INTERNAL ASSIGNMENT OF BASIC OF DATA COMMUNICATION

SET A

ANSWER 1 --The Seven Layers of the OSI Model - The OSI model (Open Systems
Interconnection) is an international standard used to describe how data should be transmitted
between different networks. It was developed in 1983 by ISO/IEC and has since become a
fundamental concept in networking. The model divides communication into seven sequential
layers, each with a specific function. Understanding these layers helps explain how data
moves from one point to another across a network.

1. Layer 1: Physical Layer - The first layer is the physical layer, which deals with the raw
transmission of bits (binary digits) over a physical medium like cables, wires, or wireless
signals. This layer ensures that data is sent and received in its original form without any
modification.

- Functions: - Transmits raw bitstreams.

- Converts electrical signals into electromagnetic waves for transmission.

- Filters out noise from the signal to maintain data integrity.

This layer focuses on the "what" of communication—transmitting bits—and is concerned

with the hardware involved (e.g., network interface cards, cables).

2. Layer 2: Data Link Layer - The data link layer handles the transfer of raw bits into
structured packets or frames for reliable transmission over a physical medium.

- Functions: - Breaks bits into manageable data frames.

- Detects and corrects errors in data transmission (e.g., parity checks, checksums).
- Uses repeaters to amplify weak signals.
- Multiplexes multiple signals onto a single wire.

This layer ensures that the physical layer can operate effectively by providing structured and
error-checked data packets. It is often referred to as the "data link" because it enables
communication over short distances (e.g., Ethernet, Wi-Fi).
3. Layer 3: Network Layer - The network layer introduces addressable functionality, allowing
devices to locate each other on a network.

- Functions: - Assigns unique IP addresses to devices for communication.

- Creates and manages logical networks (e.g., subnets).

- Facilitates routing of data packets between networks.

This layer is the "network" in OSI because it enables communication across networks. For
example, when you browse a website from another network (e.g., at work on a Wi-Fi
network), the router uses its IP address to route your request to the correct destination.
 4. Layer 4: Transport Layer - The transport layer ensures that data packets are delivered
reliably and in order between applications across different networks.

- Functions: - Validates and assembles application-layer requests.

- Splits large files into smaller segments for transmission.

- Reassembles segments at the destination.

- Manages error recovery (e.g., retransmits failed packets).

This layer is responsible for maintaining data integrity and ensuring that all parts of a packet
reach its destination intact. For example, if you send an email from your computer to another
device across networks, the transport layer ensures the email is delivered correctly.

5. Layer 5: Session Layer - The session layer manages secure communication sessions
between applications for continuity and privacy.

- Functions: - Establishes secure connections between two endpoints.

- Synchronize data transfer to match application requirements.

- Ensures confidentiality (e.g., encrypts sensitive information).

- Handles disconnections gracefully.

This layer is crucial for maintaining ongoing communication sessions, such as secure web
browsing or instant messaging. It ensures that both parties are synchronized and protects data
from unauthorized access.

6. Layer 6: Presentation Layer - The presentation layer handles data formatting and
encryption to ensure compatibility between different systems.

- Functions: - Encrypts/decrypts sensitive information for security.

- Converts data formats (e.g., text, images) for transmission.

- Ensures data format is compatible with the application layer.

This layer is responsible for transforming raw data into a usable format and vice versa. It also
handles encryption to protect sensitive information during transit. For example, SSL/TLS
certificates used in web browsing are managed here.
7. Layer 7: Application Layer - The application layerinvolves the end-user applications that
communicate over the network.

- Functions: - Translates data into meaningful commands or requests.

- Manages user sessions and communication flows.

- Provides security features (e.g., user authentication, permissions).

- Handles errors during data processing.
This is where users interact with the OSI model. It ensures that applications can communicate
across different networks by translating their needs into a common format for the transport
layer to handle.

ANSWER 2 -- a) Okay, so both “simple periodic analogue signals” and “composite periodic
analogue signals” are types of signals used to transmit information. But they’re different in
how they work. Let me break it down:

1. Simple Periodic Analog Signal - This is like the simplest kind of analogue signal out there.
- It’s a single, continuous wave that repeats itself over time.

