Exp. No.

: 1 SOLDERING WORK
Date :

SOLDERING SIMPLE ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND CHECKING CONTINUITY

Aim: To practice soldering and de-soldering the components for simple electronic circuits on general
purpose PCB and to check the circuit continuity.
Apparatus Required:
Sl. No. Component Range Quantity
1 General purpose PCB 10W (or) 35W 1
2 Soldering iron 60/40 grade 1
3 Solder 1
4 Solder Sucker
5 Flux 1
6 Sleeve Remover 1
7 Nose plier 1
8 Resistors 220Ω, 330Ω, 1K, 1.2K 1 each
1KΩ & 10kΩ

9 DMM - 1

Theory and Procedure:

In Electronics & Electrical systems, electrical wiring installations, maintenance,
troubleshooting and repairing works. A continuity test is checking of a circuit to see if the current can
flow through it or not. It basically determines if a circuit is open or closed.
What is Continuity Test?
Continuity Test is the testing of an electrical circuit to determine if the current can pass through
it (known as closed or complete circuit). In a continuity test, a small voltage is applied to the two points
of the circuit that need to be checked. The current flow between these two points determines if it’s an
open or closed circuit. Usually, there is a buzzer or led in series (inside continuity meter) to identify if
the current flows through it or not.
A closed-circuit provides a closed path for the current flow & an open circuit does not allow
the current flow. These circuits can be distinguished using the continuity test.
Why Do We Use Continuity Test?
 To check the wire connection inside the circuit. These wires may be broken.
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 It is used to identify damaged component.
 It is also used for checking the quality of soldering.
 It is used for identifying a specific wire or electrical connection.
 To measure Resistance in an electric circuit.

Procedure of Continuity Test

There are mainly two methods for checking the continuity of a circuit using a multimeter
(Continuity Symbol on Multimeter-Refer Figure 1).

Figure 1. Continuity Symbol on Multimeter

The first method is to use the continuity mode in the multimeter, which is specially made for
this purpose.
The second method is to use the Ohmmeter.
Using Continuity Mode
The steps for continuity test using continuity mode is given below:
 De-energize the circuit, if it has any power input.
 Set the dial of the multi meter in continuity mode (continuity mode is shown by the symbol of
sound)
 Insert the black probe into the COM port.

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 Insert the red probe into the V, Ω port.
 Now touch the probes with each other. If the meter beeps or gives reading 0 that means the meter
works fine.
 Now connect the probes to both ends of the component or wire that you want to test.
 If the meter shows 0 and beeps, it means the path is complete (closed) or the component allows the
flow of current.

Figure 2. Circuit with Continuity

 If the meter does not beep & show 1 or OL, it means the path is broken (open) or the component
does not allow the flow of current.

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 Figure 3. Circuit without Continuity
Note: The continuity in non-directional, it does not matter which probe should be connected to which
side. The result is always the same except some cases like diodes which allow the flow in only one
direction.

Continuity Test Safety Measures

 Never perform continuity test in Live Wire or Circuit. Switch OFF and Unplug the Device to be
tested.
 Make Sure there is NO Voltage in the Circuit to be tested.
 Make sure that all Capacitors are discharged.
SOLDERING
Definition: Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and
then flowing a filler metal into the joint—the filler metal having a relatively low melting point.
Soldering is a common practice for assembling electrical components and wiring.
Soldering is used to form a permanent connection between electronic components.
The metal to be soldered is heated with a soldering iron and then solder is melted into the connection.
Only the solder melts, not the parts that are being soldered.
Solder is a metallic "glue" that holds the parts together and forms a connection that allows electrical
current to flow.
You can use a solderless breadboard to make test circuits, but if you want your circuit to last for more
than a few days, you will want to solder the components together.
Materials and Equipment
 A soldering iron
o A soldering iron is used to heat the connections to be soldered.
o For electronic circuits, you should use a 25- to 40-watt (W) soldering iron.
o Higher wattage soldering irons are not necessarily hotter; they are just able to heat larger
components. A 40-W soldering iron makes joints faster than a 25-W soldering iron does.
o A soldering iron can be purchased at hardware stores and at most large department
stores.
 Rosin core solder
o Rosin core solder is fabricated with a hollow core inside the solder wire, but the flux
used is a milder variety made of rosin, which is a solid form of resin derived from
conifers (a group of cone-bearing seed plants) such as pine.
o Solder has a lower melting point than the metals that are being connected do. The solder
melts when it is heated by the soldering iron, but the metals being joined will not melt.

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 o The rosin core acts as a flux. It prevents oxidation of the metals that are being connected,
and enhances the ability of the solder to "wet" the surfaces that are being joined.
o Solder that is used to join copper pipes has an acid core, which is appropriate for pipes,
but will corrode electronic connections. Use solder that has a rosin core.
o For most electronics work, a solder with a diameter of 0.75 millimeters (mm) to 1.0 mm
is best. Thicker solder might make soldering small joints difficult and also increases the
chances of creating solder bridges between copper pads that are not meant to be
connected.
o An alloy of 60/40 (60% tin, 40% lead) is used for most electronics work, but lead-free
solders are available as well.
 Stand on which to hold the hot soldering iron
 There are a variety of stands available. It is important to always keep the hot iron in its
stand when not in use.
 Sponge
 The damp sponge is used to clean the tip of the iron.

Figure 4. Soldering equipment and materials

The solder in this picture is coiled inside a plastic tube; it is pulled through the top as needed. The
spring on the stand holds the hot soldering iron. The damp sponge is used to clean the tip of the iron.
Solder braid is used to remove solder; solder is "soaked up" into the braid when it is heated by the

