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Deterministic Numerical Modeling
of Soil–Structure Interaction
 Series Editor
Marc Boulon

Deterministic
Numerical Modeling of
Soil–Structure Interaction

Edited by

Stéphane Grange
Diana Salciarini
First published 2021 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers,
or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the
CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the
undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

27-37 St George’s Road 111 River Street
London SW19 4EU Hoboken, NJ 07030
UK USA

www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd 2021

The rights of Stéphane Grange and Diana Salciarini to be identified as the authors of this work have been
asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2021947467

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-78630-798-9
 Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Chapter 1. Hydro-mechanically Coupled Interface Finite

Element for the Modeling of Soil–Structure Interactions:
Application to Offshore Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Benjamin C ERFONTAINE and Robert C HARLIER
1.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1. The finite element method (FEM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2. Review of existing contact formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3. Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2. Governing equations of the interface problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 .Mechanical problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.2. Flow problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.3. Couplings between mechanical and flow problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3. Numerical formulation of the element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.1. Space and fluid pressure discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.2. Mechanical problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.3. Flow problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.4. Time discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.5. Stiffness matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4. Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.1. Suction caissons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.2. Problem description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.3. Tension loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.4.4. Lateral loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.5. Conclusion and perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.5.1. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.5.2. Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.6. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
vi Deterministic Numerical Modeling of Soil–Structure Interaction

Chapter 2. DEM Approach for the Modeling of Geotechnical Structures in

Interaction with Reinforcements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Pascal VILLARD
2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.2. Discrete modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.2.1. General concepts of the discrete modeling approach . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.2.2. Specific interaction between discrete particles and reinforcement
elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.2.3. Numerical strategy for geotechnical structure modeling
using DEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.3. Application of the DEM to geotechnical structures in interaction
with rigid piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.3.1. Load transfer mechanisms within granular embankments
over a network of piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.3.2. Load transfer mechanisms within granular embankments
over a network of piles under cyclic loadings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.4. Application of the DEM to geotechnical structures in interaction
with flexible and deformable reinforcement – comparison with
experiment results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.4.1. Numerical and experimental behavior of geosynthetic tubes
filled with granular material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.4.2. Numerical and experimental behavior of granular embankments
reinforced with geosynthetic in areas prone to subsidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.6. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Chapter 3. SSI Analysis in Geotechnical Engineering Problems

Using a Finite Difference Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Daniel DIAS and Orianne JENCK
3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.2. The finite difference method using an explicit scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.3. Application of the finite difference method to soil–structure
interaction problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.3.1. Structural elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.3.2. Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.3.3. Constitutive models for soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.3.4. Dimension of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.3.5. Monotonic, quasi-static cyclic and dynamic loadings . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.4. Some application examples in the geotechnical engineering field . . . . . . . . 112
3.4.1. Reinforced retaining walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.4.2. Tunneling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
 Contents vii

3.4.3. Soft soil improvement using vertical rigid piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

3.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.6. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Chapter 4. Macroelements for Soil–Structure Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Diana S ALCIARINI, Stéphane G RANGE, Claudio TAMAGNINI and
Panagiotis KOTRONIS

4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

4.2. The concept of generalized forces: Eurocode 8 recommendations. . . . . . . . 145
4.3. Macroelements for shallow foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.3.1. Generalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.3.2. Macroelements formulated in the framework of hardening
elastoplasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.3.3. Macroelements formulated in the framework of hypoplasticity . . . . . . . 151
4.4. The considered macroelements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4.4.1. The elastoplastic macroelement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4.4.2. The hypoplastic macroelement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.5. Case study: seismic response of a reinforced concrete viaduct . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.5.1. Features of the viaduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.5.2. The finite element model of the viaduct and its foundations . . . . . . . . . 161
4.5.3. Seismic input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.6. Calibration of the macroelements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.7. Results of the numerical simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.7.1. Forces and displacements in the structural elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.7.2. Displacements of the abutment and the foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.8. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.9. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Chapter 5. Urban Seismology: Experimental Approach to Soil–Structure

Interaction Towards the Concept of Meta-city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Philippe G UÉGUEN, Philippe ROUX and Andrea C OLOMBI
5.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.1.1.Observation of soil–structure interaction under weak
and strong seismic loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.1.2. Contamination of urban seismic motion by the vibration
of buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.1.3. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.2. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

List of Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
 Introduction

The deterministic numerical modeling of Soil–Structure Interaction (SSI) uses

the tools of Mechanics, and of their transposition, according to the methods of the
numerical discretization. An SSI analysis should take into account the differences
between the properties of the soil and the structure, possibly leading to local relative
displacements. In addition, the presence of water enforces to consider the interaction
on the hydro-mechanical framework, involving pore pressures and fluid flow.

Non-deterministic methods, making use of artificial intelligence and progressive

learning, are not considered here.

The geotechnical works are usually designed referring to the following three
situations:
1) The pseudo-static case: where the loadings are nearly time independent
(a small number of cycles are accepted).
2) The cyclic case: involving a large number of slow cycles (slow versus the
time scales of any physical phenomena involved).
3) The dynamic (mostly seismic) case: where inertia forces are taken into
account.

In the pseudo-static and cyclic cases, the SSI is defined from a local point of
view, whereas in dynamic conditions it is examined from a more global angle. The
soil–structure interfaces, transfer zones of the loads acting between soil and
structure, and often zones of large localized deformations have a significant
importance. Special strategies and experimental characterization tests have been
developed for describing them.

This volume gives an overview on the main modeling methods developed in

geotechnical engineering in order to describe the SSI in various situations:
x Deterministic Numerical Modeling of Soil–Structure Interaction

– The classical and well-known finite element method (FEM) using interface or
contact elements available for coupled hydro-mechanical problems and in which the
local plastic energy dissipation contributes to the classical global damping.
– The distinct element method (DEM) in which the contact zones between soil
and structure are described by local adapted interaction laws.
– The finite difference method (FDM) using explicit algorithm in which interface
or contact elements are available and straightforward for coupled hydro-mechanical,
highly nonlinear with high deformation and dynamic problems.
– The more recent approaches based on the macro-element concept and
generalized variables in an incremental form available in static and dynamic
situations, where a large volume of soil underlying and surrounding the-structure is
represented by a small number of degrees of freedom. This method could be
considered as an improved extension of the stiffness coefficient methods known for
the piles as the t-z and p-y curves.
– The seismology approach with inertia and viscous equivalent damping forces,
in which the SSI is developed between several structures (like buildings in a town)
using the notion of meta-materials. This point of view is especially useful when
analyzing the movement of the buildings induced by a seismic event at the scale of a
town.
 1

Hydro-mechanically Coupled Interface

Finite Element for the Modeling of
Soil–Structure Interactions: Application to
Offshore Constructions

This chapter presents how the multiphysical soil–structure interactions can be

modeled using the finite element method (FEM). This method takes into account
different nonlinearities, due to geometry, material behavior, physical couplings and
interfaces. The FEM allows the volume to be discretized into a finite number of
elements and a finite number of degrees of freedom. The numerical techniques for
solving a nonlinear problem in the framework of the FEM have been extensively
studied and are now very robust.

The behavior of offshore foundations is highly dependent on interface properties.

Upon large overturning moment or lateral load, the soil–structure interaction results
in rotation, sliding or gap opening. Hydro-mechanical couplings have become
particularly important in many applications, as the loading rate and soil permeability
are such that the soil behavior is not completely drained or undrained.

A hydro-mechanically coupled interface element is proposed in this work to

simulate the behavior of suction caissons embedded in sand. This interface element
simulates the mechanical problem with a penalty method and reproduces the friction
at the interface as a simple Coulomb model. The interface element introduces hydro-
mechanical couplings based on the gap opening (storage, longitudinal permeability
evolution) and the definition of an effective contact stress.

Chapter written by Benjamin C ERFONTAINE and Robert C HARLIER.

Deterministic Numerical Modeling of Soil–Structure Interaction,

First Edition. Edited by Stéphane Grange and Diana Salciarini.
© ISTE Ltd 2021. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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2 Deterministic Numerical Modeling of Soil–Structure Interaction

1.1. Introduction

The advent of numerical methods and, especially, finite element approaches has
provided engineers with formidable tools to predict the behavior of constructions.
Most of the time, the soil can be considered as a homogeneous medium behaving in
a purely drained or undrained manner. However, in some cases, depending on the soil
permeability and the loading rate, partially drained behaviors should be considered.
In this case, hydro-mechanical couplings must be included in the finite element
formulation for both volume and interface elements.

The development of renewable energy sources is the greatest challenge of the 21st
Century. A large number of offshore wind farms have been developed throughout the
last decade, especially in shallow waters in the North Sea where a sandy seabed is
mostly encountered. The offshore wind industry is expected to grow exponentially,
followed by the development of more recent wave and tidal energy devices. Whether
they are bottom-fixed or floating, their foundations or anchors will have to be designed.
The finite element simulation of anchors and foundations has become more popular
among offshore wind farm designers. However, the modeling of the interface between
the soil and the foundations is still very rudimentary.

