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Chapter 11

Chapter 11 introduces electrical machines, which convert electrical energy into other forms or perform specific work. It covers three main types: transformers, generators, and motors, detailing their principles, construction, and applications. The chapter also discusses the efficiency, losses, and various types of DC machines, including their operational characteristics.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
5 views19 pages

Chapter 11

Chapter 11 introduces electrical machines, which convert electrical energy into other forms or perform specific work. It covers three main types: transformers, generators, and motors, detailing their principles, construction, and applications. The chapter also discusses the efficiency, losses, and various types of DC machines, including their operational characteristics.

Uploaded by

clerkytech
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

CHAPTER 11

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC MACHINES

11.1 Introduction

An electrical machine consumes electrical energy to do a specific work or it


converts electrical energy to other forms like mechanical energy, light
energy, heat etc. In this chapter, we will discuss the principle, working,
construction, application, merits and demerits of various electrical machines
used in our day to day life.

There are three types of electric machines, namely, transformer, generator,


and motor. In the transformers, both input and output are electrical power.
However, in the case of a generator, the input is mechanical power and the
output is electrical power whereas in a motor, the input is electrical power
and output is mechanical power. Figure 11.1 shows that

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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

Electric Machine

Dynamic
Static Machines
Machines

Transformer DC Machine AC Machine

Synchronous
DC Motor Machines

Synchronous
DC Generator Motor
Single Phase
Synchronous
Motors
Three Phase
Synchronous
Motors
Synchronous
Generator
Single Phase
Synchronous
Generator

Three Phase
Synchronous
Asynchronous Generator
Machines

Induction
Machines
Single Phase
Induction
Machines
Three Phase
Induction
Machines
Figure 11.1 Types of electrical machines
11.2 Transformers

A transformer is a static AC machine (i.e. it contains no moving parts) which


is used to increase or decrease the AC voltage without changing the
frequency. It consists of two windings, the primary winding and the
secondary winding, which are wound on the same magnetic core as shown
in Figure 11.2.

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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

Figure 11.2 Simple representation of a transformer

11.2.1 Principle of Operation

The working principle of transformers is based on the Faraday’s Laws of


Electromagnetic Induction. The two windings; primary and secondary, are
electrically separated but wound on same magnetic core. When ac voltage is
applied to primary winding, it creates alternating magnetic flux (ϕm), which
links with the secondary winding. This alternating magnetic flux will induce
an emf in the secondary winding. The magnitude of induced emf in the
secondary winding can be increased or decreased by increasing or
decreasing the number of turns.

A transformer that increases the voltage is called a step up transformer. For


a step up transformer,

N1 < N2 and V1 < V2

where N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding, N2 is the number of


turns in the secondary winding, V1 is the voltage at the primary winding, and
V2 is the voltage at the secondary winding.

A transformer that decreases the voltage is called a step down transformer.


For a step down transformer,

N1 > N2 and V1 > V2

11.2.2 Construction of a Transformer

The main parts of a transformer are the core, windings, transformer tank,
conservator tank, terminal bushings, and breather.
Core

The core is made of laminated silicon steel. Each laminations have a


thickness of 0.35mm to 0.5 mm and is coated with thin layer of varnish.
Several number of such laminations are pressed together to form the core.
The function of core is to provide low reluctance path to the magnetic flux.
Based on the type of core, the transformer is of two types, core type and
shell type.
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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

Core Type Transformer: In core type transformer, the windings are wound on
the side limbs of the core as shown in Figure 11.3. In core type transformer
the High Voltage Winding (HV) is wound over the Low Voltage Winding (LV).

Figure 11.3 Core type transformer Figure 11.4 Shell type transformer

Shell Type Transformer: In the shell type transformer, both the LV and HV
windings are wound on the central limb in sandwich pattern as shown in
Figure 11.4.

Windings

These are made of enamelled copper wire. Each turn of the winding is
insulated from each other.

Transformer Tank

This tank stores the oil needed for cooling and insulation of transformer. It is
mounted on the top of the transformer.

Conservator Tank

This is a small tank connected to the main tank. This tank accommodates
the change is oil levels during the heating and cooling of transformer oil.

Terminal Bushings

These are used to insulate the output terminals of the transformer.

Breather

The breather provides the passage of air in to the transformer during


contraction of oil during cooling. The breather consists of silica gel, through
which the air is passed. The silica gel absorbs the moisture content in the
air.

11.2.3 EMF Equation


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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

Let an alternating voltage V1 with frequency f be applied to primary winding


of the transformer as shown in Figure 11.5. Let the number of turns in the
primary be N1. The alternating voltage will set up a flux given by

(11.1)

where Φm is the maximum flux and ω = 2πf is the angular frequency.

