Chapter 4 Mathematical Functions,

Characters, and Strings

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 Motivations
Suppose you need to estimate the area enclosed by four
cities, given the GPS locations (latitude and longitude) of
these cities, as shown in the following diagram. How
would you write a program to solve this problem? You will
be able to write such a program after completing this
chapter.

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 Outline
• Mathematical Functions
• Character Data Type
• String Type

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 Mathematical Functions
Java provides many useful methods in the Math
class for performing common mathematical
functions.

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 The Math Class
 Class constants:
– PI
–E
 Class methods:
– Trigonometric Methods
– Exponent Methods
– Rounding Methods
– min, max, abs, and random Methods

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 Trigonometric Methods
• sin(double radians)
– Returns the trigonometric sine of an angle in radians.
• cos(double radians)
– Returns the trigonometric cosine of an angle in radians.
• tan(double radians)
– Returns the trigonometric tangent of an angle in radians.
• toRadians(degree)
– Returns the angle in radians for the angle in degree.
• toDegree(radians)
– Returns the angle in degrees for the angle in radians.
• acos(double a)
– Returns the angle in radians for the inverse of cosine
• asin(double a)
– Returns the angle in radians for the inverse of sine.

• atan(double a)
– Returns the angle in radians for the inverse of tangent

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 Trigonometric Methods
Examples:

• Math.sin(0) returns 0.0

• Math.sin(Math.PI / 6) returns 0.5
• Math.sin(Math.PI / 2) returns 1.0
• Math.cos(0) returns 1.0
• Math.cos(Math.PI / 6) returns 0.866
• Math.cos(Math.PI / 2) returns 0

• Math.toDegrees(Math.PI /2)returns 90.0

• Math.toRadians(30)returns 0.5236(same as π/6)

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 Exponent Methods

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 Exponent Methods
Examples:

Math.exp(1) returns 2.71828

Math.log(Math.E) returns 1.0
Math.log10(10) returns 1.0
Math.pow(2, 3) returns 8.0
Math.pow(3, 2) returns 9.0
Math.pow(3.5, 2.5) returns 22.91765
Math.sqrt(4) returns 2.0
Math.sqrt(10.5) returns 3.24

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 Rounding Methods
 double ceil(double x)
x rounded up to its nearest integer. This integer is returned as a double
value.
 double floor(double x)
x is rounded down to its nearest integer. This integer is returned as a
double value.
 double rint(double x)
x is rounded to its nearest integer. If x is equally close to two integers,
the even one is returned as a double.
 int round(float x)
Return (int)Math.floor(x+0.5).
 long round(double x)
Return (long)Math.floor(x+0.5).

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 Rounding Methods Examples
Math.ceil(2.1) returns 3.0
Math.ceil(2.0) returns 2.0
Math.ceil(-2.0) returns –2.0
Math.ceil(-2.1) returns -2.0

Math.floor(2.1) returns 2.0

Math.floor(2.0) returns 2.0
Math.floor(-2.0) returns –2.0
Math.floor(-2.1) returns -3.0

Math.rint(2.1) returns 2.0

Math.rint(2.0) returns 2.0
Math.rint(-2.0) returns –2.0
Math.rint(-2.1) returns -2.0
Math.rint(2.5) returns 2.0
Math.rint(-2.5) returns -2.0

Math.round(2.6f) returns 3
Math.round(2.0) returns 2
Math.round(-2.0f) returns -2
Math.round(-2.6) returns -3
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 min, max, and abs
 max(a, b)and min(a, b) Examples:
Returns the maximum or
minimum of two parameters. Math.max(2, 3) returns 3
 abs(a) Math.max(2.5, 3) returns
Returns the absolute value of the 3.0
parameter. Math.min(2.5, 3.6)
 random() returns 2.5
Returns a random double value Math.abs(-2) returns 2
in the range [0.0, 1.0). Math.abs(-2.1) returns
2.1

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 The random Method
Generates a random double value greater than or equal to 0.0 and less
than 1.0 (0 <= Math.random() < 1.0).

Examples:

Returns a random integer

(int)(Math.random() * 10)
between 0 and 9.

