Chapter 6

Data Processing, Analysis & Interpretation

After quantitative data have been collected from a representative sample of the population, the
next step is to analyze them to answer our research questions. However, before we can start
analyzing the data, some preliminary steps need to be completed. These help to ensure that
the data are accurate, complete, and suitable for further analysis. After data are obtained
through questionnaires, they need to be coded, keyed in, and edited. That is, a categorization
scheme has to be set up before the data can be typed in. Then, outliers, inconsistencies, and
blank responses, if any, have to be handled in some way. Each of these stages of data
preparation is discussed below
6.1 Data Processing
Data processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so that
they are amendable to analysis. Data processing involves the transformation of the raw data in
to some processed form to facilitate analysis.
1. Editing: is the process of checking & adjusting data for omissions, consistency, & legibility. It
is a process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omissions and to
correct these when possible. Itis the process of making data ready for coding and transfer to
data storage. Its purpose is to ensure the completeness, consistency and readability of data.
o With regard to points or stages at which editing should be done, one can talk of field
editing and central editing.
2. Coding: refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put into a limited number of categories. Data coding involves assigning a
number to the participants’ responses so they can be entered into a database. Coding the
demographic variables is somewhat less obvious. For instance, tenure is a special case,
because it is a two‐category variable. It is possible to use a coding approach that assigns a 1
= part‐time and a 2 = full‐time. Data entry: after responses have been coded, they can be
entered into a database. Raw data can be entered through any software program.

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3. Classification: it is the processes of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of
common characteristics. Data can be classified on the basis of common characteristics,
which can either be descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty, etc…) or numerical (such as,
weight, age, height, income, expenditure, etc.).
4. Tabulation: refers to the orderly arrangement of data in a table. It is useful for indicating
percentages and frequency distributions. It involves the orderly and systematic presentation
of numerical data in a form designed to elucidate the problem under consideration. In a
broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows.
 Generally accepted principles of tabulation: Such principles of tabulation, particularly of
constructing statistical tables, can be briefly states as follows:
o Every table should have a clear, concise and adequate title so as to make the
table intelligible without reference to the text and this title should always be
placed just above the body of the table.
o Every table should be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference.
o The column headings (captions) and the row headings (stubs) of the table should
be clear and brief.
o Source or sources from where the data in the table have been obtained must be
indicated just below the table
o Abbreviations should be avoided to the extent possible and ditto marks should
not be used in the table
 Another form of data presentation is graphic form of data presentation. Graph refers to
the arrangement of horizontal as well as vertical lines in inch or centimeter’s divisions.
Like table, graphs should be numbered and each graph should have a caption that
briefly and clearly describes its content. Data in the form of a graph data can be
presented as bar charts, histograms, or pie charts. Bar charts, histograms, and pie charts
help us to understand our data.
6.2 Data Analysis
Analysis mean the computation of certain indices or measures along with searching for patterns
of relationship that exist among the data groups. Analysis can be classified as qualitative

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analysis and quantitative analysis, this classification based on the nature of the data (numerical/
quantitative or kind/ qualitative). Qualitative analysis is the analysis of qualitative data such as
text data from interview transcripts. Numeric data collected in a research project can be
analyzed quantitatively using statistical tools in two different ways; descriptive analysis and
inferential analysis
1. Descriptive Data Statistics/Analysis (Basic)
Descriptive analysis refers to the transformation of raw data into an understandable form for
easier interpretation. Descriptive statistics can summarize responses from large numbers of
respondents in a few simple statistics. It is the elementary transformation of data in a way that
describes the basic characteristics such as central tendency, distribution, and variability. The
calculation of averages, frequency, distributions, and percentage distributions are the most
common ways of summarizing data.
 Frequencies simply refer to the number of times various subcategories of a certain
phenomenon occur, from which the percentage and the cumulative percentage of their
occurrence can be easily calculated. Example

 Frequencies can also be visually displayed as bar charts, histograms, or pie charts. Bar
charts, histograms, and pie charts help us to understand our data.

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 Measures of central tendency: There are three measures of central tendency: the mean, the
median, and the mode.
o The mean: The mean, or the average, is a measure of central tendency that offers a
general picture of the data without unnecessarily inundating one with each of the
observations in a data set.
o The median the median is the central item in a group of observations when they are
arrayed in either an ascending or a descending order. Let us take an example to
examine how the median is determined as a measure of central tendency.
o The mode in some cases, a set of observations does not lend itself to a meaningful
representation through either the mean or the median, but can be signified by the
most frequently occurring phenomenon.
 Measures of dispersion include the range, the standard deviation, the variance (where the
measure of central tendency is the mean), and the interquartile range (where the measure
of central tendency is the median).
o Range: Range refers to the extreme values in a set of observations. The range is
between 30 and 50 for Company A (a dispersion of 20 units), while the range is
between 10 and 70 units (a dispersion of 60 units) for Company B. Another more
useful measure of dispersion is the variance.