- Think of it as a smooth, steady oscillation—something that goes up and down in a regular

pattern.

Examples: - A pure sine wave used in AM radio. You know, the classic “sine wave” you see
on an oscilloscope.
- A single frequency tone in music or audio systems.
Why it matters: - Simple periodic signals are great for clear communication because there’s
only one signal to deal with.

- They’re easy to analyse and reproduce since there’s no complexity.

2. Composite Periodic Analog Signal - This is where things get a bit more complicated.

- Instead of a single, smooth wave, it’s made up of multiple simple periodic signals combined
together.

- Imagine taking several different sine waves and mixing them into one signal. That’s what a
composite periodic signal is.
Examples: - In digital communication systems, you might have a carrier wave (a high-
frequency signal) that’s modulated with information. This involves combining

different signals to send data over the air.

- A square wave, which is often used in digital electronics, can be seen as a combination of
sine waves at odd harmonics.

Why it matters: - Composite signals are more versatile because they can carry more
information. Since there are multiple signals combined, you can encode data from different
sources onto the same medium.
- This is why we see things like multiple channels on a radio station or different devices
transmitting simultaneously without interfering with each other.
Key Difference - The main difference boils down to complexity and versatility:

- A simple periodic signal is straightforward and elegant but limited in what it can
communicate.
- A composite periodic signal is more complex but incredibly powerful, allowing for richer
communication systems.

b) Alright, now onto the second part. Let’s tackle “parallel” vs. “serial” transmission. These
terms are often thrown around in networking and electronics, but it’s easy to mix them up.

1. Parallel Transmission - This is like sending multiple streams of data at the same time.

- Imagine having a hundred people passing notes to each other across a room—everybody
writes their part of the note simultaneously. That’s parallel transmission!

- In real life, it’s used in high-speed internet connections or in computer buses where many
chips need to communicate with a single bus line.

Examples: - Ethernet uses parallel transmission to allow multiple computers on a network to

send data at once.

- Modern graphics cards use parallel interfaces like PCIe to transfer data between the GPU
and CPU quickly.
Why it matters: - Parallel transmission is faster because everything happens simultaneously.
It’s great for high-performance applications where speed is critical.

- However, it requires more physical space since you’re using multiple wires or lines at once.

2. Serial Transmission - This is the opposite—it’s like passing a single stream of data one
piece at a time.

- Think of it like a relay race: each runner carries their part of the baton and passes it on in
sequence.

- It’s slower because you’re dealing with one thing at a time, but it’s more efficient in terms
of space since you only need one line or wire.
Examples: - USB 2.0 uses serial transmission to transfer data between devices—like when
you plug your laptop into a monitor.
- RS-232 is a common serial interface used in older computers for communication between
devices like printers and terminals.
Why it matters: - Serial transmission is slower but more space-efficient, making it ideal for
applications where bandwidth isn’t as critical, or where physical space

is limited (like in old-school gaming consoles).

- It’s also easier to troubleshoot because there’s only one line to monitor at any given time.

Key Difference - The main difference between the two boils down to speed vs. efficiency:

- Parallel transmission is faster and more powerful but uses more resources.
- Serial transmission is slower but more efficient and simpler, making it suitable for certain
applications where space or simplicity is a priority.
Understanding this helps engineers choose the right method for transmitting data based on
their needs—like using parallel for gaming servers or serial for old-school printers!

Wrap-Up - Both differentiation questions are all about understanding how signals and data
are managed in communication systems. Simple vs. composite signals are like tools—a single
screwdriver versus a wrench—they get the job done, but each has its strengths. Similarly,
parallel vs. serial transmission is like choosing between a highway and a narrow path—speed
versus simplicity.

ANSWER 3 -- a) Line of sight (LOS) transmission is a method used in various

communication technologies, including radio waves, microwaves, and even internet
connectivity. It’s called "line of sight" because it requires that the signal can travel directly
from the transmitter to the receiver without any obstructions. Think of it like shining a
flashlight into a room—the light has to pass through the space between you and the object
blocking the light.

