CHAPTER TWO

HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Why Learn about Hardware and Software?
Organizations invest in computer hardware and software to improve worker productivity, increase revenue, reduce costs,
provide better customer service, speed up time to market, and facilitate collaboration among employees. Those that don't
may be stuck with outdated hardware and software that is unreliable and that cannot take advantage of the latest advances.
As a result, the organization may be placed at a competitive disadvantage. Managers, no matter what their career field and
educational background, are expected to help define the business needs that hardware and software must meet. In addition,
managers must be able to ask relevant questions and evaluate options when considering hardware and software investments
for their areas of the business. This need is especially true in small organizations, which might not employ information
system specialists. Managers in arketing, sales, and human resources often help IS specialists assess opportunities to apply
computer hardware and software and evaluate the various options and features. Managers in finance and accounting must
keep an eye on the bottom line-guarding against overspending yet be willing to invest in computer hardware and
software when and where business conditions warrant it.

Hardware
Hardware consists of computer equipment used to perform input, processing, storage, and output activities. The trend in the
computer industry is to produce smaller, faster, and more mobile hardware, such as smartphones, laptops, and tablet computers.
In addition, hardware manufacturers and entrepreneurs are hard at work developing innovative new hardware devices, such as
advanced keyboards that turn individual keys on a keyboard into trackpad covered buttons where certain dual-purpose keys can
be depressed to multiple levels to complete different tasks; the spacebar, for example, can serve its usual purpose. But add
capacitive touch and it becomes a cursor; press a little harder to generate a mouse click.
Anatomy of Hardware
Computer system hardware components include devices that perform input, processing, data storage, and output. These
include the processor, memory, and input/output devices, all of which are discussed in this section.
Processor
The central processing unit (CPU) or simply processor is the part of a computer that sequences and
executes instructions. Memory provides the processor with a working storage area to hold program
instructions and data. It rapidly provides data and instructions to the processor. Input/output devices
provide data and instructions to the computer and receive results from it. Data and instructions are
routed to and from the various components over the bus, a set of electronic circuits.
The components of the computer work together to complete the instructions (e.g., add, multiply, divide,
subtract, compare) of a computer program to accomplish the goals of the user (e.g., send/receive email,
develop a profit forecast, pay an invoice). Completing an instruction involves two phases (instruction
and execution) consisting of several steps.
Each processor produces a series of electronic pulses at a predetermined rate, called the dock
speed, which governs the speed at which these steps are completed. Clock speed is measured
in gigahertz (GHz), which is a unit of frequency that is equal to one billion cycles per second.
Many of today's personal computers operate in the 1 to 4 GHz range. The higher the clock
speed, the shorter the interval between pulses and the faster the instructions can be completed.

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Multiprocessing
Multiprocessing involves the simultaneous execution of two or more instructions at the same time.
One form of multiprocessing uses coprocessors. A coprocessor speeds processing by executing
specific types of instructions while the CPU works on another processing activity. Coprocessors
can be internal or external to the CPU and can have different clock speeds than the CPU. Each type
of coprocessor performs a specific function. For example, a math coprocessor chip speeds
mathematical calculations, while a graphics coprocessor chip decreases the time it takes to manipulate
graphics.
A multicore processor has two or more independent processing units, called cores, which are capable
of sequencing and executing instructions. The multiple cores can run multiple instructions at the same
time, thereby increasing the amount of processing that can be completed in a given amount of time.
Parallel Computing
Parallel computing is the simultaneous execution of the same task on multiple processors to obtain
results more quickly. Systems with thousands of such processors are known as massively parallel
processing system, a form of multiprocessing that speeds processing by linking hundreds or even
thousands of processors to operate at the same time, or in parallel, with each processor having its own
bus, memory, disks, copy of the operating system, and applications. The processors might communicate
with one another to coordinate when executing a computer program, or they might run independently
of one another under the direction of another processor that distributes the work to the various processors
and collects their results.
Grid computing: The use of a collection of computers, often owned by multiple individuals or
organizations, that work in a coordinated manner to solve a common problem.
Memory
Main memory provides the CPU with a working storage area for program instructions and data. The
chief function of memory is to rapidly provide data and instructions to the CPU. In order for their systems
to run efficiently, organizations must invest in a sufficient amount of main memory. Organizations also
need large amounts of secondary storage to hold the huge quantities of data that cannot fit within the
limits of main memory.
Like the CPU, memory devices contain thousands of circuits imprinted on silicon chips. Each circuit is
either conducting electrical current (on) or not conducting current (off). Data is stored in memory as a
combination of on or off circuit states. Usually, 8 bits are used to represent a character, such as the
letter A. Eight bits together form a byte (B). In most cases, storage capacity is measured in bytes, with
1 byte equivalent to one character of data. It is estimated that all the words ever spoken by humans
represented in text form would equal about 5 exabytes of information. Table 2.1 lists units for
measuring computer storage.
Types of Memory
Computer memory can take several forms. Instructions or data can be temporarily stored in and read
from random access memory (RAM ). As currently designed, RAM chips are volatile storage devices,
meaning they lose their contents if the current is turned off or disrupted, which can be caused by a
power surge, a brownout, or electrical noise generated by lightning or nearby machines. RAM
chips are mounted directly on the computer's main circuit

