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 vii

To family and friends.

This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

Foreword xxiii

Preface xxv

I FOUNDATIONS 3

1 Introduction 5
1.1 The Art of Language Design 7
1.2 The Programming Language Spectrum 11
1.3 Why Study Programming Languages? 14
1.4 Compilation and Interpretation 17
1.5 Programming Environments 24
1.6 An Overview of Compilation 26
1.6.1 Lexical and Syntax Analysis 28
1.6.2 Semantic Analysis and Intermediate Code Generation 32
1.6.3 Target Code Generation 34
1.6.4 Code Improvement 36
1.7 Summary and Concluding Remarks 37
1.8 Exercises 38
1.9 Explorations 39
1.10 Bibliographic Notes 40

2 Programming Language Syntax 43

2.1 Specifying Syntax: Regular Expressions and Context-Free Grammars 44
2.1.1 Tokens and Regular Expressions 45
2.1.2 Context-Free Grammars 48
2.1.3 Derivations and Parse Trees 50
x Contents

2.2 Scanning 54
2.2.1 Generating a Finite Automaton 56
2.2.2 Scanner Code 61
2.2.3 Table-Driven Scanning 65
2.2.4 Lexical Errors 65
2.2.5 Pragmas 67
2.3 Parsing 69
2.3.1 Recursive Descent 73
2.3.2 Writing an LL(1) Grammar 79
2.3.3 Table-Driven Top-Down Parsing 82
2.3.4 Bottom-Up Parsing 89
2.3.5 Syntax Errors C 1 . 102
2.4 Theoretical Foundations C 13 . 103
2.4.1 Finite Automata C 13
2.4.2 Push-Down Automata C 18
2.4.3 Grammar and Language Classes C 19

2.5 Summary and Concluding Remarks 104

2.6 Exercises 105
2.7 Explorations 112
2.8 Bibliographic Notes 112

3 Names, Scopes, and Bindings 115

3.1 The Notion of Binding Time 116
3.2 Object Lifetime and Storage Management 118
3.2.1 Static Allocation 119
3.2.2 Stack-Based Allocation 120
3.2.3 Heap-Based Allocation 122
3.2.4 Garbage Collection 124
3.3 Scope Rules 125
3.3.1 Static Scoping 126
3.3.2 Nested Subroutines 127
3.3.3 Declaration Order 130
3.3.4 Modules 135
3.3.5 Module Types and Classes 139
3.3.6 Dynamic Scoping 142
3.4 Implementing Scope C 26 . 144
3.4.1 Symbol Tables C 26
3.4.2 Association Lists and Central Reference Tables C 31
 Contents xi

3.5 The Meaning of Names within a Scope 145

3.5.1 Aliases 145
3.5.2 Overloading 147
3.6 The Binding of Referencing Environments 152
3.6.1 Subroutine Closures 153
3.6.2 First-Class Values and Unlimited Extent 155
3.6.3 Object Closures 157
3.6.4 Lambda Expressions 159
3.7 Macro Expansion 162
3.8 Separate Compilation C 36 . 165
3.8.1 Separate Compilation in C C 37
3.8.2 Packages and Automatic Header Inference C 40
3.8.3 Module Hierarchies C 41

3.9 Summary and Concluding Remarks 165

3.10 Exercises 167
3.11 Explorations 175
3.12 Bibliographic Notes 177

4 Semantic Analysis 179

4.1 The Role of the Semantic Analyzer 180
4.2 Attribute Grammars 184
4.3 Evaluating Attributes 187
4.4 Action Routines 195
4.5 Space Management for Attributes C 45 . 200
4.5.1 Bottom-Up Evaluation C 45
4.5.2 Top-Down Evaluation C 50

4.6 Tree Grammars and Syntax Tree Decoration 201

4.7 Summary and Concluding Remarks 208
4.8 Exercises 209
4.9 Explorations 214
4.10 Bibliographic Notes 215

5 Target Machine Architecture C 60 . 217

5.1 The Memory Hierarchy C 61
5.2 Data Representation C 63
xii Contents

5.2.1 Integer Arithmetic C 65

5.2.2 Floating-Point Arithmetic C 67
5.3 Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) C 70
5.3.1 Addressing Modes C 71
5.3.2 Conditions and Branches C 72

5.4 Architecture and Implementation C 75

5.4.1 Microprogramming C 76
5.4.2 Microprocessors C 77
5.4.3 RISC C 77
5.4.4 Multithreading and Multicore C 78
5.4.5 Two Example Architectures: The x86 and ARM C 80
5.5 Compiling for Modern Processors C 88
5.5.1 Keeping the Pipeline Full C 89
5.5.2 Register Allocation C 93

5.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks C 98

5.7 Exercises C 100
5.8 Explorations C 104
5.9 Bibliographic Notes C 105

II CORE ISSUES IN LANGUAGE DESIGN 221

6 Control Flow 223

6.1 Expression Evaluation 224
6.1.1 Precedence and Associativity 226
6.1.2 Assignments 229
6.1.3 Initialization 238
6.1.4 Ordering within Expressions 240
6.1.5 Short-Circuit Evaluation 243
6.2 Structured and Unstructured Flow 246
6.2.1 Structured Alternatives to goto 247
6.2.2 Continuations 250
6.3 Sequencing 252
6.4 Selection 253
6.4.1 Short-Circuited Conditions 254
6.4.2 Case / Switch Statements 256
6.5 Iteration 261
 Contents xiii

6.5.1 Enumeration-Controlled Loops 262

6.5.2 Combination Loops 266
6.5.3 Iterators 268
6.5.4 Generators in Icon C 107 . 274
6.5.5 Logically Controlled Loops 275
6.6 Recursion 277
6.6.1 Iteration and Recursion 277
6.6.2 Applicative- and Normal-Order Evaluation 282
6.7 Nondeterminacy C 110 . 283
6.8 Summary and Concluding Remarks 284
6.9 Exercises 286
6.10 Explorations 292
6.11 Bibliographic Notes 294

7 Type Systems 297

7.1 Overview 298
7.1.1 The Meaning of “Type” 300
7.1.2 Polymorphism 302
7.1.3 Orthogonality 302
7.1.4 Classification of Types 305
7.2 Type Checking 312
7.2.1 Type Equivalence 313
7.2.2 Type Compatibility 320
7.2.3 Type Inference 324
7.2.4 Type Checking in ML 326
7.3 Parametric Polymorphism 331
7.3.1 Generic Subroutines and Classes 333
7.3.2 Generics in C++, Java, and C# C 119 . 339
7.4 Equality Testing and Assignment 340
7.5 Summary and Concluding Remarks 342
7.6 Exercises 344
7.7 Explorations 347
7.8 Bibliographic Notes 348

8 Composite Types 351

8.1 Records (Structures) 351
xiv Contents

8.1.1 Syntax and Operations 352

8.1.2 Memory Layout and Its Impact 353
8.1.3 Variant Records (Unions) C 136 . 357
8.2 Arrays 359
8.2.1 Syntax and Operations 359
8.2.2 Dimensions, Bounds, and Allocation 363
8.2.3 Memory Layout 368
8.3 Strings 375
8.4 Sets 376
8.5 Pointers and Recursive Types 377
8.5.1 Syntax and Operations 378
8.5.2 Dangling References C 144 . 388
8.5.3 Garbage Collection 389
8.6 Lists 398
8.7 Files and Input/Output C 148 . 401
8.7.1 Interactive I/O C 148
8.7.2 File-Based I/O C 149
8.7.3 Text I/O C 151