Figure 11.5

By Faradays law, induced emf

(11.2)

Substituting Eq. (11.1) into Eq. (11.2),

(11.3)

i.e.

(11.4)

From Eq. (11.4), e1 attains maximum value when sin(ωt – 90) = 1. Thus, the
maximum value E1 is given by

(11.5)
i.e.
(11.6)
Similarly,
(11.7)

11.2.4 Transformation Ratio

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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

Transformation ratio, (11.8)

11.2.5 Losses in a Transformer

The losses in a transformer are of two types:


i. Core loss or Iron loss
ii. Copper loss.

Core Loss or Iron Loss

Core loss or iron loss occurs due to alternating flux in the core. It mainly
consists of eddy current loss and hysteresis loss. The core loss or iron loss is
constant for a transformer and does not vary with load.

Eddy current loss is due to eddy current occurring in the core of the
transformer. The core is laminated to reduce the eddy current loss. Eddy
current loss is given by

Eddy current loss, (11.9)

where Q is a constant, f is frequency, V is volume of core, and t is thickness


of lamination.

Hysteresis loss is due to frequent reversal of magnetic flux in the core. It is


given by

Hysteresis loss, (11.10)

where and P is the Hysteresis coefficient.

Therefore,

Iron loss, (11.11)

Copper Loss

Copper loss is due to resistance of the winding. It is the I2R loss occurring in
the winding of transformer.

Thus, total copper loss, Pc = copper loss in primary + copper loss in


secondary

Therefore, total copper loss, (11.12)

where I2 is secondary current, R2 is secondary winding resistance, I1 is


primary current, and R1 is primary winding resistance.

TOTAL LOSS ON TRANSFORMER = CORE LOSS + COPPER LOSS


(11.13)
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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

11.2.6 Efficiency of a Transformer

(11.14)

or

(11.15)

Efficiency is maximum whencore loss = copper loss

(11.16)

11.3 DC Machines

A transformer works on alternating current, while a DC machine works on


Direct Current. A DC machine can be a DC motor or a DC generator. It has
two main parts:
i. Stator – It is the stationary part. It does not move or rotate.
ii. Rotor – It is the rotating part of the machine.

11.3.1 Construction of a DC Machine

The mains parts of a DC machine are, yoke, poles, field windings, armature,
commutator, and brushes. The yoke, poles and field windings form the stator
and the armature and commutator forms the rotor. Figure 11.6 shows a
cross-sectional view of a DC machine

Yoke

It is the outermost part of a DC machine. It is made of cast iron or cast steel.


It acts as a supporting frame to hold the machine and to protect the
machine from mechanical injury. It also serves as the low reluctance path for
the magnetic flux.

Poles

These are made of steel laminations. The main purpose is to hold the field
windings into position. The end portion of the pole is called pole shoe. The
pole and the field windings together act as an electromagnet.

Field Windings

They are enamelled copper wires wound around the poles. It consists of
several turns, which are insulated from each other. When current passes
through these windings, they form an electromagnet with alternate north
and south poles.

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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

Figure 11.6 A cross-sectional view of a DC machine

Armature

This is the rotating part of the machine. It is a cylindrical structure with slots
around its outer periphery. Several turns of copper wire are wound through
these slots. When current is passed through the armature windings, it begins
to rotate.

Commutator

The commutator is attached to the same shaft of the armature. It consists of


several copper segments insulated by mica. The armature winding is
connected to the commutator segments. The commutator converts DC to AC
and AC to DC.

Brushes

The brushes are sliding contacts which are used to give and collect current
from the armature through the commutator.

11.3.2 DC Motor

DC motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. The armature of


the DC motor starts rotating when a DC current is applied to it. The working
principle of DC motor is that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in
a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given
by Fleming’s Left-hand rule and whose magnitude is given by

Force, (11.17)

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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

where B is the magnetic field in weber/m 2, I is the current in amperes, and L


is the length of the coil in meter. Refer to Section 6.xx for more clarification
on the Fleming’s left-hand rule.

11.3.3 Working of DC Motor

In Figure 11.7, the direction of field is from N to S. The direction of current


through the conductor under N pole is out of the paper and the direction of
current under S pole is into the paper. So if we apply Fleming’s Left Hand
Rule under N pole, we can see that the direction of force is downwards.
Similarly if we apply Fleming’s Left Hand Rule under S pole, we can see that
the direction of force is upwards. This downwards and upwards force will
rotate the armature and thus the motor rotates.

Figure 11.7

11.3.4 Back EMF

In a DC motor, the armature is rotating inside a magnetic field. This rotating


armature cuts the field and according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic
Induction and EMF will be generated inside the armature which opposes the
applied voltage. This induced EMF is called Back EMF or Counter EMF. Back
EMF, EB is given by

Back EMF, (11.18)

where P is number of poles, Φ is flux per pole, N is speed of motor, Z is


number of conductors, A is number of parallel paths, where A = 2 for wave
winding, and A = P for lap winding.