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soldering iron. The wire strippers can be adjusted to strip the plastic covering off of various thicknesses
of wire. The prototype board is used to connect electronic components in a circuit.
 Solder braid
o This is used to remove solder.
o To use the braid, place it over the solder to be removed and heat it from above with
the iron. The solder will flow into the braid.
o Solder braid is used to extract an electronic component that is soldered onto a board.
o It is also used to reduce the amount of solder on a connection.
 Prototype board
o A prototype board is used to assemble the circuit.
o Prototype boards have copper tracks or pads for connecting components.
 Steel wool or fine sandpaper
o This is used to clean connections prior to soldering.
o Solder will not flow over a dirty connection.
 Crocodile clips
o These can be used as heat sinks, if needed.
Safety & Tips
Safety Precautions
1. Caution: A soldering iron can heat to around 400°C, which can burn you or start a fire, so use
it carefully.
2. Unplug the iron when it is not in use.
3. Keep the power cord away from spots where it can be tripped over.
4. Take great care to avoid touching the tip of the soldering iron on a power line. If a power cord
is touched by a hot iron, there is a serious risk of burns and electric shock.
5. Always return the soldering iron to its stand when it is not in use.
6. Never put the soldering iron down on your work bench, even for a moment!
7. Work in a well-ventilated area.
8. The smoke that will form as you melt solder is mostly from the flux and can be quite irritating.
Avoid breathing it by keeping your head to the side of, not above, your work.
9. Solder contains lead, which is a poisonous metal. Wash your hands after using solder.
Tips
Reliable operation of a circuit with soldered connections depends on good soldering practices. Here are
some tips for successful soldering.
1. Plan before you start to solder. Identify all the parts that you will be using.
2. It is helpful to attach each part to a piece of paper and write what it is and its value (for example,
resistor #1: 100 ohms).
3. Some components, such as LED's, must be placed the correct way around in order to function.
4. The following is a suggested order for the installation of various components:
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  Integrated circuit (IC) holders. The IC will be added later.
 Resistors
 Capacitors, less than 1 micro farad
 Large capacitors, 1 micro farad or greater.
 Diodes.
 LED's (Light Emitting Diodes).
 Transistors.
 Solid wire connections between components on the board
o Solid wire is fairly rigid, so it will stay in place once attached.
 Stranded wire to parts that are connected by wire to the circuit
o Stranded wire is more flexible than solid wire.
 Integrated circuits
o Connect them the correct way around.
o Many IC's are static sensitive.
o Leave IC's in their antistatic packaging until you need them, then ground your hands
by touching a metal water pipe or window frame before touching the IC's.
o Carefully insert IC's in their holders. Make sure all the pins are lined up with the
socket, then push down firmly with your thumb.
Preparing the Soldering Iron: Tinning the Tip
1. Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug it in.
2. Wait for the soldering iron to heat up.
3. Moisten the sponge.
4. Wipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge. This will clean the tip.
5. Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron.
 This is called tinning and it will help the heat flow from the iron's tip to the joint.
 The solder should flow onto the tip, producing a bright shiny surface.
 If the solder will not flow onto the tip, clean it by wiping it on the wet sponge.
 When tinned, wipe excess solder off on the wet sponge.
 You do not need to tin the tip before every joint, but you should re-tin it if it has gone dull
when the soldering iron has not been used for a few minutes.
 Check the manufacturer's instructions related to tinning the tip.
6. The tip of the soldering iron should be a shiny silver color. If it is black and pitted, replace it
with a new one.
Soldering
1. Solder needs a clean surface on which to adhere.
 Buff the copper foil of a PC board with steel wool before soldering.
 Remove any oil, paint, wax, etc. with a solvent, steel wool, or fine sandpaper.

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 2. To solder, heat the connection with the tip of the soldering iron for a few seconds, then apply
the solder.
 Heat the connection, not the solder.
 Hold the soldering iron like a pen, near the base of the handle.
 Both parts that are being soldered have to be hot to form a good connection.

Figure 5. The tip of the soldering iron heats both the copper pad and the lead from the electronic
component. Solder melts when placed in contact with the hot metals to be joined.
3. Keep the soldering tip on the connection as the solder is applied.
 Solder will flow into and around well-heated connections.
 Use just enough solder to form a strong connection.
4. Remove the tip from the connection as soon as the solder has flowed where you want it to be.
Remove the solder, then the iron.
5. Don't move the connection while the solder is cooling.
6. Don't overheat the connection, as this might damage the electrical component you are soldering.
 Transistors and some other components can be damaged by heat when soldering. A
crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink to protect these components (Fig.6).
7. Soldering a connection should take just a few seconds.
 If it is taking longer, see the troubleshooting section below.
8. Inspect the joint closely. It should look shiny (note: lead-free solder may appear dull; this is
OK).
 If you are soldering a wire (called the lead) onto a PC board (on the track), it should have a
volcano shape. See Figure 3.
 If the connection looks bad, reheat it and try again.
9. Wipe the tip of the iron on a damp sponge to clean it. The tip should now be shiny.

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10. Unplug the soldering iron when it is not in use.

Figure
6. By absorbing heat, the crocodile clip will reduce the heat that flows to the component,
helping to prevent damage. (The is Light Dependent Resistor - LDR)

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Figure 7. The solder in a good join will be shaped like a cone, with solid contact between the solder
and all surfaces to be joined. Bad joins (also called dry joins) should be melted and remade.
Troubleshooting
Common Problems and Troubleshooting
1. Solder will not flow.
 The parts to be joined may be dirty. Remove the solder and clean the parts.
2. The connection looks grainy or crystalline.
 Parts were moved before the solder was allowed to cool.
 Reheat to form a good joint. You may need a larger soldering iron to heat connections
adequately.
3. The tip is oxidized.
 Soldering is much easier with a shiny, clean tip.
 Clean the tip with a damp synthetic sponge while the iron is hot.
 To avoid oxidizing the tip, do not leave the iron plugged in when not in use.
 Do not use the iron at a higher temperature than is necessary to melt solder.
 Clean the tip of the iron on a damp synthetic sponge as soon as it starts to change from a
silver color.
4. There is too much or too little solder.
 Using too much solder can cause a solder bridge, which means that two adjacent joints are
accidentally connected.

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  Using too little solder might result in poor electrical continuity between the board and
component. The connection should be smooth, shiny, and rigid.
Soldering Printed Circuit Boards Soldering may be used to join wires or attached components to a
printed circuit board (PCB). Wires, component leads and tracks on circuit boards are mostly made of
copper. The copper is usually covered with a thin layer of tin to prevent oxidization and to promote
better bonding to other parts with solder. When soldering bare copper wires they are often “tinned” by
applying molten solder before making a joint.
How to Solder?
Let us solder an LED to a circuit board as shown in Fig. 8 below.
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light when current flows
through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron holes, releasing energy in the form
of photons.