In telecommunications systems, LOS transmission is often used for radio waves or laser
communication. For example, in broadcasting, a signal needs to be transmitted over long
distances, so LOS ensures that the wavefront moves outward in all directions without being
blocked by tall buildings or other structures. This method relies on the physical presence of a
clear path between the transmitter and receiver.

One advantage of LOS transmission is that it’s straightforward and predictable. However, it
has limitations when it comes to broadcasting signals over long distances because the signal
gets weaker as it travels further away from the source. Additionally, LOS isn’t suitable for
point-to-point communication where the data rate needs to be very high or reliable in
environments with a lot of interference.

In modern systems, LOS transmission is often combined with other methods, like satellite or
microwave links, to ensure coverage even when direct line-of-sight conditions are not met.
For instance, many cellular networks use a combination of LOS and non-LOS (NLOS)
signals to provide global coverage while maintaining reliable communication.

Overall, LOS transmission is essential for applications where direct visibility between the
transmitter and receiver is necessary, like in certain wireless communication systems or
satellite links.

b) Packet switching is a fundamental concept in modern networking, particularly in

technologies like the internet, cellular networks, and data centres.

It’s used to transmit large amounts of data efficiently by breaking it down into smaller,
manageable pieces called packets. Each packet contains specific information about its
destination, which ensures that even if multiple packets arrive out of order or get delayed,
they can still be processed correctly.

The structure of a packet switch involves several key components:

1.Packet Formation: Data is divided into fixed-size segments (packets) by the source device.
Each packet includes header information for routing and addressing purposes.

2.Switching Elements: These are the components that process and forward packets to their
destinations. They can include hardware modules like network interface cards or software
algorithms designed specifically for packet switching.

3.Routers/Switches: Packet switches often consist of routers or switches that manage the flow
of data packets across a network. These devices analyse the destination address in each
packet, determine the best path for forwarding it, and route the packet accordingly.

4.Queueing Mechanisms: To prevent congestion at nodes along the network path, packets are
stored temporarily in queues before being transmitted. This ensures that all packets
eventually reach their destinations without overwhelming any single link.

5.Routing Algorithms: These algorithms determine how packets should be routed through a
network based on current conditions, such as network traffic and latency. Modern systems use
complex algorithms to optimize packet delivery and minimize delays.
The process of packet switching can be broken down into the following steps:

- Division into Packets: Data is split into smaller packets at the source.

- Forwarding: Each packet is sent from one node in the network to the next, based on routing
instructions.

- Reassembly: When a packet arrives at its destination, it is combined with other packets that
belong to the same data stream. The destination device then reassembles all the packets into
their original form.

One of the key advantages of packet switching is its efficiency in handling large amounts of
data. By breaking information into smaller pieces, it allows for better utilization of network
resources and enables technologies like Quality of Service (QoS) to prioritize certain types of
traffic. This makes it ideal for applications such as streaming video, downloading files, or
running online games.

However, packet switching also introduces challenges, such as the need for robust routing
algorithms, efficient queue management, and ensuring that packets arrive in the correct order
at their destinations. Despite these complexities, the benefits of packet switching—efficiency,
scalability, and flexibility—make it a cornerstone of modern networking technologies.

In summary, packet switches operate by dividing data into manageable packets, processing
them through a network using advanced routing algorithms, and reassembling them at their
destination to ensure reliable communication across even the most complex networks.

SET 2
ANSWER 4 -- Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a key technology in fibre-optic
communications that enhances network capacity by transmitting multiple data streams over a
single optical fibre. Here's how it works:
1.Channel Assignment: Each data stream is assigned to a unique wavelength within the
optical spectrum. These wavelengths are selected with specific spacing to avoid interference.

2.Simultaneous Transmission: Unlike traditional methods, WDM allows all assigned

channels to transmit simultaneously over the same fibre without overlapping or interfering
with each other.

3.Reception and Demultiplexing: At the destination end, an Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer

(OADM) combines all received wavelengths back into a single signal for further processing.
4.Efficient Bandwidth Utilization: WDM enables high-capacity data transmission by
efficiently utilizing the available spectrum, supporting technologies like DWDM and C-
WDM for varying bandwidth needs.

5.Challenges Mitigation: Techniques such as dynamic spectrum management, optical filters,

and impedance control are employed to manage potential crosstalk between wavelengths,
ensuring reliable communication.