8.8 Summary and Concluding Remarks 402

8.9 Exercises 404
8.10 Explorations 409
8.11 Bibliographic Notes 410

9 Subroutines and Control Abstraction 411

9.1 Review of Stack Layout 412
9.2 Calling Sequences 414
9.2.1 Displays C 163 . 417
9.2.2 Stack Case Studies: LLVM on ARM; gcc on x86 C 167 . 417
9.2.3 Register Windows C 177 . 419
9.2.4 In-Line Expansion 419
9.3 Parameter Passing 422
9.3.1 Parameter Modes 423
9.3.2 Call by Name C 180 . 433
9.3.3 Special-Purpose Parameters 433
9.3.4 Function Returns 438
9.4 Exception Handling 440
 Contents xv

9.4.1 Defining Exceptions 444

9.4.2 Exception Propagation 445
9.4.3 Implementation of Exceptions 447
9.5 Coroutines 450
9.5.1 Stack Allocation 453
9.5.2 Transfer 454
9.5.3 Implementation of Iterators C 183 . 456
9.5.4 Discrete Event Simulation C 187 . 456
9.6 Events 456
9.6.1 Sequential Handlers 457
9.6.2 Thread-Based Handlers 459
9.7 Summary and Concluding Remarks 461
9.8 Exercises 462
9.9 Explorations 467
9.10 Bibliographic Notes 468

10 Data Abstraction and Object Orientation 471

10.1 Object-Oriented Programming 473
10.1.1 Classes and Generics 481
10.2 Encapsulation and Inheritance 485
10.2.1 Modules 486
10.2.2 Classes 488
10.2.3 Nesting (Inner Classes) 490
10.2.4 Type Extensions 491
10.2.5 Extending without Inheritance 494
10.3 Initialization and Finalization 495
10.3.1 Choosing a Constructor 496
10.3.2 References and Values 498
10.3.3 Execution Order 502
10.3.4 Garbage Collection 504
10.4 Dynamic Method Binding 505
10.4.1 Virtual and Nonvirtual Methods 508
10.4.2 Abstract Classes 508
10.4.3 Member Lookup 509
10.4.4 Object Closures 513
10.5 Mix-In Inheritance 516
10.5.1 Implementation 517
10.5.2 Extensions 519
xvi Contents

10.6 True Multiple Inheritance C 194 . 521

10.6.1 Semantic Ambiguities C 196
10.6.2 Replicated Inheritance C 200
10.6.3 Shared Inheritance C 201

10.7 Object-Oriented Programming Revisited 522

10.7.1 The Object Model of Smalltalk C 204 . 523
10.8 Summary and Concluding Remarks 524
10.9 Exercises 525
10.10 Explorations 528
10.11 Bibliographic Notes 529

III ALTERNATIVE PROGRAMMING MODELS 533

11 Functional Languages 535

11.1 Historical Origins 536
11.2 Functional Programming Concepts 537
11.3 A Bit of Scheme 539
11.3.1 Bindings 542
11.3.2 Lists and Numbers 543
11.3.3 Equality Testing and Searching 544
11.3.4 Control Flow and Assignment 545
11.3.5 Programs as Lists 547
11.3.6 Extended Example: DFA Simulation in Scheme 548
11.4 A Bit of OCaml 550
11.4.1 Equality and Ordering 553
11.4.2 Bindings and Lambda Expressions 554
11.4.3 Type Constructors 555
11.4.4 Pattern Matching 559
11.4.5 Control Flow and Side Effects 563
11.4.6 Extended Example: DFA Simulation in OCaml 565
11.5 Evaluation Order Revisited 567
11.5.1 Strictness and Lazy Evaluation 569
11.5.2 I/O: Streams and Monads 571
11.6 Higher-Order Functions 576
11.7 Theoretical Foundations C 212 . 580
11.7.1 Lambda Calculus C 214
 Contents xvii

11.7.2 Control Flow C 217

11.7.3 Structures C 219
11.8 Functional Programming in Perspective 581
11.9 Summary and Concluding Remarks 583
11.10 Exercises 584
11.11 Explorations 589
11.12 Bibliographic Notes 590

12 Logic Languages 591

12.1 Logic Programming Concepts 592
12.2 Prolog 593
12.2.1 Resolution and Unification 595
12.2.2 Lists 596
12.2.3 Arithmetic 597
12.2.4 Search/Execution Order 598
12.2.5 Extended Example: Tic-Tac-Toe 600
12.2.6 Imperative Control Flow 604
12.2.7 Database Manipulation 607
12.3 Theoretical Foundations C 226 . 612
12.3.1 Clausal Form C 227
12.3.2 Limitations C 228
12.3.3 Skolemization C 230

12.4 Logic Programming in Perspective 613

12.4.1 Parts of Logic Not Covered 613
12.4.2 Execution Order 613
12.4.3 Negation and the “Closed World” Assumption 615
12.5 Summary and Concluding Remarks 616
12.6 Exercises 618
12.7 Explorations 620
12.8 Bibliographic Notes 620

13 Concurrency 623
13.1 Background and Motivation 624
13.1.1 The Case for Multithreaded Programs 627
13.1.2 Multiprocessor Architecture 631
13.2 Concurrent Programming Fundamentals 635
xviii Contents

13.2.1 Communication and Synchronization 635

13.2.2 Languages and Libraries 637
13.2.3 Thread Creation Syntax 638
13.2.4 Implementation of Threads 647
13.3 Implementing Synchronization 652
13.3.1 Busy-Wait Synchronization 653
13.3.2 Nonblocking Algorithms 657
13.3.3 Memory Consistency 659
13.3.4 Scheduler Implementation 663
13.3.5 Semaphores 667
13.4 Language-Level Constructs 669
13.4.1 Monitors 669
13.4.2 Conditional Critical Regions 674
13.4.3 Synchronization in Java 676
13.4.4 Transactional Memory 679
13.4.5 Implicit Synchronization 683
13.5 Message Passing C 235 . 687
13.5.1 Naming Communication Partners C 235
13.5.2 Sending C 239
13.5.3 Receiving C 244
13.5.4 Remote Procedure Call C 249
13.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks 688
13.7 Exercises 690
13.8 Explorations 695
13.9 Bibliographic Notes 697

14 Scripting Languages 699

14.1 What Is a Scripting Language? 700
14.1.1 Common Characteristics 701
14.2 Problem Domains 704
14.2.1 Shell (Command) Languages 705
14.2.2 Text Processing and Report Generation 712
14.2.3 Mathematics and Statistics 717
14.2.4 “Glue” Languages and General-Purpose Scripting 718
14.2.5 Extension Languages 724
14.3 Scripting the World Wide Web 727
14.3.1 CGI Scripts 728
14.3.2 Embedded Server-Side Scripts 729
 Contents xix

14.3.3 Client-Side Scripts 734

14.3.4 Java Applets and Other Embedded Elements 734
14.3.5 XSLT C 258 . 736
14.4 Innovative Features 738
14.4.1 Names and Scopes 739
14.4.2 String and Pattern Manipulation 743
14.4.3 Data Types 751
14.4.4 Object Orientation 757
14.5 Summary and Concluding Remarks 764
14.6 Exercises 765
14.7 Explorations 769
14.8 Bibliographic Notes 771

IV A CLOSER LOOK AT IMPLEMENTATION 773

15 Building a Runnable Program 775

15.1 Back-End Compiler Structure 775
15.1.1 A Plausible Set of Phases 776
15.1.2 Phases and Passes 780
15.2 Intermediate Forms 780
15.2.1 GIMPLE and RTL C 273 . 782
15.2.2 Stack-Based Intermediate Forms 782
15.3 Code Generation 784
15.3.1 An Attribute Grammar Example 785
15.3.2 Register Allocation 787
15.4 Address Space Organization 790
15.5 Assembly 792
15.5.1 Emitting Instructions 794
15.5.2 Assigning Addresses to Names 796
15.6 Linking 797
15.6.1 Relocation and Name Resolution 798
15.6.2 Type Checking 799
15.7 Dynamic Linking C 279 . 800
15.7.1 Position-Independent Code C 280
15.7.2 Fully Dynamic (Lazy) Linking C 282
xx Contents