Figure 8. Soldering an LED to a circuit board LED Leads Identification

Step 1: Mount The Component – Begin by inserting the leads of the LED into the holes of the circuit
board. Flip the board over and bend the leads outward at a 45° angle. This will help the component
make a better connection with the copper pad and prevent it from falling out while soldering.

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 Figure 9. Mounting the Component
Step 2: Heat the Joint – Turn your soldering iron ON and if it has an adjustable heat control, set it to
400’C. At this point, touch the tip of the iron to the copper pad and the resistor lead at the same time.
You need to hold the soldering iron in place for 3-4 seconds in order to heat the pad and the lead.

Figure 10. Heating the Joint

Step 3: Apply Solder to Joint – Continue holding the soldering iron on the copper pad and the lead
and touch your solder to the joint. IMPORTANT – Don’t touch the solder directly to the tip of the iron.
You want the joint to be hot enough to melt the solder when it’s touched. If the joint is too cold, it will
form a bad connection.

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 Figure 11. Applying Solder to Joint
Step 4: Snip the Leads – Remove the soldering iron and let the solder cool down naturally. Don’t blow
on the solder as this will cause a bad joint. Once cool, you can snip the extra wire from leads.
A proper solder joint is smooth, shiny and looks like a volcano or cone shape. You want just enough
solder to cover the entire joint but not too much so it becomes a ball or spills to a nearby lead or joint.

Figure 12. Snipping the Leads

How to Solder Wires?
Now let’s see how to solder wires together. For this process, it’s recommended to use helping hands or
other type of clamp device. Begin by removing the insulation from the ends of both wires you are
soldering together. If the wire is stranded, twist the strands together with your fingers (Fig 13 a). Make
sure your soldering iron is fully heated and touch the tip to the end of one of the wires. Hold it on the
wire for 3-4 seconds (Fig 13 b).

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 Figure. 13 a Figure. 13 b
Keep the iron in place and touch the solder to the wire until it’s fully coated. Repeat this process on the
other wire (Fig 14 a). Hold the two tinned wires on top of each other and touch the soldering iron to
both wires. This process should melt the solder and coat both wires evenly (Fig 14 b).

Figure. 14 a Figure. 14 b
Remove the soldering iron and wait a few seconds to let the soldered connection cool and harden (Fig
15 a & b).

Figure. 15 a Figure. 15 b
Desoldering
The good thing about using solder is the fact that it can be removed easily in a technique known as
desoldering. This comes in handy if you need to remove a component or make a correction to your
electronic circuit.

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To desolder a joint, you will need solder wick which is also known as desoldering braid as shown in
Fig. 16 below.

Figure 16. Desoldering Braid

Step 1 – Place a piece of the desoldering braid on top of the joint/solder you want to remove.
Step 2 – Heat your soldering iron and touch the tip to the top of the braid. This will heat the solder
below which will then be absorbed into the desoldering braid. You can now remove the braid to see the
solder has been extracted and removed. Be careful in touching the braid when you are heating it because
it will get hot.

Figure 17. Desoldering process

Optional – If a lot of solder is to be removed, we can use a device called a solder sucker or desoldering
pump as shown in Fig.18. This is a handheld mechanical vacuum that sucks up hot solder with a press
of a button. To use, press the plunger down at the end of the solder sucker. Heat the joint with your
soldering iron and place the tip of the solder sucker over the hot solder. Press the release button to suck
up the liquid solder. In order to empty the solder sucker, press down on the plunger.

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 Figure 18. Solder sucker
Soldering Irons
Soldering irons come in many varieties and sizes with the most common types being electric. Simple
electric soldering irons have no controls and we need to simply plug them in and wait for them to heat
up. Their temperature is regulated by the power of the heating element and heat loss to the environment.
Some soldering irons have temperature controls which allow the user to set a desired operating
temperature for the soldering iron, but it also introduces a problem if the user does not set an appropriate
temperature for the work, solder can be overheated and decompose. Hotter is not better! A temperature
of around 320 °C works well for 60/40 leaded solder. Some temperature controlled soldering irons use
interchangeable tips to change the temperature at which they operate.

Figure 19 - Types of soldering irons

Soldering preparation
When soldering, cleanliness is particularly important. Dirt and grease on the component connections,
or one the wires, or printed circuit board to be soldered will prevent the solder sunning easily and may
prevent a good soldered joint being made. Oxide layers also prevent the solder wetting properly.
There are a few key steps to make sure the solder takes the surfaces to be soldered:

 Makes sure surfaces are clean: The first stage in preparation for any soldering is to make sure
that everything is clean. Make sure that any printed circuit boards are clean and that the copper
surface is not contaminated. It often helps to wipe the surface over with a solvent to remove any dirt
before soldering. Once this has been done, be sure not to touch any surfaces to be soldered!
 Remove surface oxidation: The wire leads to conventional components oxidize with time. It can
help to scrape off any oxide. This can easily be accomplished by gripping the lead lightly with a pair

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 of pliers and gently pulling the component so that the surface rubs against the pliers and the oxide
layer is removed. This needs to be done with care so that the component is not damaged.
 Clean connector bodies: Similarly where the bodies of some connectors need to be soldered, it is
often necessary to remove and wax or other surface oxide or contaminant. It sometimes helps just
to scrape the surface. Sometimes the chrome plating used on many low cost audio and other
connectors can be difficult to wet with solder. A little slight roughening of the surface helps.
 Clean the soldering iron bit: It is also important that the soldering iron is clean. The bits on the
soldering iron soon get dirty with spent flux residue, and this needs to be removed. Most soldering
iron stands come with a place for a wet sponge. The soldering iron bit should be wiped over this
regularly when in use to ensure that it is clean.
Making the soldered joints
Making a soldered joint is quite simple, and with a little practice it will be possible to make very good
soldered joints.
 Place the components / wires to be soldered: The first step is to ensure that the components
can either be moved into place easily, or they are already in place. This may involve placing the
leads through holes in a printed circuit board, or securing them round a post. However, do not
fix them too firmly, otherwise removal at a later time will be very difficult, should this be
needed.
 Clean the soldering iron bit: Next clean the bit of the soldering iron on the sponge and ensure
there is a little solder on the bit - you may need to melt a small extra amount to make sure the
bit is tinned. This also helps heat flow from the iron to the joint. Take the iron to the joint and
apply the iron to the joint at the same time as the solder. Melt just enough solder onto the joint.
 Solder the joint: Apply the soldering iron and the solder to the joint simultaneously. Allow
the solder to flow across it and for the flux to work. Allow enough solder onto the joint to make
a good joint, but not excessive amounts - there should be no blobs of solder around! Making the
solder joint should take no more than a couple of seconds. If the iron is held on the joint too
long, then the solder will oxidise and this will result in a dry joint.
 Remove the iron and wait: Once the joint has been made, remove the soldering iron and the
solder, and allow the joint to cool. Remember, though that it will remain hot to touch for some
time.
Inspect the soldered joints
It is necessary to ensure that once the solder joint has been made that it is satisfactory. This is best done
by visually inspecting it.
 Check for sufficient solder: Solder joints should have sufficient solder but not too much. For
printed circuit board or PCB solder joint, the solder should completely envelope or "wet" the
component and the surrounding area of the board and it should have a concave meniscus. It
should not be overloaded with solder such that the solder is convex.