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 o Variance The variance is calculated by subtracting the mean from each of the
observations in the data set, taking the square of this difference, and dividing the total
of these by the number of observations
o Standard deviation:
o The standard deviation, which is another measure of dispersion for interval and ratio
scaled data, offers an index of the spread of a distribution or the variability in the data.
It is a very commonly used measure of dispersion, and is simply the square root of the
variance
2. Inferential Data Statistics/Analysis (Advanced)
Inferential statistics help us to draw conclusions (or to make inferences) about the population
from a sample. Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of significance for testing
hypotheses in order to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate some
conclusions. Inferential analysis used to determine the relationship between variables and test
statistical significance. Inferential statistics allow us to draw conclusions about the larger
population from which the sample is drawn.
 Correlation: is used to the study of measuring association between two or more variables.
It indicates the direction and strength between the variables. There could be a perfect
positive correlation between two variables, which is represented by 1.0 (plus 1), or a perfect
negative correlation which would be −1.0 (minus 1).
 Regression analysis/Causal analysis/: is concerned with the study of how one or more
variables affect changes in another variable. It is thus a study of functional relationships
existing between two or more variables. This analysis can be termed as regression analysis.
6.3 Data Interpretation

After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to accomplish the task of drawing
inferences followed by report writing. This has to be done very carefully, otherwise misleading
conclusions may be drawn and the whole purpose of doing research may get vitiated. It is only
through interpretation that the researcher can expose relations and processes that underlie his
findings.

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Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an
analytical and/or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research
findings. The task of interpretation has two major aspects viz., (i) the effort to establish
continuity in research through linking the results of a given study with those of another, and (ii)
the establishment of some explanatory concepts. “In one sense, interpretation is concerned
with relationships within the collected data, partially overlapping analysis. Interpretation also
extends beyond the data of the study to include the results of other research, theory and
hypotheses.” Thus, interpretation is the device through which the factors that seem to explain
what has been observed by researcher in the course of the study can be better understood and
it also provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for further researches.
6.3.1 Technique of Interpretation
The task of interpretation is not an easy job, rather it requires a great skill and dexterity on the
part of researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and experience. The
researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from experts for accomplishing the task of
interpretation. The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:
 Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he/she has found and
he/she must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes and
must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his
diversified research findings. In fact, this is the technique of how generalization should be
done and concepts be formulated.
 Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while interpreting
the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in understanding the
problem under consideration.
 It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone having
insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out
omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will result in correct
interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results.
 Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant
factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in no hurry while

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interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions, which appear to be all right at the
beginning, may not at all be accurate.
6.3.2 Precautions In Interpretation
One should always remember that even if the data are properly collected and analyzed,
wrong interpretation would lead to inaccurate conclusions. It is, therefore, absolutely
essential that the task of interpretation be accomplished with patience in an impartial
manner and also in correct perspective. Researcher must pay attention to the following
points for correct interpretation:
 At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that (a) the data are
appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences; (b) the data reflect good
homogeneity; and that (c) proper analysis has been done through statistical methods.
 The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the
process of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false generalization and/or due to
wrong interpretation of statistical measures, such as the application of findings beyond
the range of observations, identification of correlation with causation and the like.
Another major pitfall is the tendency to affirm that definite relationships exist on the
basis of confirmation of particular hypotheses. In fact, the positive test results accepting
the hypothesis must be interpreted as “being in accord” with the hypothesis, rather
than as “confirming the validity of the hypothesis”. The researcher must remain vigilant
about all such things so that false generalization may not take place. He/she should be
well equipped with and must know the correct use of statistical measures for drawing
inferences concerning his study.
 He/she must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much
intertwined with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated. As such he/she must take
the task of interpretation as a special aspect of analysis and accordingly must take all
those precautions that one usually observes while going through the process of analysis
viz., precautions concerning the reliability of data, computational checks, validation and
comparison of results.

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 He/she must never lose sight of the fact that his/her task is not only to make sensitive
observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and disengage the factors that
are initially hidden to the eye. This will enable him/her to do his job of interpretation on
proper lines. Broad generalization should be avoided as most research is not amenable
to it because the coverage may be restricted to a particular time, a particular area and
particular conditions. Such restrictions, if any, must invariably be specified and the
results must be framed within their limits.
 The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research study, there
should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and
theoretical conceptions. It is exactly in this area of interaction between theoretical
orientation and empirical observation that opportunities for originality and creativity
lie.” He/she must pay special attention to this aspect while engaged in the task of
interpretation.

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