15.8 Summary and Concluding Remarks 802

15.9 Exercises 803
15.10 Explorations 805
15.11 Bibliographic Notes 806

16 Run-Time Program Management 807

16.1 Virtual Machines 810
16.1.1 The Java Virtual Machine 812
16.1.2 The Common Language Infrastructure C 286 . 820
16.2 Late Binding of Machine Code 822
16.2.1 Just-in-Time and Dynamic Compilation 822
16.2.2 Binary Translation 828
16.2.3 Binary Rewriting 833
16.2.4 Mobile Code and Sandboxing 835
16.3 Inspection/Introspection 837
16.3.1 Reflection 837
16.3.2 Symbolic Debugging 845
16.3.3 Performance Analysis 848
16.4 Summary and Concluding Remarks 850
16.5 Exercises 851
16.6 Explorations 853
16.7 Bibliographic Notes 854

17 Code Improvement C 297 . 857

17.1 Phases of Code Improvement C 299
17.2 Peephole Optimization C 301
17.3 Redundancy Elimination in Basic Blocks C 304
17.3.1 A Running Example C 305
17.3.2 Value Numbering C 307

17.4 Global Redundancy and Data Flow Analysis C 312

17.4.1 SSA Form and Global Value Numbering C 312
17.4.2 Global Common Subexpression Elimination C 315

17.5 Loop Improvement I C 323

17.5.1 Loop Invariants C 323
17.5.2 Induction Variables C 325

17.6 Instruction Scheduling C 328

 Contents xxi

17.7 Loop Improvement II C 332

17.7.1 Loop Unrolling and Software Pipelining C 332
17.7.2 Loop Reordering C 337

17.8 Register Allocation C 344

17.9 Summary and Concluding Remarks C 348
17.10 Exercises C 349
17.11 Explorations C 353
17.12 Bibliographic Notes C 354

A Programming Languages Mentioned 859

B Language Design and Language Implementation 871

C Numbered Examples 877

Bibliography 891

Index 911
This page intentionally left blank
 Foreword

Programming languages are universally accepted as one of the core subjects that
every computer scientist must master. The reason is clear: these languages are
the main notation we use for developing products and for communicating new
ideas. They have influenced the field by enabling the development of those
multimillion-line programs that shaped the information age. Their success is
owed to the long-standing effort of the computer science community in the cre-
ation of new languages and in the development of strategies for their implemen-
tation. The large number of computer scientists mentioned in the footnotes and
bibliographic notes in this book by Michael Scott is a clear manifestation of the
magnitude of this effort as is the sheer number and diversity of topics it contains.
Over 75 programming languages are discussed. They represent the best and
most influential contributions in language design across time, paradigms, and ap-
plication domains. They are the outcome of decades of work that led initially to
Fortran and Lisp in the 1950s, to numerous languages in the years that followed,
and, in our times, to the popular dynamic languages used to program the Web.
The 75 plus languages span numerous paradigms including imperative, func-
tional, logic, static, dynamic, sequential, shared-memory parallel, distributed-
memory parallel, dataflow, high-level, and intermediate languages. They include
languages for scientific computing, for symbolic manipulations, and for accessing
databases. This rich diversity of languages is crucial for programmer productivity
and is one of the great assets of the discipline of computing.
Cutting across languages, this book presents a detailed discussion of control
flow, types, and abstraction mechanisms. These are the representations needed
to develop programs that are well organized, modular, easy to understand, and
easy to maintain. Knowledge of these core features and of their incarnation in to-
day’s languages is a basic foundation to be an effective programmer and to better
understand computer science today.
Strategies to implement programming languages must be studied together
with the design paradigms. A reason is that success of a language depends on
the quality of its implementation. Also, the capabilities of these strategies some-
times constraint the design of languages. The implementation of a language starts
with parsing and lexical scanning needed to compute the syntactic structure of
programs. Today’s parsing techniques, described in Part I, are among the most
beautiful algorithms ever developed and are a great example of the use of mathe-
matical objects to create practical instruments. They are worthwhile studying just

xxiii
xxiv Foreword

as an intellectual achievement. They are of course of great practical value, and a

good way to appreciate the greatness of these strategies is to go back to the first
Fortran compiler and study the ad hoc, albeit highly ingenious, strategy used to
implement precedence of operators by the pioneers that built that compiler.
The other usual component of implementation are the compiler components
that carry out the translation from the high-level language representation to a
lower level form suitable for execution by real or virtual machines. The transla-
tion can be done ahead of time, during execution (just in time), or both. The
book discusses these approaches and implementation strategies including the
elegant mechanisms of translation driven by parsing. To produce highly effi-
cient code, translation routines apply strategies to avoid redundant computations,
make efficient use of the memory hierarchy, and take advantage of intra-processor
parallelism. These, sometimes conflicting goals, are undertaken by the optimiza-
tion components of compilers. Although this topic is typically outside the scope
of a first course on compilers, the book gives the reader access to a good overview
of program optimization in Part IV.
An important recent development in computing is the popularization of paral-
lelism and the expectation that, in the foreseeable future, performance gains will
mainly be the result of effectively exploiting this parallelism. The book responds
to this development by presenting the reader with a range of topics in concurrent
programming including mechanisms for synchronization, communication, and
coordination across threads. This information will become increasingly impor-
tant as parallelism consolidates as the norm in computing.
Programming languages are the bridge between programmers and machines.
It is in them that algorithms must be represented for execution. The study of pro-
gramming languages design and implementation offers great educational value
by requiring an understanding of the strategies used to connect the different as-
pects of computing. By presenting such an extensive treatment of the subject,
Michael Scott’s Programming Language Pragmatics, is a great contribution to the
literature and a valuable source of information for computer scientists.