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  Check for dry joints: The joint should look quite shiny. If it has a dry grainy look to it, this is
what is termed a dry joint. It results from the soldering iron being applied to the joint for too
long, or the joint having been moved while it is cooling. It is not advisable to simply apply more
solder. The best course of action is to remove the solder and start again.
Golden rules for soldering
There are a number of hints, tips and golden rules when soldering.
 Safety First: When undertaking any soldering it is necessary to put safety at the top of the list.
Soldering irons are very hot and can cause burns. The best course of action is to have a great
awareness of safety. However, there are a few golden rules as a start. First, always use a soldering
iron holder for when the soldering iron is not in use. When in use, be careful where it goes. If
someone else is around, they could easily be burned. Also never use one when small children are
around.
 Keep the soldering iron bit clean: As the soldering iron bit remains hot whilst it is in use, it quickly
becomes dirty. Frequent cleaning on a wet sponge is needed.
 Apply solder and soldering iron simultaneously: One of the keys to good soldering is applying
the soldering iron and the solder to the joint at the same time. Don’t put solder onto the bit and then
carry it to the joint.
 Don’t use too much solder: It is often tempting to use a bit extra solder, but use just enough to
make a good joint. PCB joints should be slightly concave and other joints should have enough to
ensure a good joint.
 Don’t keep the iron in place too long: Once a joint has been made, remove the iron and let the
joint and other areas cool.
Tips - Heat is transferred from the tip of the soldering iron to the joint by thermal conduction enabled
by metal to metal contact between the tip and joint. The tips of soldering irons come in various shapes
and sizes to enable the best contact to be made. Most tips are either conical or chisel shapes. The size
of the tip should be selected to allow the tip to be placed against the joint being soldered without
interfering with adjacent parts. The tip should be large enough to conduct sufficient heat into the joint
to allow the solder to melt and flow properly. The choice of tip size is not a precise calculation and a
“normal” size tip will work for most joints on a PCB.
Hazards involved in soldering
Heat - Although solder has a relatively low melting point this temperature is more than high enough to
cause serious burns to people or objects. It is important to hold the soldering iron only by the insulated
handle, never touch the heating element or tip when the soldering iron is on. The soldering iron will
remain hot for some time after it is turned off so always check that it has cooled down before touching
it, e.g. if changing the tip. When you are not soldering always keep the soldering iron in a proper holder
so that you don’t touch it accidently and it doesn’t heat or burn other objects such as the benchtop.
Don’t hold parts being soldered with your hands as these will also be heated when being soldered.

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Don’t flick molten solder from the soldering iron or wipe the tip on brass wool type tip cleaners. If
burns occur, they should be treated by holding under cold running water for several minutes and
assistance sought if burns are severe.
Toxic materials - Leaded solder contains lead which is a harmful material. Use of this type of solder
will probably involve handling it and your skin may become contaminated by it. Although it is unlikely
that the lead can be absorbed directly through your skin it may be ingested indirectly if it is transferred
by handling food whilst your skin is contaminated. Always wash your hands thoroughly before eating
or handling food. Solder flux creates fumes when heated during soldering which may be harmful if
inhaled. Use a fume extractor to avoid inhaling fumes.
Spattering - Solder and flux can spit or spatter when heated. Always wear eye protection (safety
glasses) when soldering.
Electrical Safety - Before use you should visually check that the soldering iron does not have damage
such as melted insulation on the lead, broken or cracked handle or exposed conductors. Don’t use
damaged equipment and report the damage if any. For electrical safety the exposed metal parts such as
the tip and heating element are earthed. Don’t solder on any live equipment as contact with the earthed
tip may cause damage to the equipment or soldering iron

Result:
The soldering of simple electronic circuits and checking the continuity of a circuit using a digital
multimeter have been carried out.

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Exp. No. : 2 ELECTRONIC ASSEMBLY AND TESTING WORK
Date :

ASSEMBLING AND TESTING ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS ON A SMALL PCB

Aim: To assemble and test simple electronic circuits by soldering the components on Printed Circuit
Board (PCB).
Apparatus Required:
Sl. No. Component Range Quantity
1 General purpose PCB 10W (or) 35W 1
2 Soldering iron 60/40 grade 1
3 Solder 1
4 Solder Sucker
5 Flux 1
6 Sleeve Remover 1
7 Nose plier 1
8 Resistors 220Ω, 330Ω, 1K, 1.2K 1 each
1KΩ & 10kΩ

9 Diode 1N4007 1
10 LED RED, GREEN 1 each
11 Step down Transformer 230/ 12 V 1
12 DMM - 1
13 DSO - 1

2.1 Two Resistors in series connection

The Fig. 2.1 shows the circuit connected with two resistors R1 and R2 in series pattern.

Fig. 2.1 Two Resistors connected in series

The effective resistance, Reff for the resistors connected in series is given by Reff = R1 + R2. The
theoretical and experimental values of the individual and effective resistances are tabulated in Table
2.1.

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 Table 2.1 Two Resistors connected in series

Theoretical Resistance ( Ω) Experimental Resistance ( Ω)

Sl. No.
R1 R2 Reff = R1 + R2 R1 R2 Reff = R1 + R2

1.

2.2 Two Resistors in parallel connection

The Fig. 2.2 shows the circuit connected with two resistors R1 and R2 in parallel pattern.

