S, Li J, He F, Liu E, He CN, et al. Bio-inspired three- (88) Miniaci M, Krushynska A, Movchan AB, Bosia F, Pugno NM.
dimensional carbon network with enhanced mass-transfer Spider web-inspired acoustic metamaterials. Appl Phys Lett.
ability for supercapacitors. Carbon. 2019;143:728–35. 2016;109:071905.