David Padua
Siebel Center for Computer Science
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
contributed so largely to build up the Eastern States—the
manufacturing and industrial—will here aid in building up one of the
strongest communities of our future republic.
Clearings here and there, cabins by the roadside, bark wigwams
which have sheltered wandering Ojibwas, and a reach of magnificent
forest, are the features of the country through which we ride this
glorious afternoon, with the sunlight glimmering among the trees, till
suddenly we come upon Chengwatona.
It is a small village on Snake River, with a hotel, half a dozen
houses, and a saw-mill where pine logs are going up an incline from
the pond at one end, and coming out in the shape of bright new
lumber at the other.
The dam at Chengwatona has flooded an immense area, and
looking toward the descending sun we behold a forest in decay. The
trees are leafless, and the dead trunks rising from the water, robbed
of all their beauty, present an indescribable scene of desolation when
contrasted with the luxuriance of the living forest through which we
have passed.
With a fresh team we move on, finding mud "spots" now and then.
We remember the remarks of the fellows at the railroad. We dive into
holes, the forward wheels going down kerchug, sending bucketsful of
muddy water upward to the roof of the wagon and forward upon the
horses; jounce over corduroy which sets our teeth to chattering; then
come upon a series of hollows through which we ride as in a jolly-
boat on the waves of the sea. The wagon is ballasted by two
members of Congress on the back seat, and by our rotund physician
and the Vice-President of the Northern Pacific on the middle seat.
The President is outside with the driver, on the lookout for breakers,
while the rest of us, like passengers on shipboard, stowed beneath
the hatches, must take whatever comes. The members of Congress
bob up and down like electric pith-balls between the negative and
positive poles of a galvanic battery,—only that the positive is the
prevailing force! When the forward wheels go down to the hub, they
go up; and then, as they descend, the seat, by some unaccountable
process, comes up, meets them half-way,—and with such a bump!
Then we who are shaking our sides with laughter on the front
seat, congratulating ourselves, like the Pharisees, that we are not as
they are, suddenly find ourselves sprawling on the floor. When we
regain our places, the M. D. and Vice-President come forward with a
rush and embrace us fraternally. We get our legs so mixed up with
our neighbors' that we can hardly tell whether our feet belong to
ourselves or to somebody else! The light weights of the party are
knocked about like shuttlecocks, while the solid ones roll like those
ridiculous, round-bottomed, grinning images that we see in the toy-
shops! I find myself going up and down after the manner of Sancho
Panza when tossed in a blanket.
Our dinners are well settled when we reach Grindstone,—our
stopping-place for the night. The town is located on Grindstone
Creek, and consists of a log-house and stable, surrounded by burnt
timber.
Half a dozen men who have footed it from Duluth are nursing their
sore feet in one of the three rooms on the ground-floor. The furniture
of the apartment consists of a cast-iron stove in the centre and three
rough benches against the walls, which are papered with pictorial
newspapers.
The occupants are discussing the future prospects of Duluth.
"It is a right smart chance of a place," says a tall, thin-faced, long-
nosed man stretched in one corner. We know by the utterance of that
one sentence that he is from southern Illinois.
"They have got their i-deas pretty well up though, on real estate,
for a town that is only a yearlin'," says another, who, by his accent of
the i, has shown that he too is a Western man.
An Amazon in stature, with a round red face, hurries up a supper
of pork and fried eggs; and then we who are going northward, and
they who are travelling southward,—sixteen of us, all told,—creep up
the narrow stairway to the unfinished garret, and go to bed, with our
noses close to the rafters and long shingles, through the crevices of
which we look out and behold the stars marching in grand procession
across the midnight sky.
It is glorious to lie there and feel the tire and weariness go out of
us; to look into the "eternities of space," as Carlyle says of the vault
of heaven. But our profound thoughts upon the measureless
empyrean are brought down to sublunary things by four of the
sleepers who engage in a snoring contest. The race is so close, neck
and neck, or rather nose and nose, that it is impossible to decide
whether the deep sonorous—not to say snorous?—bass of the big
fellow by the window, or the sharp, piercing, energetic snorts of the
thin-faced, lantern-jawed, long-nosed man from southern Illinois, is
entitled to the trumpet or horn, or whatever may be appropriate to
signalize such championship. Either of them would have been a
power in the grand chorus of the Coliseum Jubilee, and both together
would be equal to the big organ!
We are off early in the morning, feeling a little sore in spots. The
first thump extorts a sudden oh! from a member of Congress, but we
are philosophic, and accommodate ourselves to circumstances, tell
stories between the bumpings, and make the grand old forest ring
with our laughter. It is glorious to get away from the town, and out
into the woods, where you can shout and sing and let yourself out
without regard to what folks will say! The fountain of perennial youth
is in the forest,—never in the city. Its healing, beautifying, and
restoring waters do not run through aqueducts; they are never
pumped up; but you must lie down upon the mossy bank beneath old
trees and drink from the crystal stream to obtain them.
We quench our thirst from gurgling brooks, pick berries by the
roadside, walk ahead of the lumbering stage, and enjoy the solitude
of the interminable forest.
Eighteen miles of travel brings us to Kettle River Crossing, where
we sit down to a dinner of blackberries and milk, bread and butter,
and blackberry-pie, in a clean little cottage, with pictures on the
walls, books on a shelf, a snow-white cloth on the table, and a trim
little woman waiting upon us.
"May I ask where you are from?"
"Manchester, New Hampshire."
It was Lord Morpeth or the Duke of Argyle, I have forgotten which,
who said that New England looked as if it had just been taken out of
a bandbox; so with this one-storied log-house and everything around
it. We had sour-krout at Grindstone, but have blackberries here; and
that is just the difference between Dutchland and New England,
whether you seek for them on the Atlantic slope or in the heart of the
continent.
Space is wanting to tell of all the incidents of a three days' forest
ride,—how we trolled for pickerel on a little lake, seated in a birch-
bark canoe, and hauled them in hand over hand,—bouncing fellows
that furnished us a delicious breakfast; how we laughed and told
stories, never minding the bumping and thumping of the wagon, and
came out strong, like Mark Tapley, every one of us; how we gazed
upon the towering pines and sturdy oaks, and beheld the gloom
settling over nature when the great eclipse occurred; and how, just
as night was coming on, we entered Superior, and saw a horned owl
sitting on the ridge-pole of a deserted house in the outskirts of the
town, surveying the desolate scene in the twilight,—looking out upon
the cemetery, the tenantless houses, and the blinking lights in the
windows.
Superior has been, and still is, a city of the Future, rather than of
the Present. It was laid out before the war on a magnificent scale by
a party of Southerners, among whom was John C. Breckenridge, who
is still a large owner in corner lots.
It has a fine situation at the southwestern corner of the lake, on a
broad, level plateau, with a densely timbered country behind it. The
St. Louis River, which rises in northern Minnesota, and which comes
tumbling over a series of cascades formed by the high land between
Lake Superior and the Mississippi, spreads itself out into a shallow
bay in front of the town, and reaches the lake over a sand-bar.
Government has been erecting breakwaters to control the current
of the river, with the expectation of deepening the channel, which has
about nine feet of water; but thus far the improvements have not
accomplished the desired end. The bar is a great impediment to
navigation, and its existence has had a blighting effect on the once
fair prospects of Superior City. Dredges are employed to deepen the
channel, but those thus far used are small, and not much has been
accomplished. The citizens of Superior are confident that with a
liberal appropriation from government the channel can be deepened,
and that, when once cleared out, it can be kept clear at a small
expense.
Superior has suffered severely from the reaction which followed
the flush times in 1857. A large amount of money was expended in
improvements,—grading streets, opening roads, building piers, and
erecting houses. Then the war came on, and all industry was
paralyzed. The Southern proprietors were in rebellion. The growth of
the place, which had been considerable, came to a sudden stand-still.
The situation of the town, while it is fortunate in some respects, is
unfortunate in others. It is in Wisconsin, while the point which
reaches across the head of the lake is in Minnesota. The last-named
State wanted a port on the lake in its own dominion, and so Duluth
has sprung into existence as the rival of its older neighbor.
The St. Paul and Superior Railroad, having its terminus at Duluth,
lies wholly within the State of Minnesota, and comes just near
enough to Superior to tantalize and vex the good people of that
place.
But the citizens of that town have good pluck. I do not know what
motto they have adopted for their great corporate seal, but Nil
Desperandum would best set forth their hopefulness and
determination. They are confident that Superior is yet to be the
queen city of the lake, and are determined to have railway
communication with the Mississippi by building a branch line to the
St. Paul and Superior Road.
Our party is kindly and hospitably entertained by the people of the
place, and to those who think of the town as being so far northwest
that it is beyond civilization, I have only to say that there are few
drawing-rooms in the East where more agreeable company can be
found than that which we find in one of the parlors of Superior; few
places where the sonatas of Beethoven and Mendelssohn can be
more exquisitely rendered upon the pianoforte, by a lady who bakes
her own bread and cares for her family without the aid of a servant.
It is the glory of our civilization that it adapts itself to all the
circumstances of life. I have no doubt that if Minnie, or Winnie, or
Georgiana, or almost any of the pale, attenuated young ladies who
are now frittering away their time in studying the last style of paniers,
or thrumming the piano, or reading the last vapid novel, were to have
their lot cast in the West,—on the frontiers of civilization,—where
they would be compelled to do something for themselves or those
around them, that they would manfully and womanfully accept the
situation, be far happier than they now are, and worth more to
themselves and to the world.
I dare say that nine out of every ten young men selling dry-goods
in retail stores in Boston and elsewhere have high hopes for the
future. They are going to do something by and by. When they get on
a little farther they will show us what they can accomplish. But the
chances are that they will never get that little farther on. The tide is
against them. One thing we are liable to forget; we measure
ourselves by what we are going to do, whereas the world estimates
us by what we have already done. How any young man of spirit can
settle himself down to earning a bare existence, when all this vast
region of the Northwest, with its boundless undeveloped resources
before him, is inviting him on, is one of the unexplained mysteries of
life. They will be Nobodies where they are; they can be Somebodies
in building up a new society. The young man who has measured off
ribbon several years, as thousands have who are doing no better to-
day than they did five years ago, in all probability will be no farther
along, except in years, five years hence than he is now.
 CHAPTER VIII.