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board or in other chips mounted on peripheral cards that plug into the main circuit board.
These RAM chips consist of millions of switches that are sensitive to changes in electric current.
RAM comes in many varieties: Static random access memory (SRAM) is byte-addressable
storage used for high-speed registers and caches; dynamic random access memory
DRAM) is byte-addressable storage used for the main memory in a computer; and
double data rate synchronous dynamic random access memory (DDR SDRAM) is an
improved form of DRAM that effectively doubles the rate at which data can be moved
in and out of main memory. DDR has been superseded by second-, third-, and fourth-
generation DDR called DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4, respectively. DDR3 requires 1.5 volts of
electrical power to operate, while DDR4 needs just 1.2 volts. This means longer battery life
for portable computer users and lower electric bills for organizations that operate servers
farms. 3
Read-only memory (ROM), another type of memory, is nonvolatile,
meaning that its contents are not lost if the power is turned off or interrupted. ROM provides
permanent storage for data and instructions that do not change, such as programs and
data from the computer manufacturer, including the instructions that tell the computer how
to start up when power is turned on. ROM memory also comes in a couple of varieties.
Programmable read-only memory (PROM) is used to hold data and instructions that can
never be changed.
Secondary Data Storage Devices
Storing data safely and effectively is critical to an organization's success. Driven by many factors-such
as needing to retain more data longer to meet government regulatory concerns, storing new forms of
digital data such as audio and video, and keeping systems running under the onslaught of
increasing volumes of email-the world's information is more than doubling every two years. Nearly 6
zettabytes (6 x 10 bytes) of information was created and stored in 2013 alone.4 It is mainly unstructured
digital content such as video, audio, and image objects that is fueling this growth. It is estimated that
more than 80 percent of the 2.5 billion gigabytes of data created every day comes in the form of
unstructured data.
For most organizations, the best overall data storage solution is likely a combination of different
secondary storage options that can store large amounts of data, instructions, and information
more permanently than allowed with main memory. Compared with memory, secondary storage
offers the advantages of nonvolatility, greater capacity, and greater economy. On a cost-per-megabyte
basis, secondary storage is considerably less expen• sive than primary memory. The selection of