50 + (int)(Math.random() * 50) Returns a random integer

between 50 and 99.

In general,

a + Math.random() * b Returns a random number between

a and a + b, excluding a + b.

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 Case Study: Computing Angles
of a Triangle
x2, y2
A = acos((a * a - b * b - c * c) / (-2 * b * c))
a B = acos((b * b - a * a - c * c) / (-2 * a * c))
B
c C = acos((c * c - b * b - a * a) / (-2 * a * b))
C
A x3, y3
b
x1, y1

Write a program that prompts the user to enter the

x- and y-coordinates of the three corner points in a
triangle and then displays the triangle’s angles.

ComputeAngles
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 Character Data Type
Four hexadecimal digits.
char letter = 'A'; (ASCII)
char numChar = '4'; (ASCII)
char letter = '\u0041'; (Unicode)
char numChar = '\u0034'; (Unicode)

NOTE: The increment and decrement operators can also be used

on char variables to get the next or preceding Unicode character.
For example, the following statements display character b.
char ch = 'a';
System.out.println(++ch);
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 Unicode and ASCII
• Mapping a character to its binary representation
is called encoding
ü Unicode
üASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange)

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 Unicode Format
Java characters use Unicode, a 16-bit encoding scheme
established by the Unicode Consortium to support the
interchange, processing, and display of written texts in the
world’s diverse languages. Unicode takes two bytes,
preceded by \u, expressed in four hexadecimal numbers
that run from '\u0000' to '\uFFFF'. So, Unicode can
represent 65535 + 1 characters.
Unicode \u03b1 \u03b2 \u03b3 for three Greek
letters

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 Note: Hexadecimal Numbers
 A Hexadecimal number is
based on the number 16

 There are 16 Hexadecimal

digits. They are the same as
the decimal digits up to 9,
but then there are the letters
A, B, C, D, E and F in place
of the decimal numbers 10
to 15.

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 ASCII Code for Commonly Used
Characters
Characters Code Value in Decimal Unicode Value

'0' to '9' 48 to 57 \u0030 to \u0039

'A' to 'Z' 65 to 90 \u0041 to \u005A
'a' to 'z' 97 to 122 \u0061 to \u007A

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 Appendix B: ASCII Character Set
ASCII Character Set is a subset of the Unicode from \u0000 to \u007f

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 ASCII Character Set, cont.
ASCII Character Set is a subset of the Unicode from \u0000 to \u007f

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Escape Sequences for Special Characters
Java uses a special notation to represent special characters.
This special notation, called an escape sequence, consists of a
backslash (\) followed by a character or a combination of
digits.

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 Escape Sequences for Special
Characters (cont.)
System.out.println("He said \"Java is fun\"");

displays

He said "Java is fun"

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 Escape Character
The backslash \ is called an escape character. It is a
special character . To display this character, you
have to use an escape sequence \\.

System.out.println("\\t is a tab character");

displays
\t is a tab character

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 Casting between char and
Numeric Types
int i = 'a'; // Same as int i = (int)'a';

char c = 97; // Same as char c = (char)97;

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 Casting between char and
Numeric Types
All numeric operators can be applied to char operands
int i = '2' + '3'; // (int)'2' is 50 and (int)'3' is 51
System.out.println("i is "+ i); // i is 101

int j = 2 + 'a'; // (int)'a' is 97

System.out.println("j is "+ j); // j is 99
System.out.println(j + " is the Unicode for character " + (char)j); // 99 is the Unicode
for character c
System.out.println("Chapter "+ '2');

display
i is 101
j is 99
99 is the Unicode for character c
Chapter 2

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 Comparing and Testing
Characters
if (ch >= 'A' && ch <= 'Z')
System.out.println(ch + " is an uppercase letter");
else if (ch >= 'a' && ch <= 'z')
System.out.println(ch + " is a lowercase letter");
else if (ch >= '0' && ch <= '9')
System.out.println(ch + " is a numeric character");

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 Methods in the Character Class
Method Description

isDigit(ch) Returns true if the specified character is a digit.

isLetter(ch) Returns true if the specified character is a letter.
isLetterOfDigit(ch) Returns true if the specified character is a letter or digit.
isLowerCase(ch) Returns true if the specified character is a lowercase letter.
isUpperCase(ch) Returns true if the specified character is an uppercase letter.
toLowerCase(ch) Returns the lowercase of the specified character.
toUpperCase(ch) Returns the uppercase of the specified character.