From the mechanical point of view, shearing along the interfaces participates in the
strength of the foundation against applied loads in any direction (horizontal, vertical
or moment). When the maximum capacity is overcome, sliding occurs between the
soil and the foundation. Each movement of the foundation results in a fluid flow, since
it lies under the sea. This affects the interface behavior by modifying the maximum
shear stress available or by inducing a suction effect, because of a gap opening (e.g. for
suction caissons). The finite element modeling of these complex interactions at the
interface is the topic of this chapter.

1.1.1. The finite element method (FEM)

The finite element method (FEM) is one of the most popular numerical methods for
solving partial differential equations for boundary value problems [ZIE 00]. The main
concept of the method is to decompose the entire continuum domain to be modeled
into a collection of subdomains, called elements. The continuum field of any physical
variable of interest (e.g. displacement, pore water pressure) is approximated over each
element, based on a finite number of variables (physical unknowns) and pre-defined
interpolation functions. The partial differential equations that must be solved over the
entire continuum domain can then be approximated and discretized for each element.
The set of discrete equations associated with each element can be combined into a
single global system and solved algebraically. The solution of this set of equations
is the one that minimizes the error of the approximation with respect to the actual
 Hydro-mechanically Coupled Interface Finite Element 3

solution. The FEM has many advantages, such as the ability to simulate complex
geometries, incorporate different constitutive laws, involve multiphysical couplings
and analyze stress and internal variables locally.

1.1.2. Review of existing contact formulations

Numerically solving the mechanical contact problem is not a recent topic, and
several books have been dedicated to this issue [JOH 92, WRI 06]. Within the
framework of finite element methods, two general approaches exist in order to manage
contact between two solid bodies, namely the thin layer and the zero-thickness
approach, as shown in Figure 1.1.

The first approach consists of explicitly modeling the contact zone with special
finite elements, designed to encounter large shear or compression deformation
[DES 84, SHA 93, WRI 13, WEI 15]. The second approach, adopted in the following,
involves special boundary elements which have no thickness, namely zero-thickness
elements [GOO 68, CHA 88, DAY 94, HAB 98, WRI 06]. They discretize a potential
zone of contact. A gap between each side of the interface and a probable other solid is
computed at each time step to detect contact. Three main ingredients are necessary to
formulate this approach:
– a criterion to rule the contact detection/loss and contact pressure evolution;
– a constitutive law to describe the shear/normal behavior(s);
– a technique to discretize the contact area between solids and to compute the gap
function gN , namely the distance between two solids.

No contact Contact
Medium 1
Thin layer
elements Medium 3
Medium 2
Thin layer

Medium 1
Boundary
elements
Medium 2
Zero-thickness

Figure 1.1. Comparison between the thin layer and zero-thickness

approaches in the case of Hertzian contact (source: [CER 15])
4 Deterministic Numerical Modeling of Soil–Structure Interaction

The normal contact constraint ensures that two perfectly smooth solids in contact
do not overlap each other. This mathematical criterion relates the gap function gN and
the contact pressure pN . It states that when the gap is null, the solids are in contact
and a contact pressure prevents their overlapping. When the pressure is equal to zero
and the gap is greater than or equal to zero, there is no contact.

The relationship between gap and pressure evolution can be termed as high
precision or low precision. In the first case, this relationship is physically based and
the pressure increases with a gap that can be negative, leading to interpenetration
(gN < 0). This is especially true in rock mechanics, where surfaces in contact are
not perfectly smooth and the normal pressure increases with deformation of asperities
[GEN 90].

A low-precision contact is ensured on a purely geometrical basis. Two surfaces

of bodies in contact are considered to be perfectly smooth and interpenetration is
theoretically not allowed (gN ≤ 0) [WRI 04]. There are only two states: in contact
or not in contact. The Lagrange multiplier method exactly ensures this condition
[BEL 91, WRI 06]. Lagrange multipliers are introduced to enforce the constraint, and
correspond to the contact pressures. On the other hand, the penalty method [HAB 98]
regularizes the constraint by authorizing a limited interpenetration of the solids in
contact. The contact pressure is linearly proportional to this interpenetration by a
coefficient called the penalty coefficient. Both methods are compared in Figure 1.2.

Lagrange multiplier method

Pressure
distribution

Penalty method No penetration

Zoom
Penetration

Figure 1.2. Comparison between Lagrange multiplier

and penalty methods on deformation and distribution of
contact pressures (source: [CER 15])

The penalty method is adopted in the following for its simplicity, since it does
not require us to introduce a variable number of unknowns (Lagrange multipliers) at
each step. Both solutions are theoretically identical if the penalty coefficient tends
 Hydro-mechanically Coupled Interface Finite Element 5

to infinity. However, increasing this coefficient too much creates a badly conditioned
stiffness matrix, which becomes difficult to solve.

The mobilization of shear stress along the interface is very important in many
applications. The maximum shear stress that could be mobilized in a tangential plane
is strongly dependent on the normal pressure. The most basic relationship between
them is the classical Coulomb criterion. However, similar to the normal behavior,
more complex constitutive laws may be defined: for example, to describe rock joints
[ALO 13, ZAN 13] or soil–structure interfaces [LIU 06, STU 16], including critical
state, we use dilative normal behavior and even cyclic degradation [LIU 08].

The normal contact constraint is defined as a continuous condition over the

boundaries of the solids in contact. It must be discretized in the finite element
framework. Computation of the gap (gN ) and enforcement of the contact constraint
are different depending on the method, as shown in Figure 1.3.
Node to node Node to segment

Gap Gap

Segment to segment Contact domain

Penetration
Gap interpolation

Gap

Figure 1.3. Comparison between the discretization methods

of the contact area (source: [CER 15])

The simplest method, namely node-to-node discretization, imposes the constraint

on a pair of nodes [KLA 88], limiting the problems to small relative tangential
displacement. The node-to-segment discretization overcomes this drawback
[HAL 85]. The gap function is computed by the projection of a node of one side,
termed the slave surface, on a segment of the other side, termed the master surface.
This method is sensitive to sudden changes in the projection direction, but smoothing
techniques strongly reduce this issue [WRI 01]. The contact domain discretization
does not involve any projection method [OLI 09, HAR 09]. The gap between the solids
potentially in contact is discretized by a fictitious mesh. Therefore, the gap function
is continuous between them and avoids many discrepancies and loss of unicity due to
projection.
6 Deterministic Numerical Modeling of Soil–Structure Interaction

The segment-to-segment discretization [HAB 98, PUS 04, FIS 06] is based on the
mortar method developed in [BEL 98]. In this case, the contact constraint is applied
over the element in a weak sense. The gap function is computed by the closest-point
projection of a point of the non-mortar surface onto the mortar surface, which is given
more importance. In the following, this method is adopted. The distance is computed at
each integration point of the element and extrapolated over it by means of interpolation
functions.

In many examples, interfaces may be considered as preferential paths for fluid

flows. Therefore, a description of a longitudinal fluid flow, namely parallel to the
interface, must be defined. Boussinesq [BOU 68] first provided a mathematical law
that characterized the laminar flow of a viscous incompressible fluid between two
smooth parallel plates. The total fluid flow was proved to be proportional to the cube
of the aperture between the plates, and this relationship was termed the cubic law. The
applicability of this law to rock mechanics was proven [WIT 80, TSA 81, ORO 98]
under some hypotheses [OLS 01].

The flow problem within interfaces may be treated similarly to the mechanical
contact problem by special volume elements [THI 14] or the zero-thickness method
[GUI 02, SEG 08a]. The second approach is further developed in the following to be
consistent with the mechanical formulation. The flow problem is intrinsically coupled
with the mechanical problem through the opening/closing of the gap. In addition to
the flow along the interface direction, transversal flow also occurs, causing a drop of
pressure between the two sides. Two basic ingredients are necessary to describe this
part:
– a law relating the flow to the gradient of pressure (transversal/longitudinal);
– a technique to discretize the flow within and through the interface.

The single-node discretization of flow is the simplest one, as shown in Figure 1.4.
It simply superposes a discontinuity for fluid flow into a continuous porous medium
[BER 88]. In this case, there is no hydro-mechanical coupling and the opening of the
discontinuity is constant and user-defined. It acts as a pipe.

The double-node discretization considers the longitudinal gradients of pressure on

each side of the interface. The longitudinal flow depends on the average gradient. The
transversal flow is a function of the transversal difference between the pressure and a
parameter called transversal transmissivity [NG 97, GUI 02, SEG 08a, SEG 08b]. In
this case, the mechanical and flow behaviors of the interface are able to coexist and
are coupled.