Fig. 2.1 Two Resistors connected in parallel

𝑹 𝑹
The effective resistance, Reff for the resistors connected in parallel is given by Reff = 𝑹 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 . The
𝟏+ 𝟐
theoretical and experimental values of the individual and effective resistances are tabulated in Table
2.2.

Table 2.2 Two Resistors connected in parallel

Theoretical Resistance ( Ω) Experimental Resistance ( Ω)

Sl. No. 𝑹 𝑹 𝑹 𝑹
R1 R2 Reff = 𝑹 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 R1 R2 Reff = 𝑹 𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝟏+ 𝟐 𝟏+ 𝟐

1.

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2.3 Simple circuit with LED
A simple circuit with LED and current limiting resistor are connected with 5V DC power supply
as shown in Fig. 2.3. After the excitation of the circuit with 5V DC supply, LED glows. After that the
drops across the LED and current limiting resistor can be recorded in the Table 2.3. From the observed
values, Kirchhoff ‘s Voltage Law (KVL) can be proved.

Kirchhoff ‘s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff ‘s Voltage Law states that the sum of potential raises is equal to the sum of the
potential drops in a closed loop circuit. In other words, the algebraic sum of the voltages in a closed
loop circuit is equal to zero. This clearly shows that, the energy can neither be crated nor be destroyed
which is the law of conservation of energy.

Fig. 2.3 Simple Circuit with LED

According to KVL, the loop equation for the circuit shown in Fig.2.3 is
Vs = V1 + V2

23
 Table 2.3 Potential Raise and Potential Drop

Experimental Resistance (V)

Sl. No.
V1 V2 Vs

2.4 Half wave Rectifier circuit

The half wave rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 2.4.1 Here, 230V AC supply is given to the step
down transformer. The secondary of the transformer provides 12V AC supply and which is fed to the
PN junction diode which is acting as rectifier.

Fig. 2.4.1 Half Wave Rectifier

The Fig. 2.4.2 shows the input and output waveforms of the half wave rectifier circuit. During
the positive half cycle of the input, the diode is forward biased and conducts. Due to this, load current
flows in the circuit and hence load voltage VL appears across the load resistor RL. But during the
negative half cycle of the input, the diode gets reverse biased and hence does not conduct so that no
load current and load voltage.

24
 Fig. 2.4.2 Input and Output waveforms of half wave rectifier

2.5 Transistor as a Switch

Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device. The name of the three terminals are Base,
Emitter and Collector. There are two types of transistor available namely n-p-n transistor and p-n-p
transistor. The Standard transistor symbols are depicted in Fig. 2.5.1.

Emitter Collector Emitter Collector

Base Base
p-n-p transistor n-p-n transistor

Fig. 2.5.1 Transistor Symbols

25
26
 Transistor can be used as a switch by varying the resistance between collector and emitter, the
resistance can be varied to zero to infinity by varying the base current of the transistor.
Procedure:
1. Keep the voltage knob at the minimum position in the DC Regulated power supplies V1 and
V2.
2. Connect the fabricated circuit with the power supplies as shown in Fig. 2.5.2.
3. Gradually vary V2 and set 5V.
4. Gradually vary V1 with fine voltage knob and check whether the LED glows at around 0.7V.

220

LED

C
V2 5v
B BC547
E
0.7v V1

Fig. 2.5.2 Transistor as a switch

Result:
The soldering of certain simple electronic circuits were carried out with necessary components
and tested them.

27
28
Exp. No. : 3 ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT STUDY
a) STUDY OF ELEMENTS OF SMART PHONE

Date :

Aim : To study the functionalities of various elements of a smart phone.

Any handheld device with a touchscreen interface capable of performing most of the functions
of a computer and with a running Operating System (OS) is considered as a smartphone. Smartphone
is a new generation high featured and multifunctional cell phone which has the functionalities of a
handheld computer, the communication capabilities of a cell phone with multiple sensors.
The major milestones in the history of smartphones are listed below.
 1997 - Term smartphone is coined
 1999 - RIM begins making Blackberries
 2007 - iPhone 1 released
 2008 - Android v1.0 released
 Now – iPhone 6 and Android 5.0
The Figure 1 shows the complete dismantled view of various major parts of an iPhone 5S. There are
various major parts as listed below.

 Main PCB ( Printed Circuit Board )

 Display Module
 Display Backplate
 Home Button / Fingerprint sensor PCB
 Primary Camera Module
 Secondary Camera Module
 Loudspeaker Assembly
 Antenna
 LED Flash PCB
 I/O Connector / Headset Jack PCB
 Battery
 Main Bottom Enclosure

29
Figure 1. A Teardown of iPhone 5S

Figure 2. Architecture of Main PCB

30
 The Architecture of Main PCB is illustrated in Figure 2. Main PCB of the Smartphone has three
main parts Viz.
 An application processor which executes users’ application software
 A baseband processor which controls radio activities
 A number of peripheral devices for interacting with the user

Overview of the Application Processor

It is a dedicated processor which enables smartphone to run mainstream OS such as Android,
iOS and Windows Mobile etc. Also it is optimized to run a number of user applications. Emphasize
multimedia processing (audio/video/still image/2D/3D) is carried out here and it does not handle
“baseband” (wireless communications). The sample image of an application processor is shown in
Figure 3.

Figure 3. Application Processor

The following are the various components present in the application processor.

 Processor core (e.g. ARM based processor) which is specifically optimized for minimal power
consumption.

31
  Multimedia engine which is hardware implementation of one or more multimedia standards
(e.g. JPEG module, MPEG module, Audio module).

 Device interfaces which are used to communicate with peripheral device (e.g. USB, camera,
display).

Overview of Baseband Processor

It has a communication protocol stack which enables different types of wireless technologies such
as LTE, WCDMA, CDMA, ZigBee, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, etc. It provides radio communication related
functions Viz. signal modulation, RF shifting, encoding / decoding, etc.

Figure 4. Baseband Processor

The baseband processor comprises of the following components.

 RF front end: a component for receiving and transmitting on different frequencies.

 Analog baseband: an interface between the digital domain and the analog domain.
 Digital baseband: a component which handles higher layers of the protocols by using Digital
Signal Processors.

32
 The Figure 5 presents the structure of a baseband processor. Figures 6a and 6b show the front
and rear views of Main PCB of iPhone 3G.