DULUTH.

MBARKING
E
at a pier, and steering northwest, we pass up
the bay, with the long, narrow, natural breakwater, Minnesota
Point, on our right hand, and the level plateau of the main-land,
with a heavy forest growth, on our left. Before us, on the
sloping hillside of the northern shore, lies the rapidly rising town of
Duluth, unheard of twelve months ago, but now, to use a Western
term, "a right smart chance of a place."
One hundred and ninety years ago Duluth, a French explorer, was
coasting along these shores, and sailing up this bay over which we
are gliding. He was the first European to reach the head of the lake.
He crossed the country to the Upper Mississippi, descended it to St.
Paul, where he met Father Hennipen, who had been held in captivity
by the Indians.
It is suitable that so intrepid an explorer should be held in
remembrance, and the founders of the new town have done wisely in
naming it for him, instead of calling it Washington or Jackson, or
adding another "ville" to the thousands now so perplexing to post-
office clerks.
The new city of the Northwest is sheltered from northerly winds by
the high lands behind it. The St. Louis River, a stream as large as the
Merrimac, after its turbulent course down the rocky rapids, with a
descent altogether of five hundred feet, flows peacefully past the
town into the Bay of Superior. The river and lake together have
thrown up the long and narrow strip of land called Minnesota Point,
reaching nearly across the head of the lake, and behind which lies
the bay. It is as if the Titans had thrown up a wide railway
embankment, or had tried their hand at filling up the lake. The bay is
shallow, but the men who projected the city of Duluth are in no wise
daunted by that fact. They have planned to make a harbor by
building a mole out into the lake fifteen hundred or two thousand
feet. It is to extend from the northern shore far enough to give good
anchorage and protection to vessels and steamers.
The work to be done is in many respects similar to what has been
accomplished at both ends of the Suez Canal. When M. Lesseps set
about the construction of that magnificent enterprise, he found no
harbor on the Mediterranean side, but only a low sandy shore,
against which the waves, driven by the prevailing western winds,
were always breaking.
The shore was a narrow strip of sand, behind which lay a shallow
lagoon called Lake Menzaleh. There was no granite or solid material
of any description at hand for the construction of a breakwater.
Undaunted by the difficulties, he commenced the manufacture of
blocks of stone on the beach, mixing hydraulic lime brought from
France with the sand of the shore, and moistening it with salt water.
He erected powerful hydraulic presses and worked them by steam.
After the blocks, which weighed twenty tons each, had dried three
months, they were taken out on barges and tumbled into the ocean
in the line of the moles, one of which was 8,178 feet, nearly a mile
and a half, in length; the other 5,000 feet, enclosing an area of about
five hundred acres. More than 100,000 blocks of manufactured stone
were required to complete these two walls. They were not laid in
cement, for it has been found that a rubble wall is better than
finished masonry to resist the action of the waves. Having completed
the walls, dredges were set to work, and the area has been
deepened enough to enable the largest vessels navigating the
Mediterranean to find safe anchorage.
These breakwaters were required for the outer harbor, but an
inner basin was needed. To obtain it, M. Lesseps cut a channel
through the low ridge of sand to Lake Menzaleh, where the water
upon an average was four feet deep. A large area has been dredged
in the lake, and docks constructed, and now the commerce of the
world between the Orient and the Occident passes through the basin
of Port Said.
The Suez Canal, the construction of a large harbor on the sand-
beach of the Mediterranean, and another of equal capacity on the
Red Sea, is one of the wonders of modern times,—a triumph of
engineering skill and of the indomitable will of one energetic man.
The people of Duluth will not be under the necessity of
manufacturing the material for the breakwater, for along the northern
shore there is an abundant supply of granite which can be easily
quarried. It is proposed to make an inner harbor by digging a canal
across Minnesota Point and excavating the shallows.
The difficulties to be overcome at Duluth bear slight comparison
with those already surmounted on the Mediterranean. The
commercial men of Chicago contemplate the fencing in of a few
hundred acres of Lake Michigan; and there is no reason to doubt that
a like thing can be done at the western end of Lake Superior.
Two years ago Duluth was a forest; but in this month of May,
1870, it has two thousand inhabitants, with the prospect of doubling
its population within a twelvemonth. The woodman's axe is ringing
on the hills, and the trees are falling beneath his sturdy strokes. From
morning till night we hear the joiner's plane and the click of the
mason's trowel. You may find excellent accommodation in a large
hotel, erected at a cost of forty thousand dollars. We may purchase
the products of all climes in the stores,—sugar from the West Indies,
coffee from Java, tea from China, or silks from the looms of France.
The printing-press is here issuing the Duluth Minnesotian, a
sprightly sheet that looks sharply after the interests of this growing
town.
Musical as the ripples upon the pebbly shore of the lake are the
voices of the children reciting their lessons in yonder school-house. I
am borne back to boyhood days,—to the old school-house, with its
hard benches, where I studied, played, caught flies, was cheated
swapping jack-knives, and got a licking besides! Glorious days they
were for all that!
Presbyterian and Episcopal churches are already organized, also
an Historical Society. During the last winter a course of lectures was
sustained.
The stumps are yet to be seen in the streets, but such is the
beginning of a town which may yet become one of the great
commercial cities of the interior.
A meteorological record kept at Superior since 1855 shows that
the average period of navigation has been two hundred and sixteen
days, which is fully as long as the season at Chicago.

Year. Opening. Close. No. of Days.

1855 April 15 December 6 235
1856 " 16 November 22 220
1857 May 27 " 20 177
1858 March 20 " 22 247
1859 May 25 " 9 164
1860 April 7 December 4 238
1861 June 12 " 12 184
1862 April 28 " 16 233
1863 May 10 " 7 212
1864 April 23 " 1 222
1865 " 22 " 5 227
1866 May 5 " 10 220
1867 April 19 " 1 225