6.Evolution and Applications: WDM has transformed network infrastructure by offering

high-bandwidth solutions without significant physical upgrades. It is critical for industries
requiring robust connectivity, including broadcasting, healthcare, and manufacturing.

In essence, WDM provides a scalable, efficient, and cost-effective solution for modern
telecommunications networks, meeting the growing demand for high-speed data
transmission.
ANSWER 5 -- High-Level Data Link Control Protocol (HDLC): The High-Level Data Link
Control Protocol, commonly referred to as HDLC or often associated with Ethernet
standards, is a critical communication protocol used in networking. It operates at the link
layer of the OSI model, responsible for managing data transmission between devices over a
physical medium such as Ethernet cables.
At its core, HDLC ensures reliable data transfer by managing framing, synchronization, and
error control. It adds essential bits to data packets, including start and stop bits, which help
devices recognize the beginning and end of each frame. This mechanism is crucial for
maintaining data integrity and preventing corruption during transmission.

HDLC was integral to early Ethernet standards, enabling multiple devices to communicate
over a shared network link without interfering with each other. It assigns unique identifiers,
such as MAC addresses, ensuring that each device can distinguish its data from others on the
same network. This allows devices to transmit frames accurately and efficiently.

Error management is another key aspect of HDLC. The protocol employs mechanisms like
cyclic redundancy check (CRC) to detect errors in transmitted frames. If an error is detected,
it retransmits the corrupted frame until successful delivery, ensuring reliable communication
despite noisy or interference-prone channels.
HDLC also manages data flow and synchronization between sender and receiver devices. It
controls access to the network link, preventing collisions by allowing only one device to
transmit at a time when necessary. This orderly management ensures smooth data transfer and
efficient use of network resources.

The protocol supports various modes, adapting its functionality based on network conditions
or physical transmission characteristics. This flexibility allows HDLC to operate effectively
across different media types, including twisted pair cables, fibre optics, and wireless
transmission, by adjusting data rates and synchronization techniques accordingly.

In practice, imagine two devices connected by an Ethernet cable: when one device sends a
message, HDLC adds framing bits and ensures proper synchronization with the receiver. If
the connection encounters latency or interference, HDLC detects this error, retries
transmission, or waits until a clear channel is available for reliable data transfer.

Overall, HDLC serves as a foundational protocol in networking, enabling devices to

communicate reliably over physical links. Its role in managing framing, synchronization, and
error control ensures consistent and efficient data transmission, allowing higher-level
protocols like TCP/IP to function effectively on the network. By providing robust
communication capabilities across diverse hardware and media, HDLC underpins the
functionality of modern networking systems.

ANSWER 6 – (a)Framing and Framing Methods:

Framing is a critical process in data link control protocols that ensures reliable transmission
of data over network links, such as those used in Ethernet. It involves adding specific bits or
information to data packets at the beginning (start frame) and end (stop frame). The most
common framing mechanism includes:

1.Start Bit: Marks the start of a data frame.

2.Stop Bit: Marks the end of the data.

3.Delimiter: A series of 1s indicating that the following information is valid data, followed by
timing information such as bit rate and synchronization signals.

Additional Framing Methods:

- Header/Trailer Method: Instead of using separate bits, this method incorporates headers
(containing MAC addresses or version numbers) and trailers (including error detection codes
like CRC) to ensure data integrity.

- Bit Interleaving: This technique organizes the data stream by interleaving bits from different
streams for compatibility across various media types, such as Ethernet cables and wireless
interfaces.

(b)Switched Ethernet vs. Full-Duplex Ethernet:

1.Switched Ethernet: Operates in half-duplex mode, where devices must coordinate using a
switch to send or receive data. This eliminates direct collisions but can introduce some
latency.

2.Full-Duplex Ethernet: Allows simultaneous sending and receiving without interference,

effectively doubling the network's bandwidth compared to switched Ethernet.

In summary, framing ensures reliable data transmission through methods like start/stop bits,
delimiters, headers, and trailers. Switched Ethernet enhances performance by enabling
multiple devices to send data without direct collisions, while full-duplex Ethernet allows
simultaneous bidirectional communication for higher throughput.