The last option dissociates the discretization of the longitudinal flow from both
sides of the interface by adding nodes inside the interface. The nodes have only a
single pressure degree of freedom. This method is termed triple-node discretization
 Hydro-mechanically Coupled Interface Finite Element 7

[GUI 02, JHA 14, CER 15]. The underlying hypothesis is that the field of pressure is
homogeneous inside the interface. In this case, there are two drops of pressure between
each side of the interface and inside the interface.
Single node

gN
Finite element mesh

Porous medium
Double node

Discontinuity
gN

Triple node

gN

Figure 1.4. Comparison between the discretization methods of the flow

within and through the interface (source: [CER 15])

1.1.3. Objectives

The first objective of this chapter is to provide a basic formulation of hydro-

mechanically coupled finite elements of the interface. The developments are
sufficiently general to be applied to any finite element code. In addition, any
constitutive law, from the most simple to the most complicated, can be inserted
into this formulation. The governing equations and finite element formulations are
provided in sections 1.2 and 1.3.

The second objective is to highlight the importance of considering hydro-

mechanically coupled interfaces in the soil–structure interaction. An example of
suction caisson modeling is provided in section 1.4 to illustrate the inherently partially
drained (between drained and undrained) behavior of this foundation in the offshore
environment and how interface elements are used to simulate this behavior.

1.2. Governing equations of the interface problem

The interface finite element is modeled using the zero-thickness approach, which
does not require any remeshing technique. The contact constraint is enforced by
a penalty method that is easy to implement and does not require any additional
unknowns. The mechanical constitutive law ruling the shear behavior is the classical
Coulomb model. The fluid flow problem is solved using a three-node discretization.
The couplings arise from the variation of storage and permeability with gap opening,
8 Deterministic Numerical Modeling of Soil–Structure Interaction

as well as the definition of an effective stress. The purpose of this section is to derive
the main equations of the problem and to formulate the continuum interface problem.

1.2.1. Mechanical problem

1.2.1.1. Definition of the mechanical problem and gap function

Let us consider two deformable porous media Ω1 and Ω2 in their current
configurations at time t. The global system of coordinates is termed (E1 , E2 , E3 ). A
2D cross-section of these bodies is illustrated in Figure 1.5. Their evolution is assumed
to be quasi-static. Their boundaries in current configurations are denoted by Γ1 and Γ2 .
Imposed displacement (Dirichlet) and traction (Neumann) boundaries are respectively
denoted by Γiū and Γit̄ .

Γu2 Γ2t Γc1

Ω2 e22 x2
x2
e21 t1 Γc2
t2 e11
Γ1t x1 e12
Ω1
E2
Γu1 E1

Figure 1.5. Statement of the mechanical problem and cross-section of

the 3D problem in the (E1 , E2 ) plane (source: [CER 15])

Γ1c and Γ2c denote both parts of the boundary where contact is likely to occur. In
this area, a local system of coordinates (e11 , e12 , e13 ) is defined along the mortar side
Γ1c , as shown in Figure 1.5, where e11 denotes the normal to the surface. The closest-
point projection x̄1 of a point of x2 of the boundary Γ2c onto Γ1c is defined such that
[WRI 06]
 
gN = x2 − x̄1 · ē11 , [1.1]

where (ē11 , ē12 , ē13 ) denotes the local system of coordinates at point x̄1 . This function
gN is referred to as the gap function, where the subscript N stands for the normal
direction. If there is no contact between the solids, gN is positive. The contact is
termed ideal if there is no interpenetration of the solids. This can be enforced if
the Lagrange multiplier method is used. However, if the penalty method is used,
interpenetration (negative gap function) is necessary to generate the contact pressure.

The definition of a relative tangential displacement between two points in the plane
of contact has no meaning in the field of large displacement [HAB 98]. Rather, normal
 Hydro-mechanically Coupled Interface Finite Element 9

(N) and tangential (T1 and T2) velocities are defined in the local system of coordinates.
They are gathered into the vector ġ such that

ġ = ġN e11 + ġT 1 e12 + ġT 2 e13 . [1.2]

1.2.1.2. Normal contact constraint

The contact between two solids gives rise to non-zero stress vectors t1 = −t2
along their common boundary, as shown in Figure 1.5. These vectors are described in
the corresponding local system of coordinates at each contact point such that

t1 = −pN e11 + τ1 e12 + τ2 e13 , [1.3]

where pN is the normal pressure, and τ1 and τ2 are the shear stresses in both directions
in the plane of the interface. The ideal contact constraint is summarized into the
Hertz–Signorini–Moreau condition [WRI 06]:

gN ≥ 0, pN ≥ 0 and pN gN = 0. [1.4]

If there is no contact, the gap function gN is positive and the contact pressure pN
is null. In case of contact, the gap function is null and the contact pressure is positive.

This condition is no longer verified if the penalty method is used. In case of contact,
the relation between the pressure and the gap function can be written as

ṗN = −KN ġN , [1.5]

where the minus sign ensures that the contact pressure is positive when inter-
penetration increases, i.e. gN < 0 and ġN < 0.

1.2.1.3. Tangential contact constraint

When solids are in contact, the ideal tangential behavior of the interface
distinguishes between the stick and slip states [WRI 06]. In the former state, two
points in contact cannot move tangentially, i.e. they remain stuck together during
the simulation, i.e. ġT 1 = 0 and ġT 2 = 0. The second condition involves a relative
tangential displacement in the plane of the interface. This is summarized in a condition
similar to equation [1.4]:

ġTsli ≥ 0, f (t, q) ≤ 0 and ġTsli f (t, q) = 0 i = 1, 2 [1.6]

where ġTsli is the variation of the non-recoverable displacement in each tangential

direction. It is related to the variation of tangential displacement

ġT = sign(τ̇1 ) ġTsl1 e12 + sign(τ̇2 ) ġTsl2 e13 . [1.7]

10 Deterministic Numerical Modeling of Soil–Structure Interaction

The stick and slip states are distinguished by the criterion f (t, q). It depends on the
stress state t and a set of internal variables q. The evolution of the stress state within
the interface depends on the constitutive law described hereafter.

The ideal stick state, ġT = 0, is also regularized by the penalty method, i.e. a
relative displacement is allowed. Therefore, the relation between the shear stress and
the tangential variation of displacement is given by
τ˙i = KT ġT i i = 1, 2. [1.8]

1.2.1.4. Constitutive law

The constitutive law adopted is a simple Coulomb model despite the actual
behavior of the soil–structure interface, and rock joints are proved to be more complex
than this simple criterion [HU 04, DEJ 06, HO 11, ZAN 13]. However, the constitutive
law is kept as basic as possible, since the examples presented are complex enough.
On the other hand, any nonlinear relation between stress and strain increments can
be substituted into the equations presented below. The interested reader should refer
to [SHA 97, MOR 02, LIU 08, STU 16] for a deeper insight into more complex
constitutive laws.

The constitutive law depends only on the stress state t within the interface and a
single parameter, the friction coefficient μ. Mathematically, it can be written as

2 2
f (t, μ) = (τ1 ) + (τ2 ) −μ pN . [1.9]
  
τ 

where τ  is the norm of the tangential stresses. The criterion is presented in Figure
1.6. In the absence of contact, the stress state lies on the apex of the criterion. Both
normal pressure and tangential stresses are null, i.e. t = 0. If the combination of
tangential and normal stresses lies below the criterion (f < 0), the tangential state
is considered as stick. Otherwise, if the stress state lies on the criterion (f = 0), the
tangential state is considered as sliding.

The tangential behavior is regularized by two shear penalty coefficients. Therefore,

there is no ideal stick state but, rather, a slight tangential displacement occurs.
The criterion may be interpreted as an elastoplastic relation and the shear penalty
coefficients act as shear moduli, acquiring a physical meaning. Hence, the incremental
relation between variations of stresses ṫ and variations of the gap function ġ can be
written as
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
ṗN −KN 0 0 ġN
⎣ τ̇1 ⎦ = ⎣ 0 KT 0 ⎦ · ⎣ġT,1 ⎦ , [1.10]
τ̇2 0 0 KT ġT,2
  
De
 Hydro-mechanically Coupled Interface Finite Element 11

where De is equivalent to the elastic compliance tensor. When the interface reaches
the slip state, an elastoplastic compliance tensor Dep is defined such that
⎡ ⎤
−KN  0  0
⎡ ⎤ ⎢ τ1
2
τ1 τ2 ⎥ ⎡ ⎤
ṗN ⎢ (τ1 ) ⎥ ġN
⎢−μ KN KT 1 − −K T ⎥
⎣ τ̇1 ⎦ = ⎢ τ  τ  2 τ  2 ⎥ ⎣ ⎦
⎢  ⎥ · ġT,1 .
τ̇2 ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ τ2 τ1 τ2 (τ2 ) ⎦ ġ T,2
−μ KN −KT KT 1 −
τ  τ 2 τ 2
  
Dep
[1.11]
This tensor was introduced in [CHA 88], which is based on a non-associated flow
rule.
No contact Stick Slip
pN =0 >0 >0
τ  =0 ≥ 0 = μ · pN

Table 1.1. Stress state in the interface

||τ|| f>0
Slip state f=0
f<0
No contact
Stick state
μ
pN

Figure 1.6. Mohr–Coulomb criterion (source: [CER 15])

1.2.1.5. Continuum formulation

Each solid Ωi verifies the classic mechanical equilibrium equations in quasi-static
conditions [BOR 13]. Solving the mechanical contact problem consists of finding the
field of displacement u for all points x ∈ Ωi to verify these equations, subjected to
the contact constraint equations [1.4] and [1.6].