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secondary storage media and devices requires understanding their primary characteristics: access
method, capacity, and portability.
Secondary data storage is not directly accessible by the CPU. Instead, computers usually use
input/output channels to access secondary storage and then transfer the desired data using intermediate
areas in primary storage. The most common forms of secondary storage devices are magnetic, optical,
and solid state.
Magnetic Secondary Storage Devices
Magnetic storage uses tape or disk devices covered with a thin magnetic coating that enables data to
be stored as magnetic particles. Magnetic tape is a type of secondary storage medium, which is
frequently used for storing back• ups of critical organizational data in the event of a disaster. Examples
of tape storage devices include cassettes and cartridges measuring a few millimeters in diameter,
requiring very little storage space. Magnetic tape has been used as storage media since the time of
the earliest computers, such as the 1951 Univac computer.6 Continuing advancements have kept
magnetic tape as a viable storage medium.
A hard disk drive (HOD) is a direct access storage device used to store and retrieve data
from rapidly rotating disks coated with magnetic material. A hard disk represents bits of data
with small magnetized areas and uses a read/write head to go directly to the desired piece
of data. Because direct access allows fast data retrieval, this type of storage is used by
organizations that need to respond quickly to customer requests, such as airlines and
credit card firms. For example, information on the credit history of a customer or the seat
availability on a particular flight would likely be stored on a direct-access hard disk drive so
that a customer-service representative or manager could obtain that data in seconds. Hard disk
drives vary widely in capacity and portability.
Putting an organization's data online involves a serious business risk-the loss of critical data
can put a corporation out of business. The concern is that the most critical mechanical
components inside a HOD storage device-the disk drives, the fans, and the read/write
heads-can fail. Thus, organizations now require that their data storage devices be fault tolerant,
that is, they can continue with little or no loss of performance if one or more key components
fail. In response, disk manufacturers are continually developing new technol• ogies that will
improve the performance and reliability of their hard disk drives.
Virtual tape is a storage technology suitable for less frequently needed data. With virtual
tape systems, data appears to be stored entirely on tape cartridges, although some parts might
actually be located on faster hard disks. The software associated with a virtual tape system
is sometimes called a virtual tape server. Virtual tape can be used with a sophisticated
storage• management system that moves data to slower but less costly forms of storage media as
people use the data less often. Virtual tape technology can decrease data access time, lower the
total cost of ownership, and reduce the amount of floor space consumed by tape operations.
Optical Secondary Storage Devices
An optical storage device uses special lasers to read and write data. The lasers record data by
physically burning pits in the disc. Data is directly accessed from the disc by an optical disc device,
which operates much like a compact disc player. The optical disc device uses a low-power laser that
measures the difference in reflected light caused by a pit (or lack thereof) on the disc.

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Compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM), digital video disc (DVD), and Blu-ray high-
definition video disc are different forms of optical storage devices. Scientists are
experimenting with more advanced storage technologies, including the use of DNA molecules
to store vast amounts of data for long periods of time. One gram of DNA is capable of holding
455 exabytes (one exabyte is equivalent to a billion gigabytes).' In addition, data could be
stored in DNA for thousands of years. It will likely be a decade or more before the
technology evolves to the point where DNA data storage is practical."
Solid State Secondary Storage Devices
A solid state storage device (SSD) stores data in memory chips rather than on hard disk drives or optical
media. These memory chips require less power and provide much faster data access than magnetic
data storage devices. In addition, SSDs have no moving parts, so they are less fragile than hard disk
drives. All these factors make the SSD a preferred choice over hard disk drives for mobile
computers.
A universal serial bus (USB) flash drive is one example of a commonly used SSD. USB flash drives
are external to the computer and are removable and rewritable. Most weigh less than an ounce and
can provide a wide range of storage capacity.

Enterprise Storage Options

Businesses need to store the large amounts of data created throughout an organization. Such large-
scale secondary storage is called enterprise storage with storage area networks (SANs) and cloud
computing storage two of the most commonly used forms.
Storage Area Networks
A storage area network (SAN) is a high-speed, special-purpose network that integrates different types of
data storage devices (e.g., hard disk drives, magnetic tape, solid state secondary storage devices) into
a single storage system and connects that to computing resources across an entire organization. SANs
can provide important capabilities such as disk mirroring, data backup and restore, data archiving,
data migration from one storage device to another, and the sharing of data among computing
devices connected to the network.
Using a SAN, an organization can centralize the people, policies, procedures, and practices for
managing storage, and a data storage manager can apply the data consistently across an enterprise. This
centralization eliminates inconsistent treatment of data by different system administrators and users,
providing efficient and cost-effective data storage practices. SAN manufacturers include EMC, Hitachi
Data Systems Corporation, NetApp, Xiotech, and IBM.