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 Methods in the Character Class
cont.
System.out.println("isDigit('a') is "+ Character.isDigit('a'));
System.out.println("isLetter('a') is "+ Character.isLetter('a'));
System.out.println("isLowerCase('a') is "+ Character.isLowerCase('a'));
System.out.println("isUpperCase('a') is "+ Character.isUpperCase('a'));
System.out.println("toLowerCase('T') is "+ Character.toLowerCase('T'));
System.out.println("toUpperCase('q') is "+ Character.toUpperCase('q'));

displays
isDigit('a') is false
isLetter('a') is true
isLowerCase('a') is true
isUpperCase('a') is false
toLowerCase('T') is t
toUpperCase('q') is Q

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 The String Type
The char type only represents one character. To represent a string
of characters, use the data type called String.
For example,

String message = "Welcome to Java";

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 The String Type (cont.)
• String is actually a predefined class in the Java library just like the
System class and Scanner class.

• The String type is not a primitive type. It is known as a reference

type.

• Any Java class can be used as a reference type for a variable.

• Reference data types will be thoroughly discussed in Chapter 9,

“Objects and Classes.”

• For the time being, you just need to know how to declare a String
variable, how to assign a string to the variable, how to concatenate
strings, and to perform simple operations for strings.
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Simple Methods for String Objects
Method Description

length() Returns the number of characters in this string.

charAt(index) Returns the character at the specified index from this string.
concat(s1) Returns a new string that concatenates this string with string s1.
toUpperCase() Returns a new string with all letters in uppercase.
toLowerCase() Returns a new string with all letters in lowercase.
trim() Returns a new string with whitespace characters trimmed on both sides.

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Simple Methods for String Objects
• Strings are objects in Java.
• The methods in the preceding table can only be invoked
from a specific string instance.
• For this reason, these methods are called instance methods.
• A non-instance method is called a static method.
• A static method can be invoked without using an object.
• All the methods defined in the Math class are static
methods. They are not tied to a specific object instance.
• The syntax to invoke an instance method is
referenceVariable.methodName(arguments).

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 Getting String Length
String message = "Welcome to Java";
System.out.println("The length of " + message + " is "
+ message.length());

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 Getting Characters from a String
The s.charAt(index) method can be used to retrieve a specific character in a
string s, where the index is between 0 and s.length()–1.

String message = "Welcome to Java";

System.out.println("The first character in message is "
+ message.charAt(0));
displays
The first character in message is W

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 String Concatenation
You can use the concat method to concatenate two strings.

String s3 = s1.concat(s2);
String s3 = s1 + s2;

// Three strings are concatenated

String message = "Welcome " + "to " + "Java";

// String Chapter is concatenated with number 2

String s = "Chapter" + 2; // s becomes Chapter2

// String Supplement is concatenated with character B

String s1 = "Supplement" + 'B'; // s1 becomes SupplementB

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 String Concatenation (cont.)
The augmented += operator can also be used
for string concatenation.
For example, the following code appends the
string "and Java is fun" with the string
"Welcome to Java" in message.

String message = "Welcome to Java";

message += " and Java is fun";

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 Converting Strings
"Welcome".toLowerCase() returns a new string, welcome.
"Welcome".toUpperCase() returns a new string,
WELCOME.
" Welcome ".trim() returns a new string, Welcome.

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 Reading a String from the Console
To read a string from the console, invoke the next() method on a Scanner object.

Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.print("Enter three words separated by spaces: ");
String s1 = input.next();
String s2 = input.next();
String s3 = input.next();
System.out.println("s1 is " + s1);
System.out.println("s2 is " + s2);
System.out.println("s3 is " + s3);

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 Reading a String from the Console (cont.)
The next() method reads a string that ends with a whitespace character.
You can use the nextLine() method to read an entire line of text.

