a search for knowledge

Understanding Research

systematized effort to gain new

knowledge
What do
you mean a careful investigation or inquiry
specially through search for new
by facts in any branch of knowledge
research?
an original contribution to the
existing stock of knowledge making
for its advancement
 Finally research refers to
Understanding Research
the systematic method
• consisting of enunciating the
problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the
facts or data, analyzing the
facts and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form
of solutions(s) towards the
concerned problem or in
certain generalizations for
some theoretical formulation.
Understanding Research The main aim of
research is to find
out the truth
Objective which is hidden
of and which has
research not been
discovered as yet.
Understanding Research 5 basic types:
• Descriptive vs. Analytical
• Applied vs. Fundamental
• Quantitative vs.
Types of Qualitative
research • Conceptual vs. Empirical
• Some Other Types of
Research
Descriptive vs. Analytical

Descriptive research includes surveys and

fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The
major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists
at present.

In analytical research, on the other hand,

the researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyze
these to make a critical evaluation of the
material.
Applied vs. Fundamental

Research can either be applied (or action) research

or fundamental (to basic or pure) research.

Applied research aims at finding a solution for an

immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization,

whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned

with generalizations and with the formulation of a
theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake
is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of

quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with

qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or
involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested
in investigating the reasons for human behavior (i.e., why
people think or do certain things),

we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important

type of qualitative research.

• This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and

desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose.
Conceptual vs. Empirical

Conceptual research is that related to some

abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts
or to reinterpret existing ones.

On the other hand, empirical research relies on

experience or observation alone, often without due
regard for system and theory. It is data-based
research, coming up with conclusions which are
capable of being verified by observation or
experiment.
Some Other Types of
Research
• All other types of research are
variations of one or more of
the above stated approaches,
based on either the purpose
of research, or the time
required to accomplish
research, on the environment
in which research is done, or
on the basis of some other
similar factor.
 Research Approaches

The above description of the types of

research brings to light the fact that there
are two basic approaches to research, viz.,
Research quantitative approach and the qualitative
approach.
approaches
The former involves the generation of data
in quantitative form which can be subjected
to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal
and rigid fashion.
 Qualitative approach to research is
concerned with subjective assessment
of attitudes, opinions and behavior.

Research in such a situation is a

function of researcher’s insights and
Research impressions.

approach Such an approach to research generates

results either in non-quantitative form
or in the form which are not subjected
to rigorous quantitative analysis.
 Research Methods versus
Methodology
• It seems appropriate at this
juncture to explain the difference
between research methods and
Research research methodology.
methods VS • Research methods may be
Research understood as all those
methods/techniques that are
methodology
used for conduction of research.
Research methods or
techniques*, thus, refer to the
methods the researchers
 use in performing research
operations. In other
words, all those methods
which are used by the
Research
methods VS
researcher during the
Research
methodology course of studying his
research problem are
termed as research
methods.
 research methods can be put into the following

three groups:

1. In the first group we include those methods which are

concerned with the collection of data. These methods will be
used where the data already available are not sufficient to

Research arrive at the required solution;

2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques

method which are used for establishing relationships between the data
and the unknowns;

3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to

evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.

• Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally
taken as the analytical tools of research.
 Research methodology is a way to
systematically solve the research
problem. It may be
• understood as a science of studying how research
is done scientifically. In it we study the various
steps that are generally adopted by a researcher
in studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them.
• It is necessary for the researcher to know not
only the research methods/techniques but also
Research the methodology.
Methodology • Researchers not only need to know how to
develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate
the mean, the mode, the median or the standard
deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular
research techniques, but they also need to know
which of these methods or techniques, are
relevant and which are not, and what would they
mean and indicate and why.
 Before embarking on the
details of research
methodology and
techniques, it seems
appropriate to present a
brief overview of the
Research research process.
Process • Research process consists of
series of actions or steps
necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired
sequencing of these steps.
 (1) formulating the research
problem;
(2) extensive literature survey;
(3) developing the hypothesis;
(4) preparing the research design;
(5) determining sample design;
(6) collecting the data;
the following order
concerning various (7) execution of the project;
steps provides a (8) analysis of data;
useful procedural (9) hypothesis testing;
guideline regarding (10) generalizations and
the research
process:
interpretation, and (11) preparation
of the report or presentation of the
results, i.e., formal write-up of
conclusions reached.
 1. Formulating the research
problem: There are two
types of research problems,
viz., those
• which relate to states of nature and
A brief those which relate to relationships
description between variables. enquiry.
of the above • Essentially two steps are involved in
formulating the research problem,
stated steps viz., understanding the problem
thoroughly, and rephrasing the
same into meaningful terms from
an analytical point of view.
2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is
formulated, a brief summary of it should be written
down. At this juncture the researcher should
undertake extensive literature survey connected with
the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and
indexing journals and published or unpublished
bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic
journals, conference proceedings, government
reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on
the nature of the problem.