Storage as a Service
Storage as a service is a data storage model in which a data storage service provider rents space to
people and organizations. Users access their rented data storage via the Internet. Such a service
enables the users to store and back up their data without requiring a major investment to create and
maintain their own data storage infrastructure. Businesses can also choose payper-use services, where
they rent space on massive storage devices housed either at a service provider (such as Hewlett-
Packard or IBM) or on the customer's premises, paying only for the amount of storage they use.
This approach makes sense for many organizations, especially those with wildly fluctuating storage
needs, such as those involved in the testing of new drugs or in developing software.

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Increasingly, individuals and organizations expect to be able to access data, documents, databases,
presentations, and spreadsheets from anywhere, with any sort of Internet-enabled device, such as a
smartphone, tablet, or laptop. In response to this need, numerous cloud-based storage services have
emerged, including Amazon's Elastic Compute Cloud, Apple iCloud, Dropbox, Google Drive, Microsoft
SkyDrive, and Mozy. These services provide data storage at a rate of $2 or less per gigabyte a year.
Social media start-up, Pinterest, operates a photo-sharing Web site where users create personalized
boards with visual bookmarks-called pins-that link back to the sites they came from. Individuals and
businesses use Pinterest to discover and save creative ideas-or to be discovered by the site's more
than 100 million active users.9 The site's infrastructure growth is fueled by its user growth, and from
the beginning, Pinterest has used Amazon Web Services, including the Amazon S3 data storage service,
where it now stores over 8 billion objects and more than 10 petabytes of data. Pinterest logs
approximately 14 terabytes of data each day, and the Amazon S3 service offers the company the
scale and flexibility it requires to operate a large and rapidly growing consumer Internet service.9,11,12

Input and Output Devices

Input and output devices are the gateways to the computer system-you use them to provide data and
instructions to the computer and receive results from it. Input and output devices are part of a
computer's user interface, which includes other hardware devices and software that allow you to interact
with a computer system.
As with other computer system components, an organization should keep its business goals in mind
when selecting input and output devices. For example, many restaurant chains use handheld input
devices or computerized terminals that let food servers enter orders and transfer them to the kitchen
efficiently and accurately. These systems have also cut costs by helping restaurants track inventory and
market to customers.
Data entry and input devices come in many forms. They range from special-purpose devices that
capture specific types of data to more general purpose input devices. Some of the special-purpose
data entry and input devices are discussed later in this chapter. First, we focus on devices used to
enter and input general types of data, including text, audio, images, and video for personal computers.
Drawing pad and integrated keyboard: A drawing pad and integrated keyboard can replace a
traditional keyboard and mouse for input.
speech-recognition technology: Input devices that recognize human speech.
Scanning Devices
Scanning devices capture image and character data. Both page and handheld scanners can convert
monochrome or color pictures, forms, text, and other images into machine-readable digits.
Magnetic ink character recognition technology codes data on the bot• tom of a check or other form
using special magnetic ink, which is read• able by people and computers.
Automated Teller Machine (ATM) Devices
The automated teller machine (ATM), another type of special-purpose input/ output device, is a terminal
that bank customers use to perform transactions with their bank accounts. Other types of companies
also use various ATM devices, sometimes called kiosks, to support their business processes. Some can

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dispense tickets, such as for airlines, concerts, and soccer games. Some colleges use them to produce
transcripts.
Bar-Code Scanners
A bar-code scanner employs a laser scanner to read a bar-coded label and pass the data to a computer.
The bar-code reader may be stationary or hand• held to support a wide variety of uses. This form of
input is used widely in store checkouts and warehouse inventory control. Bar codes are also used in
hospitals, where a nurse scans a patient's wristband and then a bar code on radio frequency identification
(RFID): A technology that employs a microchip with an antenna to broadcast its unique identifier and
location to receivers.
Touch Screens
Advances in screen technology allow display screens to function as input as well as output devices.
By touching certain parts of a touch-sensitive screen, you can start a program or trigger other types of
action.