Steaming up the river several miles to the foot of the first rapids,
and landing on the northern shore, climbing up a wet and slippery
bank of red clay we are on the line of the railroad, upon which
several hundred men are employed.
Grades of fifty feet to the mile are necessary from the lake up to
the falls of the St. Louis, but the tonnage of the road will be largely
eastward, down the grade, instead of westward.
The road will be about a hundred and forty miles in length,
connecting the lake with the network of railroads centring at St. Paul.
It is liberally endowed, having in all 1,630,000 acres of land heavily
timbered with pine, butternut, white oak, sugar-maple, ash, and
other woods.
There is no doubt that this line of road will do an immense amount
of business. Such is the estimation in which it is held by the moneyed
men of Philadelphia, that Mr. Jay Cooke obtained the entire amount
of money necessary to construct it in four days! The bonds, I believe,
were not put upon the market in the usual manner, by advertising,
but were taken at once by men who wanted them for investment.
A single glance at the map must be sufficient to convince any
intelligent observer of the value of such a franchise. The wheat of
Minnesota, to reach Chicago now, must be taken by steamers to La
Crosse or Prairie du Chien, and thence transported by rail across
Wisconsin, but when this road is put in operation, the products of
Minnesota, gathered at St. Paul or Minneapolis, will seek this new
outlet.
Think of the scene of activity there will be along the line, not only
of this road, but of the Northern Pacific, when the two are completed
to the lake, of an almost continuous train of cars, of elevators
pouring grain from cars to ships and steamers. Think of the fleet that
will soon whiten this great inland sea, bearing the products of the
immense wheat-field eastward to the Atlantic cities, and bringing
back the industries of the Eastern States!
It is only when I sit down to think of the future, to measure it by
the advancement already made, that I can comprehend anything of
the coming greatness of the Northwest,—20,000,000 bushels of
wheat this year; 500,000 inhabitants in the State, yet scarcely a
hundredth part of the area under cultivation. What will be the
product ten years hence, when the population will reach 1,500,000?
What will it be twenty years hence? How shall we obtain any
conception of the business to be done on these railways when
Dakota, Montana, Washington, and Oregon, and all the vast region of
the Assinniboine and the Saskatchawan, pour their products to the
nearest water-carriage eastward? We are already beyond our depth,
and are utterly unable to comprehend the probable development.
The men who are building this railroad from St. Paul to Duluth
have not failed to recognize this one fact, that by water Duluth is as
near as Chicago to the Atlantic cities. Wheat and flour can be
transported as cheaply from Duluth to Buffalo or Ogdensburg as from
the southern end of Lake Michigan, while the distance from St. Paul
to Lake Superior is only one hundred and forty miles against four
hundred and eighty to Chicago. We may conclude that the wheat of
Minnesota can be carried fifteen or twenty cents a bushel cheaper by
Duluth than by Lake Michigan,—a saving to the Eastern consumer of
almost a dollar on each barrel of flour. Twenty cents on a bushel
saved will add at least four dollars to the yearly product of an acre of
land.
The difference in freight on articles manufactured in the East and
shipped to Minnesota will be still more marked, for grain in bulk is
taken at low rates, while manufactured goods pay first-class. The
completion of this railway will be a great blessing to the people of
New England and of all the East, as well as to those of the
Northwest. Anything that abridges distance and cheapens carriage is
so much absolute gain. I do not think that there is any public
enterprise in the country that promises to produce more important
results than the opening of this railway.
An elevator company has been organized by several gentlemen in
Boston and Philadelphia, and the necessary buildings are now going
up. The wheat will be taken directly from the cars into the elevator,
and discharged into the fleet of propellers running to Cleveland,
Buffalo, and Ogdensburg, already arranged for this Lake Superior
trade.
 The region around the western end of the Lake has resources for
the development of a varied industry. The wooded section extends
from Central Wisconsin westward to the Leaf Hills beyond the
Mississippi, and northward to Lake Winnipeg. This is to be the
lumbering region of the Northwest, for the manufacture of all
agricultural implements,—reapers, mowers, harvesters, ploughs,
drills, seed-sowers, wagons, carriages, carts, and furniture,—besides
furnishing lumber for fencing, for railroad and building purposes.
Upon the St. Louis River there is exhaustless water-power,—a
descent of five hundred feet, with a stream always pouring an
abundant flood. Its source is among the lakes of northern Minnesota,
which, being filled to overflowing by the rains of spring and early
summer, become great reservoirs. With such a supply of water there
is no locality more favorably situated for the manufacture of every
variety of domestic articles. Undoubtedly the water-power will be
largely employed for flouring-mills. The climate is admirably adapted
to the grinding of grain. The falls being so near the lake, there will be
cheap transportation eastward to Buffalo, Cleveland, Philadelphia,
New York, and Boston, while westward are the prairies, easily
reached by the railroads.
The geological formation on the north side of Lake Superior is
granite, but as we follow up the St. Louis River we come upon a ridge
of slate. It forms the backbone of the divide between the lake and
the Mississippi River.
A quarry has been opened from which slates of a quality not
inferior to those of Vermont are obtained, and so far as we know it is
the only quarry in the Northwest. It is almost invaluable, for
Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, western Minnesota, and Dakota have very
little wood. Shingles are costly, but here is abundant material to cover
the roofs of the millions of houses that are yet to rise upon the
prairies.
This slate formation is thus referred to by Thomas Clark, State
Geologist, in his Report to the Governor of Minnesota, dated
December, 1864 (pp. 29, 30):—
"These slates are found in all degrees of character, from the
common indurated argillaceous fissile to the highly metamorphosed
and even trappous type. The working of these slates demands the
attention of builders; their real value is economically of more
importance to the prairie and sparsely timbered valley of the
Mississippi than any other deposit in the State's possession on the
lake. The annual draught of hundreds of millions of lumber upon the
pine forests of the St. Croix and Upper Mississippi and tributaries will
exhaust those regions before the close of this century. The trustees
of our young Commonwealth are emphatically admonished to
encourage and foster the working of these slates, and to bring them
into use at the earliest time possible. A hundred square feet of
dressed slates at the quarries of Vermont, New York, and Canada are
worth from one and a half to two dollars; the weight ranges from
four to six hundred pounds, or about four squares to the ton. A ton
of this roofing may be transported from the St. Louis quarry to the
Mississippi, by railway, at three dollars, and thence by river to the
landings as far down as St. Louis or Cairo; but the article may be at
all points in this State accessible by boats or railway, at an average
cost of fifteen dollars per ton, or, at most, four dollars per square,—
little, if any, more than pine shingles; the former as good for a
century as the latter is for a decade. The supply of these cliffs is
literally inexhaustible; if one fourth of this slate area in the St. Louis
Valley proves available,—and doubtless one half will,—it will yield one
thousand millions of tons.
"The demand for this slate at ten roofs to the square mile, and for
forty thousand square miles, would be one million of tons, or one
thousandth part of the material. The annual demand for slates in the
Mississippi Valley may be reasonably estimated at one hundred
thousand tons, an exportable product of two hundred thousand
dollars, besides the element of a permanent income to the railways
and water-craft of the State of a half-million of dollars annually."
 To-day the country along the St. Louis is a wilderness. Climb the
hills, and look upon the scene, and think of the coming years.

"Thou shalt look

Upon the green and rolling forest tops,
And down into the secrets of the glens
And streams, that with their bordering thickets strive
To hide their windings. Thou shalt gaze at once,
Here on white villages, and tilth and herds,
And swarming roads, and there on solitudes
That only hear the torrent, and the wind,
And eagle's shriek."

Here, through the bygone centuries, the Indians have set their
nets and hooks without ever dreaming of laying their hands upon the
wealth that Nature has ever in store for those who will labor for it.
A few of the original lords of the forests are here, and they are the
only idlers of this region. They lounge in the streets, squat in groups
under the lee of buildings, and pick animated somethings from their
hair!
Their chief appears in an old army coat with three stars on each
shoulder, indicating that he ranks as a lieutenant-general among his
people. He walks with dignity, although his old black stove-pipe hat is
badly squashed. The warriors follow him, wrapped in blankets, with
eagle feathers stuck into their long black hair, and are as dignified as
the chief. Labor! not they. Pale-faces and squaws may work, they
never. Squaw-power is their highest conception of a labor-saving
machine. They have fished in the leaping torrent, but never thought
of its being a giant that might be put to work for their benefit.
It is evident that a great manufacturing industry must spring up in
this region. At Minneapolis, St. Cloud, and here on the St. Louis, we
find the three principal water-powers of the Northwest. The town of
Thompson, named in honor of one of the proprietors, Mr. Edgar
A. Thompson of Philadelphia, has been laid out at the falls, and being
situated on the line of the railroad, and so convenient to the lake, will
probably have a rapid growth. The St. Paul and Mississippi Railroad,
which winds up the northern bank of the river, crosses the stream at
that point, and strikes southward through the forests to St. Paul.
The road, in addition to its grant of land, has received from the
city of St. Paul $200,000 in city bonds, and this county of St. Louis at
the head of the lake has given $150,000 in county bonds.
The lands of this company are generally heavily timbered,—with
pine, maple, ash, oak, and other woods.
The white pines of this region are almost as magnificent as those
that formerly were the glory of Maine and New Hampshire. Norway
pines abound. Besides transporting the lumber from its own
extensive tracts and the lands of the government adjoining, it will be
the thoroughfare for an immense territory drained by the Snake,
Kettle, St. Louis, and St. Croix Rivers.
The lands that bear such magnificent forest-trees are excellent for
agriculture. Nowhere in the East have I ever seen ranker timothy and
clover than we saw on our journey from St. Paul.
The company offers favorable terms to all settlers. Men from
Maine and New Hampshire are already locating along the line, and
setting up saw-mills. They were lumbermen in the East, and they
prefer to follow the same business in the West, rather than to speed
the plough for a living. I doubt not that the chances for making
money are quite as good in the timbered region as on the prairies,
for the lumber will pay for the land several times over, which, when
put into grain or grass, yields enormously.
 CHAPTER IX.