In this process, it should be remembered that one

source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any,
which are similar to the study in hand should be
carefully studied. A good library will be a great help
to the researcher at this stage.
 3. Development of
working hypotheses:
After extensive literature
survey, researcher should
state in clear terms the
working hypothesis or
hypotheses.
• Working hypothesis is tentative
assumption made in order to
draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences.
working hypotheses
arise as a result of a-
priori thinking about
the subject,
examination of the
available data and
material including
related studies and the
counsel of experts and
interested parties.
4. Preparing the research design: The
research problem having been
formulated in clear cut terms, the
researcher will be required to prepare
a research design, i.e., he will have to
state the
• conceptual structure within which
research would be conducted. The
preparation of such a design
facilitates research to be as
efficient as possible yielding
maximal information.
• In other words, the function of
research design is to provide for
the collection of relevant evidence
with minimal expenditure of effort,
time and money.
5. Determining sample design: All the items
under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’.

A complete enumeration of all the items in the

‘population’ is known as a census inquiry.

It can be presumed that in such an inquiry

when all the items are covered no element of
chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained.

But in practice this may not be true. Even the

slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will
get larger and larger as the number of
observations increases.
The researcher must decide the
way of selecting a sample or
what is popularly known as the

sample design. In other words, a

sample design is a definite plan
determined before any data are

actually collected for obtaining a

sample from a given population
Deliberate sampling

Simple random sampling

Systematic sampling

Stratified sampling

Quota sampling

Cluster sampling and area sampling

Multi-stage sampling

Sequential sampling
 6. Collecting the data: In
dealing with any real life
problem it is often found
that data at hand are
inadequate, and hence, it
becomes necessary to
collect data that are
appropriate.
• There are several ways of collecting
the appropriate data which differ
considerably in context of money
costs, time and other resources at the
disposal of the researcher.
But in the case of a
survey, data can be
collected by any one or
more of the following
ways:
• (i) By observation
• (ii) Through personal interview
• (iii) Through telephone
interviews
• (iv) By mailing of questionnaires
• (v) Through schedules
7. Execution of the project:
Execution of the project is a very
important step in the research
process.

If the execution of the project

proceeds on correct lines, the data
to be collected would be adequate
and dependable.

The researcher should see that the

project is executed in a systematic
manner and in time.
8. Analysis of data: After the data
have been collected, the researcher
turns to the task of analysing them.

The analysis of data requires a

number of closely related operations
such as establishment of categories,
the application of these categories to
raw data through coding, tabulation
and then drawing statistical
inferences.
9. Hypothesis-testing:
After analyzing the data
as stated above, the
researcher is in a
position to test the
hypotheses, if any, he
had formulated earlier.
Do the facts support
the hypotheses or they
happen to be contrary?
10. Generalizations and
interpretation: If a
hypothesis is tested and
upheld several times, it may
be possible for the
researcher to arrive at
generalization, i.e., to build
a theory. As a matter of
fact, the real value of
research lies in its ability to
arrive at certain
generalizations.
11. Preparation of the report or
the thesis: Finally, the researcher
has to prepare the report of what
has been done by him. Writing of
report must be done with great
care keeping in view the
following:
• 1. The layout of the report should be as
follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the
main text, and (iii) the end matter.
• In its preliminary pages the report should
carry title and date followed by
acknowledgements and foreword.
• Then there should be a table of contents
followed by a list of tables and list of graphs
and charts, if any, given in the report.
The main text of the report should have
the following parts:
• (a) Introduction: It should contain a clear
statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in
accomplishing the research.
• The scope of the study along with various
limitations should as well be stated in this part.
• (b) Summary of findings: After introduction there
would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If
the findings are extensive, they should be
summarized.
• (c) Main report: The main body of the report
should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
• (d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text,
researcher should again put down the results of
his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the
final summing up.
At the end of the report,
appendices should be
enlisted in respect of all
technical data.
Bibliography, i.e., list of
books, journals, reports,
etc., consulted, should
also be given in the end.
Index should also be given
specially in a published
research report
2. Report should be written in a concise
and objective style in simple language
avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it
seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.

3. Charts and illustrations in the main

report should be used only if they
present the information more clearly
and forcibly.

4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be

mentioned and the various constraints
experienced in conducting research
operations may as well be stated.
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