Output Devices
Computer systems provide output to decision makers at all levels of an organization, so they can solve
a business problem or capitalize on a competitive opportunity. In addition, output from one computer
system can provide input into another computer system. The desired form of this output might be
visual, audio, or even digital. Whatever the output's content or form, output devices are designed to
provide the right information to the right person in the right format at the right time.
Display Screens
The display screen is a device used to show the output from the computer. Today a variety of flat-panel
display screens are far lighter and thinner than the traditional cathode-ray tubes (CRTs) associated
with early computers
Printers and Plotters
The two main types of printers are laser printers and inkjet printers, and they are available with
different speeds, features, and capabilities.
3D print technology is making it possible to print objects ranging from everyday objects to houses.

bioprinting: The use of 3D printers to build human parts and organs from actual human cells.
Computer system types
General-purpose computer systems can be divided into two major groups: systems used by one
user at a time and systems used by multiple concurrent users. The general ranges of capabilities
and costs for various types of computer systems.
Types of computer systems
Single-user computer systems can be divided into two groups: mobile computers and nonmobile
computers.

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Mobile Computers
Many computer manufacturers offer a variety of mobile computers small enough to be
carried easily. Mobile computers include smartphones, laptops, notebooks, ultrabooks, and
tablets.
laptop: A personal computer designed for use by mobile users, being small and light enough to sit
comfortably on a user's lap.
tablets: A portable, lightweight computer with no keyboard that allows you to roam the office, home, or
factory floor carrying the device like a clipboard.
Thin Clients, Desktops, and Workstations
Nonmobile single-user computers include desktop computers, nettop, and workstations. Thin
clients may be mobile or nonmobile.
thin client: A low-cost, centrally managed computer with no internal or external attached drives for data
storage.
desktop computers: A nonportable computer that fits on a desktop and provides sufficient computing
power, memory, and storage for most business computing tasks.
nettop computer: A very small, inexpensive desktop computer typically used for Internet access, email,
accessing Web-based applications, document processing, and audio/video playback.
workstations: A more powerful personal computer used for mathematical computing, computer-assisted
design, and other high-end processing but still small enough to fit on a desktop.

Servers, Mainframes, and Supercomputers

Servers, mainframes, and supercomputers are designed to support work• groups from a
small department of two or three workers to large organizations with tens of thousands of
employees and millions of customers.
A server is a computer employed by many users to perform a specific task, such as running
network or Internet applications. While almost any computer can run server operating system and
server applications, a server computer usually has special features that make it more suitable for operat
ing in a multiuser environment. These features include greater memory and storage capacities, faster and
more efficient communications abilities, and reliable backup capabilities. A Web server is one
specifically designed to handle Internet traffic and communications. An enterprise server stores and
provides access to programs that meet the needs of an entire organization. A file server stores and
coordinates program and data files. Server systems consist of multiuser computers, including
supercomputers, mainframes, and other servers.
Servers offer great scalability, the ability to increase the processing capability of a
computer system so that it can handle more users, more data, or more transactions in a
given period. Scalability is achieved by adding more, or more powerful, processors.
Scaling up adds more powerful processors, and scaling out adds many processors to
increase the total data-processing capacity.

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mainframe computer: A large, powerful computer often shared by hundreds of concurrent
users connected to the machine over a network supercomputer: The most powerful computer
system with the fastest processing speeds.

Server Farm, Data Center and Green Computing

computer industry and various organizations are doing to meet their computing needs in a
more efficient and environmentally friendly manner.

Server Farms
A facility that houses a large number of servers in the same room, where access to the machines can
be controlled and authorized support personnel can more easily manage and maintain the servers.
virtual server: A method of logically dividing the resources of a single physical server to create
multiple logical servers, each acting as its own dedicated machine.

Data Center
A data center is a climate-and-access-controlled building or a set of buildings that houses the
computer hardware that delivers an organization's data and information services.

Green Computing
Electronic devices such as computer hardware and smartphones contain hundreds or even thousands of
components. The components, in turn, are composed of many different materials, including some that
are known to be potentially harmful to humans and the environment, such as beryllium, cadmium,
lead, mercury, brominated flame retardants (BFRs), selenium, and polyvinyl chloride. Electronics
manufacturing employees and workers at all.