Figure 5. Structure of Baseband Processor

Figure 6a. Front view of Main PCB of iPhone 3G

33
34
 Figure 6b. Rear view of Main PCB of iPhone 3G

Result: The functionalities of various elements of a smart phone were studied.

35
36
Exp. No. : 3 ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT STUDY
b) ASSEMBLY AND DISMANTLE OF LED TV

Date :

Aim: To dismantle and assemble the LED television and study the functionalities of the major blocks
in it.

Apparatus Required:
1. LED Television
2. Tool Box
Theory:
LED TV is a flat panel LCD television that uses Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to backlight
display instead of the Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lights (CCFLs) used in standard LCD televisions.
LED TVs are more formally known as LED-backlight LCD television.

The first practical LED was invented by Nick Holonyak in 1962 while he was at General
Electric. The first practical LED display was developed at Hewlett-Packard (HP) and introduced in
1968.

Figure 1. Complete Block Diagram of an LED TV

37
 The LED TVs are light in weight, more power efficient and having greater optical range than
the fluorescents, produce deeper blacks and more saturated color. LED Televisions are very widely
used nowadays. The Figure 1 shows the complete block diagram of an LED TV and the various sections
are discussed below.

I. Power supply section: Power supply gives 12 V or 5 V DC output. This 12 / 5 V is given to 3.3 V
regulator IC which gives 3.3 V DC . This 3.3 V is given to mother board main IC, BIOS IC, reset
button and IR sensor. This 3.3 V supply is known as 3.3 V SB (stand by). Power supply also gives
24 volt DC for inverter board in LED TV.

II. Mother board: It consists of main microcontroller IC , BIOS ROM, flash IC RAM. A crystal of
24 MHz is used to generate clock pulses. Main IC receives audio video signals from A/V input,
HDMI input, RF Signal from tuner and MPEG files from USB. Input signal is selected by mother
board through signal switching circuit. This signal is processed and sound signal is separated,
amplified and sent to speaker. Video signal is sent to analog to digital converter. It gives out red,
blue, green, sync and clock signals in the form of LVDS (Low Voltage Differential Signal). LVDS
signal is sent to Timing Controller IC (TCON IC) on TCON board through LVDS cable. Mother
board sends back light ON / OFF control signal to back light inverter / driver board.
III. TCON Board: It has normally four sections Viz. DC-DC IC, TCON IC, Scan Driver or Level
Shifter and Gamma IC.

1. DC-DC IC :- TCON board receives Vcc supply generally 12 Volts from LVDS connector is
given to this IC . It produces 3.3 Volt supply which is given to TCON IC. A 1.2 Volt regulator is
also used to supply core voltage to TCON IC. One more regulator IC is used to supply 3.5 / 1.8 /
1.5 / 1.2 volt to RAM depending on version of RAM (DDR1 3.5 Volt, DDR2 1.8 Volt, DDR3
1.5 Volt, DDR4 1.2 Volt). When TCON IC receives all input voltages and signals, it starts working
and gives an enable signal to DC-DC IC. After receiving enable signal DC-DC IC start producing
AVDD, HVDD, VGH and VGL voltages. In some cases enable signal is directly given to DC- DC
IC. HVDD and VDD voltages are also given to gamma IC.

38
 2. TCON IC: It receives working voltage VDD 3.3 Volt, 1.2 Volt for core and 1.8 Volt for RAM.
It receives Signal 0-, 0+ (red color signal data), 1-,1+ (green color signal data), 2-,2+ (blue color
signal and horizontal and vertical sync signal data), 3-,3+ (CLK-, CLK+), 4-,4+ (RGB signal data)
from LVDS connector. This IC processes all signals and gives output as mini LVDS 0-, 0+, 1-,1+,
2-,2+, CLK-, CLK+ and 4-,4+ to panel through COF flex strip and EN, CPV1, CPV2, STV signal
to Scan Driver IC.

3. Scan Driver or Level Shifter: It receives 3.3 Volt, VGH, VGL from DC-DC IC and CPV1,
CPV2, STV, and EN (Enable Signals) from TCON IC. It gives CKV1 and CKV2 for SCAN CLK
odd and CKVB1 and CKVB2 for SCAN CLK even to panel source COF.

4. Gamma IC: HVDD voltage are given to this IC. With the help of voltage divider circuit Vref
and Vcom voltages are produced. And all gamma voltages are produced with the help of voltage
divider circuit. Some programmed IC are also used in which voltage divider circuit is not used.
Gamma voltage starts from 1.5 Volt to AVDD voltage with increasing gradually in steps. Gamma
voltages are given through source COF for gamma correction.

IV. Chip on flex IC (COF): This IC receives all voltages through flex strip and produces driving signal
voltages to drive all TFT in the panel. Main voltages received by COF IC are VDD( 3.3 Volt,
AVDD (16 Volt), HVDD (8 Volt), VGH (27 Volt), VGL (-8 to -10 Volts), CKV1, CKV2, CKVB1,
CKVB2, VCOM and Gamma voltages and all signal voltages from TCON through mini LVDS.

V. Panel or Screen: All working voltages to panel are received through COF connector flexible strip
cable. The light for screen working is given by back light LED. The main parts of panel are Light
Source, Horizontal Polarizer, Vertical Polarizer, TFT Screen, Back Light and Control Button panel.

TFT (Thin Film Transistor): The entire screen is completely filled with matrix of TFT. Each pixel
needs three TFT. Three points of each transistors are connected to source, common and gate circuit
of panel and controlled separately by multiplexing method.

39
40
Back Light: Cold Cathode Florescent Light (CCFL) are used in LCD panel for back light. LED Strips
are used in LED TV panel. In LCD TV, back light is given supply with an inverter board, where as
in LED TV, LED drivers are used to give supply to LED strips. Back light ON / OFF signal is
received from the mother board.

Control Button Panel: All control buttons are placed in this panel to control the TV operations
locally. Otherwise remote control can be used through which all the control signals are received by
IR sensor and sent to mother board.

Result: The LED television was dismantled, studied the functionalities of the major blocks in it and
assembled it back.