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 Important Caution
To avoid input errors, do not use nextLine()
after nextByte(), nextShort(),
nextInt(), nextLong(), nextFloat(),
nextDouble(), or next().

The reasons will be explained in Section

12.11.4, ‘How Does Scanner Work?

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 Reading a Character from the Console
To read a character from the console, use the nextLine() method to read
a string and then invoke the charAt(0) method on the string to return a
character.
For example,

Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out.print("Enter a character: ");
String s = input.nextLine();
char ch = s.charAt(0);
System.out.println("The character entered is " + ch);

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 Comparing Strings
Method Description

equals(s1) Returns true if this string is equal to string s1.

equalsIgnoreCase(s1) Returns true if this string is equal to string s1; it is case insensitive.
compareTo(s1) Returns an integer greater than 0, equal to 0, or less than 0 to indicate whether
this string is greater than, equal to, or less than s1.
compareToIgnoreCase(s1) Same as compareTo except that the comparison is case insensitive.
startsWith(prefix) Returns true if this string starts with the specified prefix.
endsWith(suffix) Returns true if this string ends with the specified suffix.

OrderTwoCities

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Comparing Strings (cont.)

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Comparing Strings (cont.)

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 Obtaining Substrings
Method Description

substring(beginIndex) Returns this string’s substring that begins with the character at the specified
beginIndex and extends to the end of the string, as shown in Figure 4.2.

substring(beginIndex, Returns this string’s substring that begins at the specified beginIndex and
endIndex) extends to the character at index endIndex – 1, as shown in Figure 9.6.
Note that the character at endIndex is not part of the substring.

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Finding a Character or a Substring
in a String
Method Description

indexOf(ch) Returns the index of the first occurrence of ch in the string. Returns -1 if not
matched.
indexOf(ch, fromIndex) Returns the index of the first occurrence of ch after fromIndex in the string.
Returns -1 if not matched.
indexOf(s) Returns the index of the first occurrence of string s in this string. Returns -1 if
not matched.
indexOf(s, fromIndex) Returns the index of the first occurrence of string s in this string after
fromIndex. Returns -1 if not matched.
lastIndexOf(ch) Returns the index of the last occurrence of ch in the string. Returns -1 if not
matched.
lastIndexOf(ch, Returns the index of the last occurrence of ch before fromIndex in this
fromIndex) string. Returns -1 if not matched.
lastIndexOf(s) Returns the index of the last occurrence of string s. Returns -1 if not matched.
lastIndexOf(s, Returns the index of the last occurrence of string s before fromIndex.
fromIndex) Returns -1 if not matched.

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 Finding a Character or a Substring in a String
Suppose a string s contains the first name and last name separated by a space.
You can use the following code to extract the first name and last name from the string:

int k = s.indexOf(' ');

String firstName = s.substring(0, k);
String lastName = s.substring(k + 1);

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 Conversion between Strings and
Numbers
int intValue = Integer.parseInt(intString);
double doubleValue = Double.parseDouble(doubleString);

String s = number + "";

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 Case Study: Converting a
Hexadecimal Digit to a Decimal Value
Write a program that converts a hexadecimal digit
into a decimal value.

HexDigit2Dec

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 Case Study: Revising the
Lottery Program Using Strings
A problem can be solved using many different approaches.
This section rewrites the lottery program in Listing 3.7
using strings. Using strings simplifies this program.

LotteryUsingStrings

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 Formatting Output
Use the printf statement.
System.out.printf(format, items);
Where format is a string that may consist of substrings and
format specifiers. A format specifier specifies how an item
should be displayed. An item may be a numeric value,
character, boolean value, or a string. Each specifier begins
with a percent sign.

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 Frequently-Used Specifiers
Specifier Output Example
%b a boolean value true or false
%c a character 'a'
%d a decimal integer 200
%f a floating-point number 45.460000
%e a number in standard scientific notation 4.556000e+01
%s a string "Java is cool"

int count = 5;
items
double amount = 45.56;
System.out.printf("count is %d and amount is %f", count, amount);

display count is 5 and amount is 45.560000

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 Example

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 FormatDemo

The example gives a program that uses printf to display a

table.

FormatDemo

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