Software Components
Software consists of computer programs that control the workings of computer hardware.
Software can be divided into two types: systems software and application software. System
software includes operating systems, utilities, and middleware that coordinate the activities
and functions of the hard• ware and other programs throughout the computer system.
Application software consists of programs that help users solve particular computing problems.
Examples include a spreadsheet program or a program that captures and displays data that
enables monitoring of a manufacturing process.
The effective use of software can have a profound impact on individuals and organizations.
Itcan make the difference between profits and losses and between financial health and
bankruptcy. Globally, spending on software now exceeds other categories of IT expenditures,
including spending on computer hardware. This is far different from when computers first
were available; software was given away and customers paid only for the hardware.45
Indeed, the software industry was born in 1969 when IBM decided to unbundle and
charge customers separately for its software and services. Although business computers had been
in use since the mid-1950s, hardware manufacturers had previously bundled software with their
hardware without charging separately for it.

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Software Sphere of Influence
Every organization relies on the contributions of individuals and groups across the enterprise to
achieve its business objectives. One useful way of classifying the many potential uses of information
systems is to identify the scope of the problems and opportunities that the software addresses.
This scope is called the sphere of influence and includes the personal, work• group, and
enterprise spheres of influence

Information systems that operate within the personal sphere of influence serve the needs of individual
users. These information systems help users improve their personal effectiveness, increasing the amount
and quality of work they can do.
personal sphere of influence: The sphere of influence that serves the needs of an individual user.For
example, VIP Organizer is personal productivity software designed to help users develop to do lists,
categorize tasks, keep notes and records in a single database, report on performance, and set deadlines
and priorities.
When two or more people work together to achieve a common goal, they form a workgroup.
Workgroups include large, formal, permanent organizational entities, such as sections or
departments, as well as temporary groups formed to complete a specific project. An
information system in the workgroup sphere of influence helps workgroup members attain
their common goals.
Information systems that operate within the enterprise sphere of influence support
an organization in its interactions with its environment, including customers, suppliers,
shareholders, competitors, special-interest groups, the financial community, and government
agencies. The enterprise sphere of influence for a company might include business partners
such as suppliers that provide raw materials, retail companies that store and sell a company's
products, and shipping companies that transport raw materials to the plant and finished
goods to retail outlets.

System software
The primary role of system software is to control the operations of computer hardware.
System software also supports the problem-solving capabilities of application programs.
System software can be divided into three types: operating systems, utility programs, and
middleware.

An operating system (OS) is a set of programs that controls a computer's hardware and
acts as an interface with application software. An operating system can control one or
more computers, or it can allow multiple users to interact with one computer. The various
combinations of OSs, computers, and users include the following.

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• Single computer with a single user. This system is commonly used in personal computers,
tablets, and smartphones that support one user at a time. Examples of OSs for this setup
include Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Google Android.
• Single computer with multiple simultaneous users. This type of system is used in
larger server or mainframe computers that support hundreds or thousands of people,
all using the computer at the same time. Examples of OSs that support this kind of
system include UNIX, z/OS, and HP-UX.

• Multiple computers with multiple users. This type of system is used in computer
networks, including home networks with several computers attached as well as large
computer networks with hundreds of computers attached, supporting many users, who
may be located around the world. Network server OSs include Red Hat Enterprise
Linux Server, Windows Server, and Mac OS X Server.

Special-purpose computers. This type of system is typical of a number of computers

with specialized functions, such as those that control sophisticated military aircraft,
digital cameras, or home appliances. Examples of OSs designed for these purposes
include Windows Embedded, Symbian, and some distributions of Linux.