41
42
Exp. No. : 3 ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT STUDY
c) ASSEMBLY AND DISMANTLE OF COMPUTER

Date :

Aim: To dismantle and study the functionalities of the major blocks of a Computer and assemble it
back.
Apparatus Required:
3. Computer
4. Tool Box
Theory:

Parts of Computer

A computer is an electronic machine that accepts data from the user, processes the data by
performing calculations and operations on it and generates the desired outcome or result. The computer
is derived from the Latin word ‘computerae’ which means ‘to compute’. The full form of the
Computer is “Common Operating Machine Purposely Used for Technological and Educational
Research”. Figure 1 shows the complete list of all the common computer hardware components and
common peripherals used with the computer.

Figure 1. Parts of a Computer

43
Computer Case

Figure 2 shows the computer case which holds all of the internal components to make up the
computer itself. It is usually designed in such a manner to make fitting a motherboard, wiring and drives
as easy as possible. Some are designed so well that it is easy to make everything look tidy and
presentable too.

Figure 2. Computer Case

Cases come in all different shapes and sizes to accommodate various types of computer
components and satisfy the consumer’s needs. Design elements can vary from being plain to highly
elaborate. You can get a plain grey case or one that has colored lighting everywhere to make it looks
spectacular. Cases, like most things, vary in quality. You can get them made from cheap metals or good
quality materials that provide you with a sturdy design. List of computer case sizes (known as form
factor) are as follows:

 Very small form factor: Supports Mini ITX motherboards

 Small form factor: Supports micro ATX motherboards.
 Standard form factor: Supports standard ATX motherboards.
 Larger form factors: Supports ATX and XL-ATX motherboards.

44
Motherboard

The motherboard is the main board that is screwed directly inside the computer case. A sample
motherboard is shown in Figure 3. All other cards and everything else plugs directly into the
motherboard, hence its name. The CPU, RAM, drives, power supply, and more all get connected to it.
Its function is to integrate all the components so they can communicate and operate together.

Figure 3. Motherboard

A good motherboard offers a wide amount of connectivity options. It also has the least amount
of bottlenecks possible. This allows all the components to operate efficiently and to fulfill their
maximum potential as they were designed to do. Obviously, as the physical size is reduced, it begins
to limit connectivity options and functionality. Motherboards come in different sizes as shown in
Table 1.

45
 Table 1. Standard sizes of Computer Case

CPU

The CPU is basically like the brain of a computer. There are so many different types of
processors. The top manufacturers of computers are Intel, AMD, and NVidia. A sample CPU is shown
in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Sample CPU

46
 It processes all the information on a computational level. It takes information from the RAM
and processes it to perform the tasks required by the computer. It is usually seated in a socket that
utilizes a lever or a latch with a hinged plate with a cut out in the center to secure it onto the
motherboard. It has many copper pads underneath it for the socket contacts to push up against them to
make electrical contact.

There are other ways CPUs can be attached to the motherboard. Here are some common
examples:

 ZIF (Zero Insertion Force): Although this is a more desirable socket, they are mostly found
on older computer motherboards. A lever-operated mechanism to clamp the pins of the
processor.
 PGA (Pin Grid Array): It is also a ZIF socket but has a different pin pitch and contains a
different pin count.
 LGA (Land Grid Array): More commonly found on motherboards today. A levered hinged
plate with a center cut-out clamps down on the processor.
 BGA (Ball Grid Array): The CPU is soldered directly onto the motherboard. This makes it a
non-user swappable part. It is susceptible to bad connectivity.

Heat Sink and Cooling Fan

A processor generates a decent amount of heat, especially when it is working under high loads. It
will run even hotter when it is set to a higher clock speed to make it run faster.

Figure 5. Heat Sink and Cooling Fan

47
 This is called overclocking. This is why a heat sink and fan assembly are required to draw the heat
away from the processor and distribute it to thin sheets or fins of metal for the fan to cool down. The
heat sink and cooling fan are shown separately as well as together as an assembly in the Figure 5.

RAM

RAM is a data storage device that can provide fast read and write access. RAM is also volatile,
which means that it loses all the stored data when power is lost. The RAM keeps data ready for the
CPU to process. The speed of the RAM is a big contributor to the overall speed of a computer.

It plugs directly into a long slot that has contacts on either side of the slot. It, too, has a clock
speed, just like a processor. So, it can also be overclocked to deliver increased performance beyond the
intended specification. Certain RAM modules are sold with a heat spreader. It helps dissipate the heat
from the individual memory ICs, keeping them cooler. A sample RAM is shown in Figure 6.

RAM has evolved like any other component. RAM used on the motherboard often uses DDR
(Double Data Rate) SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory) type memory. RAM
Amount always comes in powers of 2, so you will always see numbers like 16GB, 32GB, or 64GB of
RAM to mention some examples.

Figure 6. RAM

Graphics Card
A graphics card with cooler arrangement is shown in Figure 7. A graphics card processes the
data from the motherboard and sends the appropriate information to the monitor.

48
 Figure 7. Graphics Card

It can do so using an HDMI, Display Port, DVI, or VGA connector. A graphics card can also
be referred to as a video card or a display card. It takes the burden of all the video processing from the
main CPU. This gives a computer a big boost in performance. Because of the large processing
requirements for a gaming graphics card, fans are almost a given.

A graphics card plugs into a PCI Express (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) slot on
the motherboard. It is a serial expansion bus slot capable of a high amount of bandwidth in two
directions. A graphics card has a GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) which is the main component that
requires cooling. A GPU is slower than a CPU, but it is designed to deal with mathematical operations
required for video rendering.

The amount of memory on the card varies depending on the manufacturer’s design. Graphics
cards use GDDR (Graphics Double Data Rate) SDRAM, which is specially designed to optimize
graphics performance. GDDR is built to handle a higher bandwidth compared to plain DDR RAM.

Sound Card

Most of the time, the sound chip built into the motherboard is used for audio output. But, if you
are a sound enthusiast or prefer higher detailed audio while playing a game, you might be inclined to
use a sound card. A sample sound card is shown in Figure 8. Sound cards plug into a computer in
multiple ways. It can be through USB, PCI slot, or PCI Express x 1 slot. External DACs have gained a

49
lot more popularity and help deliver clearer and more defined audio. They connect up using an IO cable
like a USB cable to your computer or laptop and provide a line out for your speakers or headphones.

Figure 8. Sound Card

A sound processing chip on the card does all of the audio processing and is usually not a very
powerful processor. A sound card can offer a wide range of connectivity with various audio equipment.
A few examples could be optical audio, 1/4 inch jack, or RCA connectors.

Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

A hard disk drive is found in most computers. It’s usually a mechanical drive that stores all the
data. Apart from storing data, it can also be used as a boot drive to run the operating system from it. An
operating system is a software program that makes a computer useable like Microsoft Windows, for
example. The biggest vulnerability of a mechanical drive is its physically fragile nature.

One bump the wrong way can destroy a whole drive. A mechanical hard drive contains one or
more platters that spin anywhere between 5200 to 10000 RPM (revolutions per minute). The read and
write heads are spaced only about 0.002 (51 micro M) inches away from the platter. This gives you an
idea about the physical limitations regarding its fragile nature.

Small areas on the platter can be arranged to represent a 1 or a 0. It can be changed using the
drive head to alter the material to represent the correct value magnetically. There are various categories
of hard drives made for various real-world applications. Some examples include:

50
  General use for desktops or laptops.
 Gaming optimized for desktops or laptops.
 General high capacity storage.
 NAS Devices.
 Servers.
 Video recording.

Figure 9. Hard Disk Drive

Solid State Drive (SSD)

An SSD is also a type of hard drive, but it doesn’t have any moving parts. It consists of a bank
of flash memory that can hold a reasonable amount of data. While SSDs are increasing in size all the
time, they aren’t cost-effective for storing large amounts of data. A mechanical drive has a cheaper
gigabyte to dollar ratio. However, the SSD is a high-performance drive. It’s fast and cannot be as easily
damaged by dropping it or taking a few bumps.

51
 Figure 10. Solid State Drives

SSDs are available as 2.5-inch laptop encapsulated drives as well as an M.2 SDD as the most
commonly used kinds on the market. That’s why I always recommend SSDs for portable-type
computers where possible. You can read more about whether or not SSD’s are worth it in our other
article.

Switched Mode Power Supply ( SMPS )

A power supply mounts inside the computer case called as Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)
which is shown in Figure 11. This converts the AC mains supply from the wall socket and supplies the
correct DC voltages to all the components inside the computer. A computer power supply supplies the
following voltages:

 +3.3v: This voltage is supplied to the motherboard.

 +5V: This voltage is supplied to the motherboard and other internal components.
 +12V: This voltage is supplied to the motherboard and other internal components.
 -12V: This voltage is supplied to the motherboard.

52
 Figure 11. Switched Mode Power Supply

You get different wattage ratings for power supplies. The higher the wattage, the higher the
electrical current that can be made available to parts that need it. The higher you go in Watts, the more
the power supply will be likely to cost. A power supply also comes with its own cooling fan. This helps
all the internal components to stay cool when the power supply is subjected to bigger loads.

Visual Display Unit

A monitor is what you use to visualize the graphics data sent from the computer’s graphics card.
There are various types of monitors on the market. The most commonly used is a LED-backlit LCD
monitor which is shown in Figure 12. There are also a variety of different sizes with different aspect
ratios. The aspect ratio is simply the ratio between height and width. For example, a 16:9 aspect ratio
monitor will have 16 parts wide to 9 parts in height. There are also curved monitors, but they are more
expensive. Monitors also have a fast response time to keep up with the high demands required to
eliminate delays with user input for gaming.

53
 Figure 12. LED Monitor
Keyboard
A keyboard is one of the ways to communicate with a computer. Typing a key from the
keyboard sends a small portion of data to tell the computer which key was pressed. The computer can
use this information in many ways. An example could be a command or a character that can be used in
a document. There are two main different types of keyboards. Mechanical and membrane types.

Mouse

A mouse allows the user to move a pointer displayed on the monitor and experience a more
intuitive interaction with the computer. A sample mouse is shown in Figure 13. These days, mouse
have more buttons than the common three. However, the three main buttons allow the user to select,
grab, scroll and access extra menus and options. A computer mouse can be wired or wireless. The latter
obviously requires batteries. Optical mice of today allow for very accurate precision and smooth
movement.

54
 Figure 13. Mouse

Printer

A printer can take an image / text sent by a computer and deliver it onto a sheet of paper. A sample
printer is shown in Figure 14. It does this by using the data from the computer, and by either using toner
or ink, it deposits one of these in a controlled and accurate manner to form the image.

Figure 14. Printer

55
Scanner

A scanner can take anything on paper and scan it to produce a replicated digital image. This is
also very handy for saving physical photos that you want to preserve. Once the photo is stored digitally,
it won’t decay as a physical photo does over time. The flatbed scanner is the most commonly used
today as shown in Figure 15. There are many all-in-one devices also known as multifunction devices
which have printer and scanning capabilities in one reasonably compact product.

Figure 15. Flat Bed Scanner

Computer Speakers

Computer speakers can be connected to the sound card at the rear of the computer. Another way
they can be connected is by a monitor that already has built-in speakers. Generally, the sound quality
is poor from a monitor’s speakers. That’s why most people buy a set of computer speakers to have on
their computer desk. You can even connect up a 7.1 surround speaker system to certain sound cards.
This can add a nicer experience to gaming, playing music, or watching a film. The Figure 16 shows a
sample set of computer speakers.

56
Figure 16. Computer Speakers

57
58
 The Table 1 provides some of the abbreviations which are commonly used with their full
form.

ACRONYM FULL FORM

COMPUTER Common Operating Machine Purposely Used for Technological and Educational Research
ROM Read-Only Memory
CPU Central Processing Unit
URL Uniform Resource Locator
USB Universal Serial Bus
VIRUS Vital Information Resource Under Siege
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
SATA Serial Advanced Technology Attachment
RAM Random Access Memory
SMPS Switched-Mode Power Supply
CD Compact Disc
DVD Digital Versatile Disc
CRT Cathode Ray Tube
DEC Digital Equipment Corporation
SAP System Application and Products
PNG Portable Network Graphics
IP Internet Protocol
GIS Geographical Information system
DDS Digital Data Storage
CAD Computer-Aided Design
ACPI Advanced Configuration and Power Interface
AGP Accelerated Graphics Port
APM Advanced Power Management
APIPA Automatic Private Internet Protocol Addressing
HTTP HyperText Transfer Protocol
HTTPS HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure

Result: The Computer was dismantled, studied the functionalities of the major blocks in it and
assembled it back.

59