CHAPTER 4

RADIO TRANSMITTER

INTRODUCTION

A radio transmitter takes the information to be communicated and converts it to an electronic

signal compatible with the communication medium. Typically this process involves carrier generation,
modulation, and power amplification. The signal is then fed by wire, coaxial cable, or waveguide
to an antenna that launches it into free space. This chapter covers transmitter configurations and the
circuits commonly used in radio transmitters, including oscillators, amplifiers, frequency multipliers, and
impedance matching networks.

TOPICS COVERED

 Transmitter Fundamentals
 Transmitter Configurations
 Carrier Generators
 Typical Crystal Oscillator Circuits

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson the students shall be able to:

1. Calculate the frequency tolerance of crystal oscillators in percent and in parts per million (ppm).
2. Calculate the output frequency of a transmitter given the oscillator frequency and the number and
types of multipliers
3. Discuss the operation of a radio transmitter
4. Discuss the operation and benefits of class D, E, and F switching amplifiers, and explain why
they are more efficient.
5. Explain the biasing and operation of class A, AB, and C power amplifiers using transistors
6. Explain the basic design of L, π, and T-type LC circuits, and discuss how they are used for
impedance matching

LESSON 1

TRANSMITTER FUNDAMENTALS

The transmitter is the electronic unit that accepts the information signal to be transmitted and converts it
to an RF signal capable of being transmitted over long distances.

Four Basic Requirements

1. It must generate a carrier signal of the correct frequency at a desired point in this spectrum.
2. It must provide some form of modulation that causes the information signal to modify the
carrier signal.
3. It must provide sufficient power amplification to ensure that the signal level is high
 enough to carry over the desired distance.
4. It must provide circuits that match the impedance of the power amplifier to that of the
antenna for maximum transfer of power.

TRANSMITTER CONFIGURATIONS

Continuous-Wave Transmitter.

The oscillator generates the carrier and can be switched off and on by a telegraph key to produce the dots
and dashes of the International Morse code. Information transmitted in this way is referred to as
continuous-wave (CW) transmission. Such a transmitter is rarely used today, for the Morse code is
nearly extinct and the oscillator power is too low for reliable communication. Nowadays transmitters such
as this are built only by amateur (ham) radio operators for what is called QRP or low-power operation for
personal hobby communication.

The CW transmitter can be greatly improved by simply adding a power amplifier to it, as illustrated in
Fig. 8-1.

The oscillator is still keyed off and on to produce dots and dashes, and the amplifier increases the power
level of the signal. The result is a stronger signal that carries farther and produces more reliable
transmission.

1. High-Level Am Transmitters

Fig. 8-2 shows an AM transmitter using high-level modulation. An oscillator, in most applications a
crystal oscillator, generates the final carrier frequency. The carrier signal is then fed to a buffer amplifier
whose primary purpose is to isolate the oscillator from the remaining power amplifier stages. The buffer
amplifier usually operates at the class A level and provides a modest increase in power output. The main
purpose of the buffer amplifier is simply to prevent load changes
in the power amplifier stages or in the antenna from causing frequency variations in the oscillator. The
signal from the buffer amplifier is applied to a class C driver amplifier designed to provide an
intermediate level of power amplification. The purpose of this circuit is to generate sufficient output
power to drive the final power amplifier stage. The final power amplifier, normally just referred to as the
final, also operates at the class C level at very high power. The actual amount of power depends on the
application. For example, in a CB transmitter, the power input is only 5 W. However, AM radio stations
operate at much higher powers — say, 250, 500, 1000, 5000, or 50,000 W — and the video transmitter at
a TV station operates at even higher power levels. Cell phone base stations operate at the 30- to 40-W
level.

2. Low-Level FM Transmitters

This arrangement works for both AM and FM. FM transmitters using this method are far more
common than low-level AM transmitters. Fig. 8-3 shows the typical configuration for an FM or PM
transmitter. The indirect method of FM generation is used. A stable crystal oscillator is used to generate
the carrier signal, and a buffer amplifier is used to isolate it from the remainder of the circuitry. The
carrier signal is then applied to a phase modulator.. The voice input is amplified and processed to limit the
frequency range and prevent overdeviation. The output of the modulator is the desired FM signal.