The OS, which plays a central role in the functioning of a computer sys• tem, is usually
stored on a hard drive in general-purpose computers and in solid state memory on mobile
computers such as tablets and smartphones. After you start, or boot up, a computer system,
the kernel of the OS is loaded into primary storage and remains there for as long as the
computer is pow• ered on. The kernel, as its name suggests, is the heart of the OS and controls
its most critical processes. The kernel ties all of the OS components together and regulates
other programs.
Other portions of the OS are transferred to memory as the system needs them. OS
developers are continually working to shorten the time required to boot devices after they are
shut down and to wake devices from sleep mode.
Functions Performed by the Operating System

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The programs that m a k e u p the OS perform a variety of activities, including the following:
• Control c om m on computer hardware functions
• Provide a user int erface and manage input/output
• Provide a degree of hardware independence
• Manage system memory
• Manage processing tasks
• Provide networking capability
• Control access to system resources
• Manage files
Common Hardware Functions The OS enables applications to perform a variety of hardware-
related tasks, such as the following:
• Get input from the keyboard or another input device
• Retrieve data from disks
• Store data on disks
• Display information on a monitor or printe

User Interface and Input/Output Management One of the most important functions of any OS is
providing a user interface, which allows people to access and interact with the computer system.
The first user interfaces for mainframe and personal computer systems were command based.
A command-based user interface requires you to give text commands to the computer to
perform basic activities.

graphical user interface (GUI): An interface that displays pictures (icons) and menus that
people use to send commands to the computer system.
Hardware Independence An application programming interface (API) is a set of programming
instructions and standards that enable one software program to access and use the services
of another software program. An API provides a software-to-software interface, not a user
interface. The API also provides software developers tools that allow them to build
application software without needing to understand the inner workings of the OS and hardware.
Software applications are designed to run on a particular OS by using the operating system's
Memory Management The OS also controls how memory is accessed, maximizing the use of
available memory and storage to provide optimum efficiency. The memory-management
feature of many OSs allows the computer to execute program instructions effectively and to
speed processing. One way to increase the performance of an old computer is to upgrade to a
newer OS and increase the amount of memory.
Processing Tasks Operating systems use the following five basic approaches to task
management to increase the amount of processing that can be accomplished in a given amount
of time:

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• Multiuser. Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time on the same computer.
Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users. The ability of
the computer to handle an increasing number of concurrent users smoothly is called scalability.

• Multiprocessing. Supports running a program on more than one CPU.

• Multitasking. Allows more than one program to run concurrently.

• Multithreading. Allows different threads of a single program to run concurrently. A thread is

a set of instructions within an application that is independent of other threads. For example, in a
spreadsheet program, the thread to open the workbook is separate from the thread to sum a column
of figures.

• Real time. Responds to input instantly. To do this, the operating system task scheduler can
stop any task at any point in its execution if it determines that another higher priority task needs
to run immediately. Realtime operating systems are used to control the operation of jet engines,
the deployment of air bags, and the operation of antilock braking systems-among other uses.

Networking Capability Most operating systems include networking capabilities so that computers
can join together in a network to send and receive data and share computing resources.
Operating systems for larger server computers are designed specifically for computer
networking environments.
Access to System Resources and Security Because computers often handle sensitive data that can be
accessed over networks, the OS needs to provide a high level of security against unauthorized
access to the users' data and programs. Typically, the OS establishes a logon procedure that
requires users to enter an identification code, such as a user name, and a password. Operating
systems may also control what system resources a user may access. When a user successfully
logs on to the system, the OS permits access to only the portions of the system for which the
user has been authorized. The OS records who is using the system and for how long, and
it reports any attempted breaches of security.
File Management The OS manages files to ensure that files in secondary storage are available
when needed and that they are protected from access by unauthorized users. Many computers
support multiple users who store files on centrally located disks or tape drives. The OS keeps
track of where each file is stored and who is cleared to access them.
Personal Computing Operating Systems
Microsoft PC OS: As of Windows 10, Microsoft is moving away from releasing major new versions, but
will provide ongoing, incremental upgrades and improvements.
Apple Computer OS
• Mac OS X has been upgraded multiple times
• First eight versions were named after big cats
• Latest versions are named after places in California
• Mac OS X 10.11 El Capitan is the latest version
• Mac users can set up their computers to run both Windows and Mac OS X