11.3.5 Voltage, Power and Torque in a DC Motor

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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

Voltage Equation of a DC motor is given by

(11.19)
where EB is Back EMF, V is applied voltage, IA is armature current, and RA is
resistance of armature.

Mechanical Power (PM), measured in W, developed by the motor is given by

(11.20)

i.e. (11.21)

Mechanical power is also given by

(11.22)

where T is torque, measured in Nm, developed by motor.

Torque (T) developed by the motor is given by

(11.23)

11.3.6 Necessity of a Starter

The voltage equation is given by Eq. (11.19). At the time of starting, back
EMF, EB = 0.

Therefore, the voltage becomes .

i.e. (11.24)

Since the value of RA is very low (around 0.1 Ω), the current during starting
will be very high. This high current may damage the motor. So we use
starters to limit the starting current within safe limits to protect the motor.

11.3.7 Types of DC Motors

DC motors are classified into Series, Shunt and Compound motors


depending upon the connection of field windings.

Series Motor

Figure 11.8 shows a DC series motor. Here the field winding is connected in
series with the armature winding. The series field winding will have low
resistance. Series motor have high starting torque, and dangerously high

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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

speed at no load. These motors are used in electric locomotives, rolling


mills, cranes, hoists, valve operation, etc.

The applied voltage is given by

Figure 11.8 DC Series Motor

(11.25)

where RSE is the resistance of series field winding.

Shunt Motor

Figure 11.9 shows a DC shunt motor. Here the field winding is connected in
shunt (parallel) with the armature winding. The shunt field winding will have
high resistance. Shunt motor have medium torque, and constant speed
throughout. These motors are used in lathes, vacuum cleaners,
compressors, reciprocating pumps, textile mills, etc.

Figure 11.9 DC shunt motor

The applied voltage is given by

(11.26)

Compound Motor

Figure 11.20 shows a DC compound motor. Here, the motor consists of two
field windings, one series winding and one shunt (parallel) winding. The
shunt field winding will have high resistance and series winding will have low
resistance. Compound motor have high starting torque, and varying speed

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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

within limits. These motors are used in rolling mills, stamping machines,
rotary presses, door lifts, pressure blowers, shearing mills, etc.

The applied voltage is given by

(11.27)

Figure 11.9 DC compound motor

There are two types of DC compound motors. They are, long shunt
compound motors, and short shunt compound motors. Figure 11.10 shows
the long shunt and short shunt compound motors.

(a) Long shunt (b) Short shunt


Figure 11.10 Types of DC compound motors

Example 11.1 A 4 pole lap connected DC machine armature has 40 slots


with 8 conductors per slot. The useful flux per pole is 60 m Wb. Find the emf
available on the terminals when the armature is rotated at 1500 rpm.

Solution 11.1
Data:
P = 4, Lap connection, i.e., A = P = 4
S = 40
ZS = 8
 = 60 mWb = 60 × 10-3 Wb
N = 1500 rpm

Solution:

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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

Example 11.2 A 6-pole, wave wound armature has 410 slots with 8
conductors per slot. Its useful flux per pole is 20 mWb. At what speed should
the armature be rotated in order to obtain an emf of 500 V?

Solution 11.2
Data:
P = 6, Wave wound, i.e., A = 2
S = 410
ZS = 8
 = 20 mWb = 20 × 10-3 Wb
E = 500 V

Solution:

Example 11.3 A 4 pole, wave wound armature has 37 slots with 10


conductors per slot. Its useful flux per pole is 30 mWb. Find the torque
developed when the armature current is 50 A.

Solution 11.3
Data:
P=4
Wave wound, i.e., A = 2
S = 37
Zs = 10
 = 30 mWb = 30 × 10-3
Ia = 50 A

Solution:

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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

11.4 Three Phase Induction Motor

Three phase induction motors work with three phase AC supply. The working
principle of three phase induction motor is based on Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction. An induction motor consists of 2 main parts:
i. Stator – It is the stationary part. It does not move or rotate.
ii. Rotor – It is the rotating part of the machine.

The three phase supply is given to the stator.

11.4.1 Construction

As shown in Figure 11.11, the mains parts of an induction machine are the
yoke, stator, and rotor.

Yoke

It is the outermost part of a motor. It is made of cast iron or cast steel. It


acts as a supporting frame to hold the machine and to protect the machine
from mechanical injury. It also serves as the low reluctance path for the
magnetic flux.