Most FM transmitters are used in the VHF and UHF range. Because crystals are not available for
generating those frequencies directly, the carrier is usually generated at a frequency considerably lower
than the final output frequency. To achieve the desired output frequency, one or more frequency
multiplier stages are used. A frequency multiplier is a class C amplifier whose output frequency is some
integer multiple of the input frequency. Most frequency multipliers increase the frequency by a factor of
2, 3, 4, or 5. Because they are class C amplifiers, most frequency multipliers also provide a modest
amount of power amplification. Not only does the frequency multiplier increase the carrier frequency to
the desired output frequency, but also it multiplies the frequency deviation produced by the modulator.
The design of the transmitter must be such that the frequency multipliers will provide the correct amount
of multiplication not only for the carrier frequency, but also for the modulation deviation. After the
frequency multiplier stage, a class C driver amplifier is used to increase the power level sufficiently to
operate the final power amplifier, which also operates at the class C level.

3. SSB Transmitters

In a single-sideband transmitter (SSB), only one of the sidebands, the upper or the lower, is transmitted
while the remaining sideband and the carrier are suppressed. SUPPRESSION is the elimination of the
undesired portions of the signal.( www.TPUB.Com)

Typically, the SSB signal is generated at a low RF. This makes the balanced modulator and filter circuits
simpler and easier to design. The mixer translates the SSB signal to a higher desired frequency. The other
input to the mixer is derived from a local oscillator set at a frequency that, when mixed with the SSB
signal, produces the desired operating frequency. The mixer can be set up so that the tuned circuit at its
output selects either the sum or the difference frequency. The oscillator frequency must be set to provide
the desired output frequency. For fixed-channel operation, crystals can be used in this local oscillator.
However, in some equipment, such as that used by hams, a variable frequency oscillator(VFO) is used to
provide continuous tuning over a desired range. In most modern communication equipment, a frequency
synthesizer is used to set the final output frequency.
An oscillator signal generates the carrier, which is then fed to the buffer amplifier. The buffer
amplifier supplies the carrier input signal to the balanced modulator. The audio amplifier and
speech-processing circuits described previously provide the other input to the balanced modulator. The
balanced modulator output — a DSB signal — is then fed to a sideband filter that selects either the upper
or lower sideband. Following this, the SSB signal is fed to a mixer
circuit, which is used to convert the signal to its final operating frequency. Mixer circuits, which operate
as simple amplitude modulators, are used to convert a lower frequency to a higher one or a higher
frequency to a lower one.

The output of the mixer in Fig. 8-4 is the desired final carrier frequency containing the SSB modulation.
It is then fed to linear driver and power amplifiers to increase the power level as required. Class C
amplifiers distort the signal and therefore cannot be used to transmit SSB or low-level AM of any kind,
including DSB. Class A or AB linear amplifiers must be used to retain the information content in the AM
signal.

4. Digital Transmitters.

Most modern digital radios such as cell phones use DSP to produce the modulation and related processing
of the data to be transmitted. Refer to Fig. 8-5. The serial data representing the data to be transmitted is
sent to the DSP, which then generates two data streams that are then converted to RF for transmission.
The data paths from the DSP chip are sent to DACs where they are translated to equivalent analog
signals.
 The analog signals are filtered in a low-pass filter (LPF) and then applied to mixers that will up-convert
them to the final output frequency. The mixers receive their second inputs from an oscillator or a
frequency synthesizer that selects the operating frequency. Note that the oscillator signals are in
quadrature; i.e., one is shifted 90° from the other. One is a sine wave, and the other is a cosine wave. The
upper signal is referred to as the in-phase (I ) signal and the other as the quadrature (Q) signal. The output
signals from the mixers are then added, and the result is amplified and transmitted by the power amplifier
(PA). Two quadrature signals are needed at the receiver to recover the signal and demodulate it in a DSP
chip. This configuration works for any type of modulation as all of the modulation is done with
mathematical algorithms.

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APPLICATION

Review Questions

1.) What circuits are typically part of every radio transmitter?

2.) Enumerate the four basic requirements of a radio transmitter.
3. Which type of transmitter does not use class C amplifiers?
4. For how many degrees of an input sine wave does a class B amplifier conduct?
5. What is the name given to the bias for class C amplifiers produced by an input RC network?
6. Differentiate the low level transmitter and high level transmitter.