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Linux: Open-source operating system
• Three of the most widely used distributions come from software companies: Red Hat, SUSE
and Canonical.
• openSUSE is the distribution sponsored by SUSE
Google Chrome: Chrome OS
- Linux-based operating system designed for netbooks and nettops
- Designed to run on inexpensive low-power computers
• Chromium OS: an open-source version of Chrome OS
Workgroup Operating Systems
Windows Server provides:
• A powerful Web server management system
• Virtualization tools that allow various operating systems to run on a single server
• Advanced security features
• Robust administrative support
UNIX:-Can be used on many computer system types and platforms
Smartphones employ full-fledged computer OSs
• Google Android
• Apple iOS

Utility Program:
Utility program: a program that helps to perform maintenance or correct problems with a
system

Middleware
➢ Software that allows different systems to communicate and exchange data
➢ Can also be used as an interface between the Internet and private corporate systems

➢ Enterprise application integration (EAI): tying together of disparate applications

➢ Service-oriented architecture (SOA): a software design approach using modules to provide

specific functions as services to other applications

Application Software
➢ Application programs’ primary function
• To apply the power of the computer to enable people, workgroups, and the entire
enterprise to solve problems and perform specific tasks

➢ Many software options are available

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 • Software can be selected that best meets the needs of the individual, workgroup, or
enterprise

Over view of Application software

• Software as a service (SaaS)

• Businesses subscribe to Web-delivered business application software

• Vendors include Oracle, SAP, NetSuite, Salesforce, and Google

Personnel application software

➢ Word Processing

• Create, edit, and print text documents

➢ Spreadsheet Analysis

• Perform statistical, financial, logical, database, graphics, and date and time
calculations using a wide range of built-in functions

➢ Database Applications

• Store, manipulate, and retrieve data

➢ Presentation Graphics Program

• Develop graphs, illustrations, drawings, and presentations

Software Suites and Integrated Software Packages

• A collection of single programs packaged together in a bundle

• Suites can include: word processor, spreadsheet, database management, graphics,

communications tools, and organizers

• Programs are designed to work similarly

• Bundled suite is cost effective

Mobile Application Software

• Number of apps has exploded

• Hundreds of thousands of applications have been developed by third parties

• Over 1.8 million applications are available for iPhones from the Apple App Store

• Over 2.2 million apps are available in the Android market on Google’s Play Store

Enterprise application software

• Software that benefits an entire organization

• Helps managers and workers stay connected

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 • Cost, installation and ability to integrate with other software are major considerations
in selecting this software

• Usability on smartphones and mobile devices is also an important factor

Workgroup application software

• Designed to support teamwork with people in the same location or dispersed around
the world

Programming languages

• Sets of keywords, commands, symbols, and a system of rules for constructing

statements

• Allows humans to communicate instructions to a computer

Syntax: a set of rules associated with a programming language

Software Issues and Trends

Software issues:

• Software bugs, Copyrights and licensing, Open-source software, Software

upgrades and Global software support

Software bug: a defect in a program that keeps it from performing as it should

Tips for reducing the impact of software bugs

• Register all software

• Check read-me files for solutions to known problems

• Access the support area of the manufacturer’s Web site for patches
• Install the latest software updates

• Before reporting a bug, make sure that you can recreate the circumstances
under which it occurs

• After you can recreate the bug, call the manufacturer’s tech support line

• Consider waiting before buying the latest release of software to give the
vendor a chance to discover and remove bugs. Many schools and businesses
don’t purchase software until the first major revision with patches is released.

Copyrights and Licenses

➢ Most software products are protected by law using copyright or licensing provisions:

• In some cases, you are given unlimited use of software on one or two
computers
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 • In other cases, you pay for your usage; if you use the software more, you pay
more

➢ Some software now requires that you register or activate it before it can be fully used
➢ Single-user license

• Permits you to install the software on one or more computers, used by one
person

Software Upgrade

• Software companies revise their programs and sell new versions periodically

• Software upgrades vary widely in the benefits that they provide

• Developing an upgrading strategy is important for many businesses

• Helps to ensure that updated software is more stable with fewer errors and
problems

Global Software Support

• Supporting local operations is one of the biggest challenges IS teams face when
putting together standardized, company-wide systems

• Outsourcing global support to one or more third-party distributors is gaining

acceptance

Open-Source Software

• Open-source software: distributed, typically for free, with the source code

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