Figure 11.11 Parts of an induction motor

Stator

It is made of laminated silicon steel. It contains several slots to which the


three phase windings are wound. The three phase windings are wound for
desired number of poles.

Rotor

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They are of two types, namely, squirrel cage and wound rotor. Squirrel Cage
rotors have copper or aluminium bars placed in the form of cylinder which
are shorted at ends by end rings. The entire rotor resembles the shape of
squirrel cage and hence the name. 90% of induction motors have squirrel
cage rotors. Wound Rotor has three phase star connected windings. These
are used in high torque applications.

11.4.2 Principle of Operation

The working principle behind three phase induction motor is Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction. When three phase supply is given to stator, it
creates a rotating magnetic field. This rotating magnetic field rotates at
synchronous speed (NS) given by

(11.28)

This rotating field will cut the conductors of rotor and induces an EMF in the
rotor. The direction of induced EMF will be to oppose the cause. That is to
minimise the change in flux. So the rotor will begin to rotate in the direction
of magnetic field.

11.4.3 Slip

It is the difference between synchronous speed (N S) and actual speed of


motor (N).

(11.29)

(11.30)

(11.31)

11.4.4 Frequency of Rotor Current

(11.32)

11.4.5 Application and Features

 Induction motors have nearly constant speed.


 They have poor starting torque.
 The maintenance cost is less.
 Simple and rugged construction.
 Power factor between 0.75 to 0.9 lagging.
 Used in water pumps, drills, lathes, elevators, compressors, washing
machines, blowers, etc.

11.5 Single Phase Induction Motors

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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

The construction is same as that of three phase induction motor except that
the stator has distributed single phase windings. The rotor is of squirrel cage
type, as shown in Figure 11.12.

A single phase induction motor is not self-starting as there is no rotating


magnetic field. To make rotating magnetic field and to make it self-starting
and additional winding, called auxiliary winding (also called starting
winding), is placed on the stator, as shown in Figure 11.13. The starting
winding has high resistance and low reactance. The main winding has low
resistance and high inductive reactance. So the current through these two
windings will be 90 degree out of phase, resulting in rotating magnetic field.

Figure 11.12 Stator and rotor of a single phase induction motor

During starting the centrifugal switch will be ON and both the windings will
be connected to the supply. The two windings will create rotating magnetic
field and the motor starts to rotate. When the motor attains 70% to 80% of
rated speed, the centrifugal switch turns OFF. Now the motor runs on main
winding.

Figure 11.13 Split Phase Induction Motor

Single phase induction motors are used in fans, blowers, wind pressure,
conveyer, toys and small fans.

11.5.1 Types of Induction Motor

Split Phase Induction Motor

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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

As shown in Figure 11.13, it consists of two windings, starting winding and


main winding (running winding). The starting winding has high resistance
and low reactance. The main winding has low resistance and high inductive
reactance. So the current through these two windings will be 90 degrees out
of phase, resulting in rotating magnetic field.

During starting the centrifugal switch will be ON and both the windings will
be connected to the supply. The two windings will create rotating magnetic
field and the motor starts to rotate. When the motor attains 70% to 80% of
rated speed, the centrifugal switch turns OFF. Now the motor runs on main
winding.
Capacitor Start Induction Motors

Here a capacitor is connected in series with the auxiliary windings, as shown


in Figure 11.14. This capacitor will further increase the phase difference and
increase the starting torque. When the motor attains 70% to 80% of rated
speed, the centrifugal switch turns OFF. Now the motor runs on main
winding.

Figure 11.14 Capacitor start induction motor

Capacitor Run Induction Motor

Here a capacitor is connected in series with the auxiliary windings, as shown


in Figure 11.14. This capacitor will further increase the phase difference and
increase the starting torque. There is no centrifugal switch to disconnect
auxiliary winding. These are also called permanent slip capacitor motor.

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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

Figure 11.14 Capacitor Run Induction Motor

Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction Motor

It consists of two capacitors connected in parallel. When the motor attains


70% to 80% of rated speed, the centrifugal switch turns OFF and
disconnects capacitor C2. The capacitor C1 improves the power factor.

Figure 11.15 Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction Motor

Shaded Pole Induction Motors

These types of motors consist of projected poles, as shown in Figure 11.16.


Each pole is divided into two parts. One part is shorted with copper ring
called shading ring. This will create a flux on shaded portion which lags the
main flux. This will create a rotating magnetic field and the motor starts
rotating.

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Applied Electricity Chapter 11 – Introduction to Electrical Machines

Figure 11.16 Shaded Pole Induction Motors

11.5.2 Universal Motor

These are series motor which works on AC as well as DC. It is of two types,
namely, non-compensated type, and compensated type. These are used in
mixes, grinder, drill, electric shaver, vacuum cleaner, etc.

Figure 11.17 Universal motor

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