Considering a field of admissible virtual velocities δ ẋ on Ωi , the weak form of the

principle of virtual power can be written as
2    2
   

i
σ :  (δ ẋ) dΩ = f̄ : δ ẋ dΩ + t̄ : δ ẋ dΩ + T : δ ẋ dΓ ,
i=1 Ωi i=1 Ωi Γit̄ Γic
[1.12]
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Exploring the Variety of Random
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 CHAPTER XV
A TIP FROM MCGRATH

Leonard regretted that Slim hadn’t been at the field during

scrimmage that afternoon, for he wanted Slim to know that he had—
well, done not so badly. All he told the other, though, when they met
before supper was that Johnny had run out of guards and that he
had played at right for awhile.
“Guard?” said Slim in surprise. “You mean Johnny stood for it?”
Slim frowned. “Look here, General, let me give you a word of advice.
You never get anywhere by changing jobs. You stick to being a
tackle. The next time Johnny wants to shift you to some other
position you put your foot down.”
“It wasn’t Johnny did it, Slim. They yelled for a guard and I ran
on.”
“More fool you, son. You’ve got to specialize, or you’ll just sit on
the bench forever and ever. The fellow that does a little of
everything never does much of anything, as some one once very
wisely remarked. How did you get along?”
“All right,” answered Leonard. “It was easier than tackle, Slim. I—I
was more at home there, I suppose.”
“Huh,” grumbled Slim, “don’t get to looking for the easy jobs,
General. You stay put, young feller. Why, only a couple of days ago
Billy Wells was telling me what a wonderful tackle you’d make!”
“Wells was?” exclaimed Leonard. “Get out, Slim!”
“He was, honest to goodness! Why, Billy’s a—a great admirer of
yours, General. He said more nice things about your playing than I
ever heard him say about any fellow’s—not excepting his own! And
now you go and let them make a goat of you. Too bad, son.”
“We-ell, I’ve half a notion that Johnny will let me play guard after
this,” said Leonard. It was more a hope than a notion, though. Slim
shook his head doubtfully.
“I wouldn’t bank on it,” he said. “You know, General, you aren’t
quite built for a guard.”
After supper—Slim had been eating at training table for a long
while now—Leonard was leaning over a Latin book in Number 12
when the door opened violently and things began to happen to him.
First he was precipitated backward until his head touched the floor
and his feet gyrated in air. Then he was sat on while rude hands
tweaked his nose and the lately occupied chair entangled his feet.
About that time Leonard began to resent the treatment and got a
firm hold on Slim’s hair. But Slim wouldn’t have that.
“No, General,” he announced firmly. “Be quiet and take your
medicine. You are being disciplined, son. This isn’t a mere vulgar
brawl. This is for the good of your poor little shriveled soul.”
“Well, let up on my nose then, you crazy idiot! What am I being
disciplined for! And get off my tummy a minute so I can kick that
blamed chair out of the way!”
“Don’t vent your spleen on the poor inanimate chair,”
remonstrated Slim reproachfully. “It never did anything to you, you
deceiving goof. Look at me! In the eye—I mean eyes! Why didn’t
you tell me what happened this afternoon?”
“I did.”
“General!”
“Ouch! Quit, you—you crazy—”
“Why didn’t you tell me all? Look at me, consarn yer!”
“I am, Slim! Doggone it, will you quit?”
 “Stop struggling! General, you’ve got to come clean. Did you or
didn’t you deceive me?”
“I did not.”
“General, you did. Since then I have learned the truth. You went
and made yourself one of these here football heroes, you did,
General. Broke through—no, crashed through the enemy line and fell
on the fumbled ball, thus bringing victory to your beloved Alma
Mater! Not once, but twice did you do this thing. I know all, and
lying won’t help you any longer. Confess, drat your pesky hide! Did
you or isn’t they?”
“They is!” groaned Leonard. “For the love of Mike, Slim, get off my
supper!”
Slim removed himself, and Leonard struggled out of the clutches
of the chair and got to his feet. “For two cents,” he said, “I’d lay you
over that blamed chair and paddle you, Slim.”
“No, you wouldn’t, son. You know very well that you deserved all
you got, and a little bit more. You deceived me, me your friend! You
—”
“Oh, dry up,” laughed Leonard. “What did you expect me to do?
Tell you how good I was? Those second team fellows that played
against me were dead easy, Slim. A child could have got through
those chaps. Why, you could yourself, Slim! Well, I won’t go that far,
but—”
“I pay no heed to your insults, you gallery-player!”
“Shut up! There wasn’t any gallery to-day. It was too cold.”
“Gallery enough. Fellows at table spent about half the time talking
about you and your stunts. And I had to make believe I knew all
about it and keep nosing around for clews. Not for worlds would I
have confessed that I knew naught of which they spake. Fancy my
position! Me who raised you from a cradle! Aren’t you ashamed of
yourself?”
 “Awfully,” said Leonard. “Now will you dry up and let me get this
Latin?”
“I will not. Say, General, I wish you’d set to work and get
Renneker’s job away from him.”
“That’s likely,” scoffed Leonard. “What you got against Renneker?”
“Nothing. Only—” Slim sobered, and after a moment’s pause
continued: “Only that yarn of Johnny McGrath’s makes me sort of
wonder whether—well, if Renneker wasn’t on the team, General,
there wouldn’t be anything to worry about!”
“I thought you’d decided that there wasn’t anything in that idea of
McGrath’s.”
“So I had. I’m still that way. Only—well, I wish some one would
find out the truth of it. Or you’d beat him out for the place!”
“I’ve got a fine chance, Slim! Look here, if you think there’s a
chance that McGrath isn’t mistaken why don’t you ask Renneker
about it?”
Slim shrugged. “It isn’t my funeral. Besides, what’s to prevent him
from lying?”
Leonard shook his head. “I don’t believe he would, Slim. He
doesn’t seem that sort, you know.”
“No,” agreed Slim, grudgingly, “he doesn’t. Oh, well, I should
worry. Gee, I’ve got enough to attend to without turning reformer.
There’s the class dinner Saturday, and Cash tells me only about half
the bunch have paid up so far. By the way, have you heard
anything?”
“Not a thing,” replied Leonard.
“Guess you haven’t tried very hard,” grumbled the other. “I’d like
to know what the freshies are up to. They’ve got something
planned. You can see that by the knowing look of ’em. Some fool
stunt the juniors have put ’em up to, I’ll wager. Well—”
 Slim relapsed into thoughtful silence, and Leonard edged his chair
back to the table. After a minute he asked: “That all?”
“Huh?” inquired Slim absently.
“If you’re quite through I’ll have another go at this Latin,” said
Leonard politely. “But of course if there’s anything else on your mind
—”
“Go to the dickens,” growled Slim.
On Tuesday the first-string players returned to a full diet of work
and, excepting Smedley, now pronounced out of football for the
season, all the guard candidates were on hand when the scrimmage
started. Nevertheless Leonard displaced Renneker in the second
period and Raleigh went in at left guard, relieving Stimson. Billy
Wells greeted Leonard heartily with a playful poke in the ribs and,
“Well, here’s the General! See who’s with us, Jim!” Jim Newton
turned and grinned. “Hello, sonny,” he said. “You get behind me and
they won’t hurt you.” Leonard, almost painfully aware of the
difference in size between him and the big center, smiled
apologetically. “Thanks,” he answered, “I will if you happen to be on
your feet.” Billy yelped gleefully, and Jim’s grin broadened. “You win,
young feller,” he said.
Leonard didn’t break through to-day and capture a fumbled ball,
but he did more than handle his opponent and very early in the
second period the scrubs discovered that the right of the first team
line was a particularly poor place at which to direct attack. Leonard
and Wells worked together very nicely. Just before the end, much to
his disgust, he was forced to yield his place to Falls, and he and
Raleigh, also relieved, made their way back to the gymnasium
together. Raleigh was an excellent example of the player who is able
to progress just so far and then stands still, in spite of all that
coaches can do. He had been a second-string guard last year and
had, early in the present season, been picked as a certainty.
Renneker’s advent, however, had spoiled his chance, and since then
Raleigh seemed to have lost his grip. Just now he was not so much
standing still as he was sliding backward. He confided something of
this to Leonard on the way across to the gymnasium.
“I don’t suppose I’ll even get a smell of the big game,” he said
sorrowfully. “Renneker’ll play at right and Stimson at left, and you
and Falls will be next choice. It was that big guy that queered my
chances.”
Leonard didn’t have to ask who was meant. Instead he said
comfortingly: “You can’t tell, Raleigh. You might beat Stimson yet.
And you’ll surely have it all over me for first substitute.”
But Raleigh shook his head. “Not a chance, Grant. I know a real
player when I see him, even if I’m getting to be a dub myself. You’re
a live-wire. I wouldn’t be surprised if you got Stimson’s job before
the Kenly game.”
“Me? Much obliged for the compliment, Raleigh, but I guess
Stimson isn’t frightened much! I haven’t got the weight, you know.”
“You don’t seem to need it,” replied Raleigh enviously. “You’ve got
speed to burn. Wish I had a little of it!”
The next day Leonard was called to the training table, where he
took his place between Lawrence and Wilde and where, after his
second or third repast, he was no longer Grant but “General.” On
Wednesday he discovered with something of a thrill that Coach Cade
was taking him seriously as a candidate for a guard position, for he
was given a hard thirty-minute drill in blocking and breaking through
in company with Renneker and Stimson and Raleigh and Falls. Soon