THE MINING REGION.

HE sun was throwing his morning beams upon the tree-tops of

T the Apostle Islands, as our little steamer, chartered for the
occasion at Superior, rounded the promontory of the main-land,
turned its prow southward, and glided into the harbor of
Bayfield, on the southern shore of the lake.
We had made the passage from Superior City during the night,
and were on deck at daybreak to see the beauties of the islands, of
which so much has been written by explorers and tourists. The
scenery is not bold, but beautiful. Perhaps there is no place on the
lake where more charming vistas open to the eye, or where there is
such a succession of entrancing views.
The islands, eighteen in number, lie north of the promontory. They
would appear as high hills, with rounded summits, crowned with a
dense forest growth, if the waters were drained off; for all around,
between the islands and the mainland, are deep soundings. There is
no harbor on the Atlantic coast, none in the world, more accessible
than Bayfield, or more securely land-locked. It may be approached
during the wildest storm, no matter which way the wind is blowing.
When the northeasters raise a sea as terrible as that which
sometimes breaks upon Nahant, the captains of steamers and
schooners on Lake Superior run for the Apostle Islands.
Bayfield is about sixty miles from Superior City, and is the first
harbor where vessels can find shelter east of the head of the lake.
The Apostle Islands seem to have been dumped into the lake for the
benefit of the mighty tide of commerce which in the coming years is
to float upon this inland sea.
 "It is," said our captain, "the only first-class harbor on the lake. It
can be approached in all weathers; the shores are bold, the water
deep, the anchorage excellent, and the ice leaves it almost two
weeks earlier in spring than the other harbors at the head of the
lake."
The town of Bayfield is named for an officer of the Royal
Engineers, who was employed years ago in surveying the lake. His
work was well done, and till recently his charts have been relied on
by the sailing-masters; but the surveys of the United States
Engineers, now approaching completion, are more minute and
accurate.
The few houses that make up the town are beautifully located, on
the western side of the bay. Madeline Island, the largest of the
group, lies immediately in front, and shelters the harbor and town
from the northeast storms.
The scream of the steamer's whistle rings sharply on the morning
air,—while main-land and island, harbor and forest, repeat its echoes.
It wakes up all the braves, squaws, and pappooses in the wigwams
and log-houses of the Chippewa reservation, and all the inhabitants
of Bayfield. The sun is just making his appearance when we run
alongside the pier. It is an early hour for a dozen strangers, with
sharp-set appetites, to make a morning call,—more than that, to drop
in thus unceremoniously upon a private citizen for breakfast.
There being no hotel in the place, we are put to this strait.
Possibly old Nokomis, who is cooking breakfast in a little iron pot with
a big piece knocked out of its rim, who squats on the ground and
picks out the most savory morsels with her fingers, would share her
meal with us, but she does not invite us to breakfast, nor do we care
to make ourselves at home in the wigwam.
But there is rare hospitality awaiting us. A gentleman who lives in
a large white house in the centre of the town, Captain Vaughn,
though not through with his morning nap when we steam up the
harbor, is wide awake in an instant.
 I wonder if there is another housewife in the United States who
would provide such an ample repast as that which, in an incredibly
short space of time, appeared on the table, prepared by Mrs. Vaughn,
—such a tender steak, mealy potatoes, nice biscuit, delicious coffee,
berries and sweet milk; a table-cloth as white as the driven snow;
and the hostess the picture of health, presiding at the table with
charming ease and grace, not at all disturbed by such an avalanche
of company at such an hour!
Where the breakfast came from, or who cooked it so quickly, is an
unexplained mystery; and then there was a basketful of lunch put up
by somebody for us to devour while coasting about the bay, and the
hostess the while found time to talk with us, to sit down to the parlor
organ and charm us with music. So much for a Bayfield lady, born in
Ohio, of stanch Yankee stock.
Embarking on Captain Vaughn's little steam-yacht, we go dancing
along the shores, now running near the bluffs to examine the
sandstone formation like that of the Hudson, or looking up to the tall
pines waving their dark green plumes, or beholding the lumbermen
felling the old monarchs and dragging them with stout teams to the
Bayfield saw-mills. A run of about fifteen miles brings us to the city of
Ashland, situated at the head of the bay. It makes quite an imposing
appearance when you are several miles distant, and upon landing you
find that you have been imposed upon. Somebody came here years
ago, laid out a town, surveyed the lots, cut out magnificent avenues
through the forest, found men who believed that Ashland was to be a
great city, who bought lots and built houses; but the crowd did not
come; the few who came soon turned their backs upon the place,
leaving all their improvements. One German family remains. Two pigs
were in possession of a parlor in one deserted house, and a cow
quietly chewing her cud in another.
A mile east of Ashland is Bay City, another place planned by
speculators, but which probably might be purchased at a discount.
 The country around Bayfield is in a primitive condition now, but
the time is rapidly approaching for a change. By and by this will be a
great resort for tourists and seekers after health. Nature has made it
for a sanitarium. No mineral springs have been discovered warranted
to cure all diseases, but nowhere in this Northwest has nature
compounded purer air, distilled sweeter water, or painted lovelier
landscapes. The time will come when the people of Chicago,
Milwaukie, and other Western cities, seeking rest and recreation
during the summer months, will flee to this harbor of repose. The fish
are as numerous here, and as eager to bite the hook, as anywhere
else on the lake, while the streams of the main-land abound with
trout. By and by this old red sandstone will be transformed into
elegant mansions overlooking the blue waters, and it would not be
strange if commerce reared a great mart around this harbor. The
charter of the Northern Pacific Railroad extends to this point, and as
the road would pass through heavily timbered lands, the company
will find it for their interest to open the line, as it will also form a
connecting link between the West and the iron region of Lake
Superior.
But whether a city rises here, whether a railroad is constructed or
not, let me say to any one who wants to pull out big trout that this is
the place.
An Indian who has been trying his luck shows a string of five-
pounders, caught in one of the small streams entering the bay. There
is no sport like trout-fishing. Think of stealing on tiptoe along the
winding stream, dropping your hook into the gurgling waters, and
feeling a moment later something tugging, turning, pulling, twisting,
running, now to the right, now to the left, up stream, down stream,
making the thin cord spin, till your heart leaps into your throat
through fear of its breaking,—fear giving place to hope, hope to
triumph, when at length you land a seven-pounder on the green and
mossy bank! You find such trout in the streams that empty into the
lake opposite the Apostle Islands,—trout mottled with crimson and
gold!
 Bidding good by to our generous host and hostess we take an
eastward-bound steamer in the evening for a trip down the lake,
stopping for an hour or two at Ontonagon, then steaming on,
rounding Keweenaw Point during the night, and reaching Marquette
in the morning.
Fishing-boats are dancing on the waves, yachts scudding along the
shore, tourists rambling over the rocks at our right hand, throwing
their lines, pulling up big trout, steamers and schooners are lying in
the harbor, and thrift, activity, and enterprise is everywhere visible.
We see an immense structure, resembling a railway bridge, built
out into the harbor. It is several hundred feet in length, and twenty or
more in height. A train of cars comes thundering down a grade, and
out upon the bridge, while men running from car to car knock out
here and there a bolt or lift a catch, and we hear a rumbling and
thundering, and feel the wharf tremble beneath our feet. It is not an
earthquake; they are only unloading iron ore from the cars into bins.
A man by means of machinery raises a trap-door, and the black
mass, starting with a rush, thunders once more as it plunges into the
hold of a schooner. It requires but a few minutes to take in a cargo.
And then, shaking out her sails, the schooner shapes her course
eastward along the "Pictured Rocks" for the St. Mary's Canal, bound
for Cleveland, Erie, or Chicago with her freight of crude ore to be
smelted and rolled where coal is near at hand.
The town is well laid out. Although the business portion was
destroyed by fire not many months ago, it has been rebuilt. There
are elegant residences, churches, school-houses, and stores. Men
walk the streets as if they had a little more business on hand than
they could well attend to.
The men who used to frequent this region to trade with the
Indians knew as early as 1830 that iron existed in the hills. But it was
not till 1845, just a quarter of a century ago, that any attempt was
made to test the ore. Dr. Jackson, of Boston, who visited Lake
Superior in 1844, pronounced it of excellent quality. He informed Mr.
Lyman Pray, of Charlestown, Mass., of its existence, and that the
Indians reported a "mountain" of it not far from Marquette. Mr. Pray
at once started on an exploring expedition, reached Lake Superior,
obtained an Indian guide, penetrated the forest, and found the hills
filled with ore.
About the same time a gentleman named Everett obtained half a
ton of it, which the Indians and half-breeds carried on their backs to
the Carp River, and transported it to the lake in canoes.
It was smelted, but was so different from that of Pennsylvania that
the iron-masters shook their heads. Some declared that it was of no
particular value, others that it could not be worked.
The Pittsburg iron-men pronounced it worthless. But Mr. Everett
persevered, sent a small quantity to the Coldwater forge, where it
was smelted and rolled into a bar, from which he made a knife-blade,
and was convinced that the metal was superior in quality to any other
deposit in the country.
The Jackson Company was at once formed for mining in the iron
and copper region. The copper fever was at its height, and the
company was organized with a view of working both metals if
thought advisable. A forge was erected on the Carp River in 1847,
making four blooms a day, each about four feet long and eight inches
thick.
Another was built, in 1854, by a company from Worcester, Mass.,
but so small was the production that in 1856 the shipment only
reached five thousand tons. The superior qualities of the metal began
to be known. Other companies were formed and improvements
made; railroads and docks were constructed, and the production has
had a steady increase, till it has reached a high figure.
There are fourteen companies engaged in mining,—two have just
commenced, while the others are well developed. The production of
the twelve principal mines for the year 1868 will be seen from the
following figures:—
 Tons.
Jackson, 131,707
Cleveland, 102,213
Marquette, 7,977
Lake Superior, 105,745
New York, 45,665
Lake Angeline, 27,651
Edwards, 17,360
Iron Mountain, 3,836
Washington, 35,757
New England, 8,257
Champion, 6,255
Barnum, 14,380
——
Total, 506,803