after that, just when Leonard didn’t know, Squibbs disappeared from
the football squad. It will be remembered, perhaps, that not long
before Coach Cade had erased a name from a page of his little book.
It was on Thursday evening that Johnny McGrath appeared at
Number 12 Haylow in response to Leonard’s invitation. Both Leonard
and Slim were at home, and Johnny had no cause to doubt that he
was welcome. The conversation was not particularly interesting. Or,
at least, it wouldn’t sound so if set down here. There was one
subject not included in the many that were discussed, and that was
the resemblance of Gordon Renneker to George Ralston. Just before
he left Johnny said, a trifle hesitantly: “By the way, Slim, heard
anything about Saturday?”
“About the dinner, do you mean?” Slim’s eyes narrowed.
“Yes. I wondered if you’d heard any—er—any rumors.” Johnny
looked very innocent just then. Slim shook his head slowly.
“Nothing much, Johnny. Have you?”
“Why, I don’t know.” Johnny appeared undecided. “You see, I’m a
junior, Slim, and maybe I oughtn’t to give away any freshman
secrets.”
“Huh,” Slim grumbled, “if it wasn’t for you fellows putting ’em up
to the mischief—”
“Sure, I had nothing to do with it,” laughed Johnny. “And what I
heard didn’t come from my crowd. ’Tis just something I accidentally
came on.”
“Well, out with it. What are the pesky kids up to?”
“I’m not knowing that, Slim.”
“Well, what the dickens do you know, you Sinn Feiner?”
“All I know,” replied Johnny evasively, as he opened the door, “is
that if I was President of the Sophomore Class I’d be watching out
mighty sharp come Saturday evening.” Johnny grinned, winked
meaningly and vanished.
“Humph,” said Slim. “He does know something, the silly ass.” He
started up as if to go after Johnny, but then sat down again and
shrugged his shoulders. “He wouldn’t tell, I suppose.”
“What do you think he was hinting at?” asked Leonard.
Slim shrugged again. “How the dickens do I know? I dare say the
freshies have cooked up some plot to make me look silly. Maybe
they think they can keep me away from the dinner. All right, let them
try it!” And Slim looked grim as he began to disrobe.
 On Saturday Leonard made his first trip away from Alton with the
football team, being one of twenty-six fellows who journeyed to New
Falmouth. Last fall Alton had just managed to defeat the clever High
School team by one point, and to-day the visitors weren’t looking for
any easy victory. It was well they weren’t, as events proved. New
Falmouth was too powerful for the Gray-and-Gold. With only one
more game on her schedule, and that against a rival high school of
smaller calibre, New Falmouth was in position to use everything she
had in to-day’s contest. And she certainly held nothing back. Last
season’s game, lost to her through her inability to convert two
touchdowns into goals, had been a disappointment, and she fully
intended to take her revenge.
Coach Cade started with several substitutes in his line-up, but this
was not because he held the enemy in contempt. His real reason
was that he hoped to hold New Falmouth scoreless in the first half of
the game and use his best talent to tuck the victory away in the last.
But that wasn’t to be. Before the second quarter was half-way
through Johnny Cade was hurling his best troops onto the field in a
desperate attempt to turn the tide of battle. For by that time New
Falmouth had scored twice and had 10 points to her credit on the
score-board while the visitors had yet to show themselves
dangerous.
Leonard didn’t see service until the third period. Then he went in
at left guard in place of the deposed Stimson. The score was still 10
to 0, and Alton looked very much like a beaten team. New Falmouth
had a powerful attack, one that was fast and shifty and hit hard. No
place in the Gray-and-Gold line had proved invulnerable in the first
two periods, while the home team had run the ends with alarming
frequency. Only Alton’s ability to pull herself together and stand firm
under her goal had prevented the enemy’s score from being
doubled.
Leonard had Jim Newton on one side of him and Sam Butler on
the other when the second half began. He had not played beside
Butler before and didn’t know the tall youth’s style of game as well
as he knew Billy Wells’, and for awhile the two didn’t work together
any too smoothly. In fact, the left of the Alton line was no more
difficult to penetrate than the right until Leonard discovered from
experience that Butler went about his business in a different fashion
from that used by Billy and began to govern his own play
accordingly. Butler couldn’t be depended on, for one thing, to back
up attacks between left guard and center. Such plays always pulled
him in and left him fairly useless. Also, he played too high much of
the time, a fact that invited more attacks at his position than
Leonard approved of. Yet, when once these facts had been learned,
Leonard was able to discount them to an appreciable extent and
before the third period was more than half over New Falmouth was
less attentive to that side of the adversary’s line.
Leonard knew that he was playing football, and extremely hard
football, before the third play had been made. New Falmouth got the
ball on the kick-off and started a battering-ram attack that bore the
enemy back time and again. Leonard went through some
punishment then, for the first three plays were aimed at the Alton
left guard and tackle. He acquired a bleeding nose in the second of
them and a bruised knee in the third. About that time he got
interested and began to really fight. Captain Emerson went off with
a bad limp and Kerrison took his place. Not much later Bee Appel,
after having been aimed at since the game began, was finally
downed for good and Carpenter took over the running of the team.
The third period ended without further scoring, although the ball had
stayed in Alton territory most of the time and was still there.
A penalty for off-side set Alton back another five yards nearer her
goal just after play was resumed, and, when she had been held for
two downs on the twenty-two yards, New Falmouth tried a goal from
placement. For once, however, the line failed to hold and half the
Alton team piled through on the kicker and the ball bounded off up
the field and was captured by Reilly, of Alton, on the thirty-six yards.
Alton made first down on two plunges and a six-yard run by Menge.
Then, however, after three more attempts, Greenwood punted to the
home team’s twenty-five, where the ball went outside. New
Falmouth made two through Renneker and tore off five more around
Kerrison. A third down was wasted on a plunge at center that was
repulsed. Then New Falmouth tried her third forward-pass of the
game, and the ball landed nicely in the hands of Slim Staples close
to the forty-yard line, and Slim dodged to the thirty-two before he
was stopped.
Here, it seemed, was Alton’s chance to score at last, but after
Carpenter had attempted a run following a delayed pass and had
centered the ball at the sacrifice of a yard, the chance didn’t look so
bright. Greenwood made a scant two at the New Falmouth left, and
then, with nine to go on third down, and Greenwood in kicking
position, Carpenter called for an end-around play with Slim Staples
carrying. Just what happened Leonard didn’t know, but somewhere
between Jim Newton and Slim the ball got away. Leonard heard
Carpenter’s frantic grunt of “Ball!” and swung into the enemy. Then
he felt the ball trickle against his foot, thrust aside for a moment and
dropped to a knee. When he got his hands on the pigskin the battle
was all about him, and cries and confusion filled the air. Yet he was
able to thrust himself up again through the mêlée, and plunge
forward, and, having taken that first plunge, to go on. He met a
back squarely and caromed off him into the arms of another, broke
loose somehow and went forward again. The goal-line was
startlingly near, and he made for it desperately, slanting first to the
left and then doubling back from a frenzied quarter. He and the
quarter met and, spinning on a heel, he staggered over the line, a
New Falmouth man astride him as he fell.
Unfortunately there was no one left on the Alton team who could
kick a goal once in five times, and Joe Greenwood, who tried to add
another point to the six, failed dismally. The fault wasn’t entirely his,
though, for New Falmouth broke through and hurried the kick. But
even to have scored was something, and Leonard, still wondering
just how it had happened, was appraised of the fact in most
emphatic language and actions. Over on one side of the field a half-
hundred or so of Alton sympathizers who had accompanied the
eleven were shouting ecstatically and wildly. Denied victory, they
made much of that touchdown.
The ball went to New Falmouth for the kick-off, and Leonard
sprang away to repel the invaders. Behind him, Carpenter got the
pigskin, juggled it and tried to run it back, but two New Falmouth
ends downed him fiercely. On the second play Greenwood got clean
away around the left end and made it first down on the thirty-yard
line. Just as he was jubilating hoarsely over that Leo Falls came
romping on, hailed the referee and joyfully slapped Leonard on the
back.
“You’re off,” he announced. “Let’s have your head-guard.”
Leonard looked unbelievingly at him. “Off?” he gasped. “Me?” But
the referee was waving impatiently, and Leonard pulled off his
helmet and turned sadly toward the bench. The world seemed just
then filled with ingratitude and injustice, and the cheer that hailed
him fell on unresponsive ears. Jake hurried out to enfold him in a
blanket, mumbling fine phrases, and Mr. Cade said something as
Leonard passed to the bench, but the day’s hero was not to be
salved so easily. From the bench he sadly watched the game to its
end and witnessed, in the closing moments, the addition of another
3 to New Falmouth’s 10. Life was very dark!
 CHAPTER XVI
FIRST TRICK TO THE ENEMY

But time heals all wounds, and long before the special trolley had
landed the team back at Alton Leonard’s spirits were again at
normal, or perhaps a little beyond normal since, in spite of the
defeat, the Gray-and-Gold had had her big moments, and he had
shared in at least one of them. Disappointment had not prevented
the other members of the squad from giving praise where it was
deserved, and Leonard had heard a number of nice things said. Rus
Emerson had been especially complimentary, and Coach Cade, while
less demonstrative than the players, had expressed his approval
quite unmistakably. So, all in all, Leonard should have been more
than satisfied with the afternoon, it seemed. But he wasn’t, for the
defeat rankled, and Slim’s well-intended but cynical sounding advice
to “forget it and wait until next year” brought little comfort. But in
spite of having failed in their quest of revenge, the team became
quite cheerful, even merry, in fact, before they rolled into Alton, and
so Leonard too regained his spirits. It was almost dark by the time
he and Slim turned into the yard and made their way toward
Haylow, although beyond the buildings the western sky still showed
a tint of faded gold most appropriate to the occasion. The
Sophomore Dinner was set for seven, and it was already well past
five, a fact that Slim mentioned as they reached the front of
Academy Hall.
“I ought to get there a bit early, I suppose,” he added. “There’s
usually something that goes wrong at the last minute, and the other
fellows on the committee probably won’t show up until the last
moment.”
 A dim form detached itself from the shadows of the doorway of
Academy once the two had passed and loitered carelessly down the
middle path in the direction of the gate. Neither Slim nor Leonard
saw this, however. But, just as they went up the steps of Haylow,
Leonard laid a detaining hand on his companion’s arm.
“There’s a fellow behind that tree over there by the yellow house,”
said Leonard softly. “You can’t see him now. He poked his head
around just as we started up here.”
Slim looked, but the further side of Meadow street was wrapped in
shadows and the particular tree, seen between the posts of the
entrance, looked no different than other trees. Slim shrugged. “I
don’t see anything, General. Guess it was just a shadow.”
“No, it wasn’t. I saw the fellow’s head plainly.”
“Oh, well, what of it? Probably some kid playing hide-and-seek. I’ll
tell you, though. We’ll have a look from the window at the end of
the corridor. Come on.”
They climbed the stairs and then went along the second floor hall
to the casement that overlooked Meadow street. When they reached
it and peered surreptitiously out and down a dark form was
proceeding townward along the further sidewalk, beyond the tree.
For a brief moment the form was palely lighted as it passed under a
street light, and Slim grunted.
“Guess you were right,” he said. “Looks like one of the freshies.
Keeping tabs on me, I suppose. I wonder if there was anything in
Johnny McGrath’s guff. Just for fun, when we go in the room we’ll
have a look before we light up. There may be more of the varmints
hiding about.”
“What do you suppose they’re up to?” asked Leonard.
“Search me,” said Slim. Then he chuckled. “Maybe they’re going to
kidnap us, General. Wish they’d try it, eh?”
“I guess they’re not interested in me,” replied Leonard a bit
regretfully. “See any one?”
 He was looking over Slim’s shoulder, peering from the darkened
window. Outside the Academy yard was black save where the
infrequent lights along the walks shed a dim yellow radiance that
sent elongated shadows of the nearby trees sprawling off into the
gloom. It was a time of evening when most of the fellows were in
the dormitories, and save for a boy who passed under the window,
whistling a football tune, to turn in at the doorway beneath and
come pounding up the stairway, the yard appeared empty. Then Slim
said “Humph!” under his breath.
“What?” asked Leonard eagerly.
“Look along the Doctor’s path about fifty or sixty feet from the
middle path. See anything?”
“N-no,” answered Leonard disappointedly.
“Well, I do. There’s some one under the tree there. Close up to
the trunk and— There! Now he’s moving out a bit! See?”
“Yes!” exclaimed the other watcher excitedly. “What do you
suppose—”
“Silly chumps,” muttered Slim amusedly. “Kid stuff! Oh, well, it
amuses them. He’ll have to leave there pretty soon and go home to
supper, though. That’ll be our chance to give them the slip. What
time is it, anyhow? Turn on the light, will you?”
“Twenty-two of six,” answered Leonard a moment later.
“Plenty of time, then. They can’t get out from supper in much less
than half an hour, and that’ll make it half-past. We’ll be gone by—”
Slim stopped and listened. “Thought I heard some one outside,” he
explained, turning his glance away from the closed door. “I was
going to say that by half-past six we’ll be over at Kingman’s. Gee,
I’m tired, General! How does my eye look?”
“Not so bad,” said Leonard. He felt gingerly of his own nose. “This
thing’s mighty sore yet. Would you do anything to it?”
 “Your beak? No, not until we get back again. Bathe it in arnica
then. All it needs now is soap and water.”
The youth who had gone pounding up to the floor above a few
minutes earlier now came thumping down again. The dormitory was
by no means quiet, but the visitor’s passing sounded well above all
else. Slim frowned. “That’s the noisiest brute I ever heard,” he
muttered. He went over to the window and looked down, but all he
could see in the darkness was a dim shape going toward Lykes.
“Must be wearing wooden shoes, from the sound.” He peered in the
direction of the watcher under the tree and then pulled the green
shade down. “I hope your feet are cold out there,” he muttered.
Both boys laid aside the clothes they had worn to New Falmouth,
since, as one never knew just what might occur in the course of a
class celebration, it was customary to wear articles that were not
highly valued. Slim pulled a pair of gray flannel trousers from the
closet and hunted out an old white sweater. Leonard selected a
veteran suit of grayish tweed that, during the past summer, had
served on Sundays and holidays at the farm. They didn’t hurry in
their preparations, since, if only as a joke on the freshman spies,
they meant to time their trip to the village while the enemy was at
supper. Besides, they were both feeling the effects of the game in
the shape of lame muscles and a general disinclination to move
faster than a slow walk.
Six o’clock struck while they were still dawdling and talking lazily
of the afternoon’s experiences, and doors began to open along the
corridors and the dwellers in Haylow set off for Lawrence Hall and
supper. Slim struggled into an old bath-robe and looked around for
his slippers. “I sort of think I’ll be ready to eat, myself, by the time
seven o’clock comes,” he remarked. “Where the dickens is that other
slipper of mine?”
“I’m ready now,” said Leonard. “I hope to goodness nothing
happens to that dinner before I get at it!”
 “Don’t worry, General. Nothing’s going to happen to the food. I’ll
bet that right at this minute Kingman is mounting guard down there
with a shot-gun loaded with buckshot!”
“Well, then I hope that nothing happens to keep me from reaching
it,” amended Leonard, smiling.
Slim chuckled. “That’s different,” he said. “I’ll guarantee the feed,
General, but I won’t guarantee the guests. Ah, here you are, you
lopsided old reprobate!” He pulled the missing slipper from under the
further side of his bed and thrust a bare foot into it. “Guess we
might as well wash up,” he announced. “No use cutting it too fine. I
don’t run from trouble, but I don’t hunt for it, either, and maybe
we’ll be just as well off if we get inside that restaurant before the
freshies finish their supper.”
“All right,” assented Leonard. The hall was silent now and the last
footfall had ceased sounding on the pavement below. He picked up
his own robe and threw it over his present scanty costume. At that
instant there was an impatient exclamation from Slim.
“What the dickens is the matter with this door?” Slim demanded
as he turned the knob and pulled. Then, “Look here, where’s the
key?” he asked blankly.
The key was always on the inside of the lock, but it plainly wasn’t
there now. Slim and Leonard both looked about the floor. Then,
together, they seized the knob and pulled hard. The door didn’t
yield.
“Locked!” said Leonard.
Slim nodded, and a broad smile crept over his face. “Locked is
right,” he chuckled. “The little varmints win the first trick, General!”
“But how? There’s been no one here!”
“Remember the fellow with the heavy tread? That’s who, I’ll bet.
Got the tip from the fellow under the tree, or some other fellow, and
made a lot of noise going upstairs and then came down again quiet
and locked us in.”
 “But how could he have got the key without our hearing the door
open or—” Leonard blinked. “I see! They put the key in the outside
before we came home!”
Slim nodded. “Or had it in their pocket. Well, we’ve got to get out
somehow. There’s no use raising a riot, for no one will hear us, I
guess. Perhaps if we yelled from the window— But, shucks, I
wouldn’t give those kids the satisfaction! If there was a transom—”
“How about the window?” interrupted Leonard.
“Rather a long drop, General, with a mighty hard landing. Wait a
minute! What fellows of our class are in Haylow? Let’s see. Joe
Conklin’s in Number 27, but that’s upstairs and on the back. He’d
never hear us. He’s probably on his way, too. Who else is there?”
“Wharton, in 4,” said Leonard. “Let’s raise a row and see if
anything happens.”
They did and nothing did happen. After several minutes of
shouting and thumping on the door and banging on the floor with a
shoe they gave it up. “Looks now,” said Slim, “like I wasn’t so smart
in deciding to wait! We’d have been wiser if we’d started earlier!” He
crossed to the window, threw it wide and looked down. “I guess I
can do it,” he murmured. Then he glanced to the right and said,
“Huh, never thought of that!”
Leonard, a shoe in one hand, was still staring perplexedly at the
door when Slim summoned him. “Give me a hand here, General,”
called Slim. “It’s only about five feet to the next window, and I can
make it easy.”
Slim wriggled out of his robe and kicked off his slippers. Leonard
followed him through the window and they stood together on the
broad ledge, each with a hand hooked under the sash. “Glad those
fresh kids aren’t here to see this,” commented Slim. “Get hold of my
wrist and hold it close in to the wall. If anything happens, son, let
go. Don’t try to hold me. But I’ll make it. All right!”
 Slim edged to the end of the ledge, and Leonard slowly followed
him. Then, with one hand tight around Slim’s right wrist and the
other holding fast to the sash, Leonard pressed his body close
against the edge of the embrasure while Slim reached out his left
hand for a grip on the stone work about the next window. After a
moment he said: “Give me another inch or two if you can.” Leonard
obeyed. There was a moment of suspense and then Slim
announced: “All right, General. Let go!” Rather fearfully Leonard
released the other’s wrist and turned his head to see. Slim was safe
on the next sill, raising the lower sash. Then he disappeared, and
Leonard climbed back into Number 12. A moment later the door of
the next room opened and Slim’s bare feet padded along the
corridor. A key turned in the lock in front of Leonard and the door
swung in.
“Left the key in the lock,” panted Slim as he entered. “Say, we’ll
have to do some hurrying, General! Must be getting close to half-
past.”
They hustled off to the lavatory and hustled back again and
hurriedly donned their clothes. Leonard looked at his watch the
instant before he put the light out. The hands pointed to twenty-four
minutes after six.
Below, in the half-light of the doorway, Slim paused and looked
about inquiringly. There was no one in sight. But as they turned side
by side into the middle path that led toward Academy street voices
behind them announced that some of the fellows had finished
supper and were returning to the dormitories. At the far end of the
row, Borden Hall, the freshman dormitory, showed an occasional
light, but, so far as either Slim or Leonard could see, no forms were
about the entrance. They went on toward the gate, Slim chuckling
softly.
“Guess we beat them to it, after all,” he said.
But a minute later Slim changed his mind.
 CHAPTER XVII
SLIM RETREATS

Just short of the gate the sound of hurrying footsteps brought

them sharply around. Behind them, seen dimly, were many
approaching forms.
“Let’s beat it,” whispered Leonard.
“Run from a bunch of freshies?” demanded Slim haughtily. “Not
much! We’ll turn down Academy street, though, and let them by. If
they’re up to something we can’t stop them here.”
Slim led the way sharply to the right, when they were through the
gate, and they went on for several rods to pause in the deeper
shadow of a not quite leafless tree that overhung the sidewalk.
Midway between the infrequent street lights, they were probably
invisible to any one at the entrance. A moment or two later a stream
of boys appeared. That they were freshmen was conclusively proved
by the preponderance of small youths, although quite a good many
were fairly big. Some of the throng kept straight ahead across
Academy street and disappeared into State street, beyond the corner
of the white house where Coach Cade had his lodgings. Others
paused before the gate as though for a council, and presently a
dozen or more started obliquely across Academy street and went
north toward Meadow, half running. Slim and Leonard drew more
closely against the fence. The enemy detachment passed on the
other side without detecting them and an instant later were visible
hurrying around the corner of Meadow street. Meanwhile the rest of
the crowd before the gate had, it appeared, reached a decision, for
they, too, crossed the road and disappeared into State street,
breaking into a run as they passed from sight. Save for an occasional
giggle from some over-wrought youngster and a low-toned murmur
now and then, the phalanx had come and gone in silence. Leonard
thought that silence just a bit depressing!
Left alone on the empty street—empty save for the unseen
presence of a lone pedestrian trudging along somewhere in the
distance toward River street—Slim whistled softly. “Must have been
fully a hundred of them,” he marveled. “Now what the dickens are
they up to?”
“Looks to me as if they were looking for you,” said Leonard.
“Sure, but what can they do if they find me? They don’t expect me
to stand any of their foolishness, do they? If it came to a scrap—”
Slim stopped and looked thoughtfully up and down the dimly lighted
street. “Well, let’s get along, General. It must be getting close to our
dinner time.”
“Something tells me,” said Leonard sadly, “that I’ll never see that
dinner!”
Slim chuckled. “Well, to tell the truth, I’m not as sure of it myself
as I was! Just the same, General, if those kids are going to keep me
away from it they’ll have to go some!” He led the way across to the
beginning of State street. “Better go this way, I guess,” he
continued. “They won’t be likely to pull any tricks where the bright
lights are!”
The bright lights, however, were still a short block away, and when
suddenly a gray cat jumped down from a fence-post in front of
Leonard and scuttled away almost between his feet that youth gave
a yelp of alarm. Slim seemed to consider the incident excruciatingly
funny and laughed consumedly. Leonard maintained a haughty
silence all the rest of the way to the corner of West street. Here the
stores began, and many of them were still open, and their lights
combined with the big street lamps made the thoroughfare almost
as bright as daylight. No lurking freshman was sighted as the two
turned south toward Meadow street, although, since a good many
persons were about, scouting members of the enemy forces may
have been present. The clock in Tappler’s jewelry store proclaimed
the time as 6:38 as they passed. As they neared Meadow street
Leonard called Slim’s attention to two youths who had just come into
sight from the direction of the academy. Slim looked and nodded.
“The short fellow’s Watkins. I don’t know the other one. They’re
going to the party, I guess.”
“Wouldn’t it be a good idea to go along with them, Slim? I mean
four is better than two if—if there’s any trouble.”
But Slim shook his head. “No,” he answered, “but I tell you what,
General. You catch up with them. I’ll have a better chance to make it
if I’m alone, probably.”
“I will not,” declared Leonard indignantly. “What do you take me
for?”
Slim shrugged. “All right,” he said. “I guess there’s nothing much
up, anyway. We’ve got lighted streets all the rest of—” He stopped.
On the other side of the street as they turned the corner was a
group of five older fellows making their way briskly toward the
center of town: Red Reilly, Gordon Renneker, Joe Greenwood and
two others. “Juniors,” said Slim. “Coming to see the fun, I suppose.
I’ll bet Red’s had a lot to do with this business. Don’t let them see
us, General.” Slim slowed his pace a little, and the group across
Meadow street passed on, laughing and talking gayly.
“How much further is it?” asked Leonard.
“About five blocks,” replied Slim absently. After a moment he said:
“Look here, General, I’m wondering if it wouldn’t be a clever game
to get into Kingman’s by the back entrance. It’s on Moody street,
around the corner from the front door, and I don’t believe those
fellows know about it.”
“Sounds sensible to me,” began Leonard.
But Slim disappointed him again. “No, by golly,” exclaimed Slim
suddenly, “I’m blowed if I’ll sneak up any alleys on account of a lot
of freshies! We’ll go in by the front door, General!”
 “Sure,” agreed Leonard unenthusiastically. “Just as you say, Slim.”
“How are they going to stop us?” Slim went on belligerently. “They
can’t do it, by gum!”
“Of course not,” Leonard assented. “Why, there’s only a hundred
or so of them. The idea!”
“Well, suppose there are a hundred, or two hundred. They aren’t
going to—to use their fists, I guess, and if they don’t how are they
going—”
“I know,” said Leonard. “You’re probably dead right, Slim, but just
the same I’d swap my right to that dinner for a ham sandwich. As
the well-known proverb says, Slim, ‘A sandwich in the hand is worth
two portions of chicken on the plate.’”
“Shut up. Here’s High street. The place is in the next block. We’ll
get there in time, too.”
High street proved to be a rather narrow thoroughfare not quite
so well lighted as the street they were leaving. The stores had a
somewhat second-class appearance and the names on the signs and
windows were frequently foreign. In brief, High street impressed one
as being a street that had seen better days. The principal shopping
thoroughfare lay one block south, and as the boys neared the corner
of Moody street the rattle and clang of Market street’s traffic was
borne to them. And as they neared that corner Leonard exclaimed:
“Must be a fire or something, Slim. Look at the crowd!”
A little way beyond the corner of the cross street was a throng
that stretched from side to side. Further on, jutting out above the
sidewalk on the right, was a gayly illuminated sign that announced in
electric lamps: “Kingman’s Restaurant.” Slim looked and slowed his
steps. “Freshies,” breathed Slim. “A whole blamed army of ’em,
General!”
Leonard could see for himself now that the crowd was composed
of boys and knew that Slim was right. The latter drew him aside to
the entrance of a shop. “Let’s consider a bit,” said Slim. “Suppose
they’ve got another gang at the other side, too, eh? Must have, for
there’s probably not more than fifty in that bunch there.” He peered
down the street to confirm this statement. Then he laughed. “You’re
lucky, after all, General,” he said. “There’s a lunch room right
opposite where you can get your sandwich!”
“But what are we going to do?” asked Leonard anxiously.
“Well,” answered Slim, “I guess there’s just one thing we can do,
and that’s buck the line. There doesn’t seem much chance of
running the end, eh? Let’s go, General!”
They set forth again side by side, appearing as casual as they
might, reached the corner, paused to let an automobile pass and
approached the throng. Just then a small youth darted past them
and gave the alarm shrilly:
“Staples! Staples!”
A roar of cheers and laughter went up, and the freshman horde
moved to meet them. Cries of “Welcome, Soph!” “Dinner’s ready,
Staples!” “Way for the President!” mingled with jeers and cat-calls.
“Stick behind me,” counseled Slim in a low voice. Then he gently
pushed the first of the enemy from his path. “Gangway, Fresh,” he
said smilingly. But they were all about now, presenting a solid
barrier. The more Slim shoved the greater the resistance became. He
knew better than to lose his patience, however. Instead, he spoke
laughingly to Leonard over his shoulder. “Let’s go, General,” he said.
“Play low and make it good!” But although Leonard shoved and
pushed there was no advance. “A-a-ay, Soph!” chanted the
defenders. Slim felt his dignity slipping fast. He wondered why the
fellows upstairs in the restaurant, only a few rods beyond, didn’t
hear and come to the rescue. But they didn’t, and presently,
breathless though still smiling, Slim paused to parley.
“What’s the big idea, you fellows?” he demanded of one of the
bigger freshmen.
 “Oh, we like you too well to let you mix in with a lot of low-down
trash like those fellows up there,” was the flippant reply. “You stay
and play with us, Staples.”
“Thanks,” answered Slim dryly. “All right, but you don’t need
Grant, too, do you?”
“We-ell,” began the boy. But Leonard settled the question himself.
“I’ll stay with you, Slim,” he announced.
“Say, Staples! Slim Staples, are you hungry?” called some one,
and a laugh followed. “Want your dinner, sonny?” “They’re just
starting on the oysters, Staples!” “Oh, you Sophomore President!”
Stung, Slim faced his tormenters. “What’ll you bet I don’t get in
there?” he demanded warmly.
“When, to-morrow?” asked one of the enemy.
“No, to-night, and before that dinner’s over,” answered Slim above
the burst of laughter that greeted the sally. “You’re pretty clever for
a bunch of freshies, but then you’re only freshies, you know!” Slim
managed to smile sweetly as he said it, but that didn’t make the
insult less severe. He took Leonard’s arm and turned carelessly away
while the crowd jeered more loudly and with the first note of anger.
To call a freshman a freshman is, for some reason, the deadliest of
insults.
“Sore-head!” some one called shrilly, and “Follow them, Tom!”
advised a second. “Better watch ’em!”
Slim turned and leveled a finger at the big leader of the crowd.
“Come on,” he said. “Follow us. I’d like to have you!”
But the big freshman only grinned and shook his head. “No,
thanks,” he called after them. “I’ll wait here. Come again, Staples,
won’t you? Dinner’s ready!”
Followed by Leonard, Slim walked briskly around the corner of
Moody street, but, once out of sight, he slowed down. “Any one
after us?” he asked softly.
 “No,” said Leonard. “Now what, Slim?”
Slim shook his head. “There’s the back entrance, but something
tells me I didn’t do those guys justice. I’m going to have a look, but
I don’t believe they’ve left the back door unguarded.” He went down
the block about half-way and there turned into a narrow alley. Some
eighty feet beyond, the forms of a dozen or more youths showed
where the dim light from a glass-paneled door fell across the
passage. Slim stopped. “You can’t fight them,” he muttered
disgustedly. “They’ve got us stopped again, General.” The two
retraced their steps, followed by a jeering shout from the depths of
the alley. “We’ll go around to Market street,” announced Slim, “and
think this over. There must be some way!”
 CHAPTER XVIII
LEONARD COMES TO THE PARTY

On Market street Slim led the way into a drug store and slipped
onto a stool in front of the white marble counter where two aproned
youths were dispensing drinks. “We’ve got to cook up some
scheme,” he said, “and we might as well be comfortable while we’re
at it. What’s yours?”
“Mine’s a good dinner,” answered Leonard wistfully.
“You’re in the wrong shop, General, but you can have a sandwich
if you say the word.”
Leonard looked longingly at the two tiers of sandwiches under the
glass cover nearby. “You?” he asked.
Slim shook his head sternly. “No, sir, I’m going to dine at
Kingman’s in about ten minutes.”
Leonard sighed and mentioned his choice of a beverage. The
renunciation was difficult. When their glasses were in front of them
Slim lifted his gravely. “Here’s luck,” he said.
“Success to our scheme,” replied Leonard, and drank deeply. The
concoction tasted good and he imbibed again and felt better. He
glanced at Slim. Slim was staring hard at the counter and absently
tracing a design on its smooth surface. The clock at the end of the
store, above the prescription counter, proclaimed three minutes past
seven. Leonard looked out through the big glass window and sought
inspiration. The sidewalks were well thronged, for the evening was
mild for November. A big yellow trolley car passed with a strident
clanging of its gong. Automobiles went by honking warningly to the
rash pedestrians who sought to find their way across the street. A
smart looking policeman, his fingers crooked in his belt, paused
momentarily to view the contents of the window and then continued
on his beat. Leonard had found his inspiration.
“Slim, look here,” he exclaimed. “Why can’t we get a cop to put us
through that mob back there? I just saw one go by. If we told him
how it was—”
But Slim looked instantly disapproving. “That wouldn’t be playing
the game,” he answered. “You—you don’t call on the cops to help
you, General. It isn’t done.”
 “That wouldn’t be playing the game,” he answered

“Isn’t done be blowed!” said Leonard. “Look here, I’m so hungry I

could eat nails. We didn’t have enough lunch to keep a canary alive,
Slim. I want my dinner, and if I can get it by hooking onto a cop—”
“You’d bring disgrace on the whole Sophomore Class,” interrupted
the other. “No, not to be thought of, General. Besides, I’ve got a
better plan.”
“It’s about time,” grumbled Leonard.
“What’s to keep us from getting a taxi and going right to the door
of the restaurant?”
“Why, you poor boob, those wild Indians would halt the taxi and
see you inside. They’ll be looking for some such scheme as that.”
“I guess you’re right,” acknowledged Slim sadly. “You’re next.”
“Well, suppose we got the restaurant on the telephone and told
the bunch that we were on the corner and couldn’t get by. Then
they could come out and rescue us.”
“Ye-es, but that would be sort of babyish, wouldn’t it? I’d a heap
rather get there by my own—er—efforts.”
“So would I,” responded Leonard a trifle impatiently, “but your
own efforts aren’t getting us there! And—and it’s getting late!”
The clock said eight minutes past now. The two subsided into
silence again. Slim set down his empty glass. “Want another?” he
asked morosely. Leonard shook his head. Half a hundred more
precious seconds passed and then Leonard gave an exclamation of
triumph. “Got it!” he declared. “Got it, Slim! At least, I think so. How
does this strike you?”
Pushing aside his glass, Leonard bent his head close and
explained his project, while Slim, at first looking dubious, at last
nodded in wholehearted approval. “Sure!” he said with conviction.
“That’ll do it, I’ll bet, General. But, hold on, how about you? That
sort of leaves you out in the storm, doesn’t it?”
 “Never mind me,” said Leonard. “You’re the important one.
Besides, I’ll make it somehow later. All I ask you to do is to see that
there’s something left when I do get there.”
“Well,” said Slim, “if you don’t get in when I do I’ll take a bunch
and go out and get you.”
“Thought you said that sort of thing was babyish? No, you just see
that there’s something left, Slim, and leave the rest to me. I guess
they won’t care whether I make it or not. It’s only you, as the Class
President, who interests them.”
Slim looked doubtful, but time was passing and he had thrown
down the gauntlet to the Freshman Class. “All right,” he agreed.
“Have it your way. Let’s go.”
“Wait a minute,” objected Leonard. “We’ve got it wrong. We’d both
better try the same end of the block. They’ve seen you in that white
sweater there and won’t be looking for you in anything else. See
what I mean?”
“Yes, and I guess you’re right, General. And say, old son, as a
general you’re sure making good!”
About five minutes later the watchful-waiting throng of freshmen
at the Moody street end of the block again rushed into barricade
formation, spurred on by the joyous applause of a score of juniors
who, having stationed themselves inside the barricade in the hope of
witnessing some fun, were finding the proceedings rather tame. A
rickety taxi had swung around from Market street and was
attempting to penetrate the barrier. The freshmen rallied to the
threatened invasion.
“Stop that taxi!” was the slogan. “Look inside!”
Opposed by a solid mass of humanity, there was nothing for the
driver of the vehicle to do but stop. He did so, protesting forcibly and
most impolitely. The freshmen swarmed about the dilapidated
taxicab, breasting the sizzling radiator and showering questions on
the fuming proprietor. Others peered in through the glass. Suspense
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