The increase over the previous year is between forty and fifty
thousand tons. The yield for 1869 was about 650,000 tons. The
entire production of all the mines up to the close of 1868 is
2,300,000 tons.
Iron mining in this region is in its infancy; and yet the value of the
metal produced last year amounts to eighteen million dollars.
The cause for this rapid development is found in the fact that the
Lake Superior ore makes the best iron in the world. Persistent efforts
were made to cry it down, but those who were engaged in its
production invited rigid tests.
Its tenacity, in comparison with other qualities, will be seen by the
following tabular statement:—

Swedish, 59
English Cable bolt, 59
Russian, 76
Lake Superior, 89½
 When this fact was made known, railroad companies began to use
Lake Superior iron for the construction of locomotives, car-wheels,
and axles. Boiler builders wanted it. Those who tried it were eager to
obtain more, and the result is seen in the rapidly increasing demand.
The average cost of mining and delivering the ore in cars at the
mines is estimated at about $2 per ton. It is shipped to Cleveland at
a cost of $4.35, making $6.35 when laid on the dock in that city,
where it is readily sold for $8, leaving a profit of about $1.65 per ton
for the shipper. Perhaps, including insurance and incidentals, the
profit may be reduced to about $1.25 per ton. It will be seen that this
is a very remunerative operation.
About one hundred furnaces in Ohio and Pennsylvania use Lake
Superior ore almost exclusively, while others mix it with the ores of
those regions.
A large amount is smelted at Lake Superior, where charcoal is
used. The forests in the vicinity of the mines are rapidly disappearing.
The wide-spreading sugar-maple, the hardy yellow birch, the feathery
hackmatack and evergreen hemlock are alike tumbled into the coal-
pit to supply fuel for the demands of commerce.
The charcoal consumed per ton in smelting costs about eleven
cents per bushel. For reducing a ton of the best ore about a hundred
and ten bushels are required; for a ton of the poorest about a
hundred and forty bushels, giving an average of $13 per ton. The
cost of mining is, as has already been stated, about $2 per ton. To
this must be added furnace-labor, interest on capital employed,
insurance, freight, commission, making the total cost about $35 a
ton. As the iron commands the highest price in the market, it will be
seen that the iron companies of Lake Superior are having an
enormous income.
Some men who purchased land at government price are on the
high road to fortune. One man entered eighty acres of land, which
now nets him twenty-four thousand dollars per annum!
 A railroad runs due west from Marquette, gaining by steep
gradients the general level of the ridge between Superior and
Michigan. It is called the Marquette and Ontonagon Railroad, and will
soon form an important link in the great iron highway across the
continent. It is about twenty miles from Marquette to the principal
mines, which are also reached by rail from Escanaba, on Green Bay, a
distance of about seventy miles.
The ore is generally found in hills ranging from one to five hundred
feet above the level of the surrounding country. The elevations can
hardly be called mountains; they are knolls rather. They are iron
warts on Dame Nature's face. They are partially covered with earth,—
the slow-forming deposits of the alluvial period.
There are five varieties of ore. The most valuable is what is called
the specular hematite, which chemically is known as a pure
anhydrous sesquioxide. This ore yields about sixty-five per cent of
pure iron. It is sometimes found in conjunction with red quartz, and
is then known as mixed ore.
The next in importance is a soft hematite, resembling the ores of
Pennsylvania and Connecticut. It is quite porous, is more easily
reduced than any other variety, and yields about fifty per cent of pure
iron.
The magnetic ores are found farther west than those already
described. The Michigan, Washington, Champion, and Edwards mines
are all magnetic. Sometimes the magnetic and specular lie side by
side, and it is a puzzle to geologists and chemists alike to account for
the difference between them. As yet we are not able to understand
by what subtle alchemy the change has been produced.
Another variety is called the silicious hematite, which is more
difficult of reduction than the others. It varies in richness, and there
is an unlimited supply.
The fifth variety is a silicious hematite found with manganese,
which, when mixed with other ores, produces an excellent quality of
iron. Very little of this ore has been mined as yet, and its relative
value is not ascertained.
The best iron cannot be manufactured from one variety, but by
mixing ores strength and ductility both are obtained. England sends
to Russia and Sweden for magnetic ores to mix with those produced
in Lancashire, for the manufacture of steel. The fires of Sheffield
would soon go out if the manufactures in that town were dependent
on English ore alone. The iron-masters there could not make steel
good enough for a blacksmith's use, to say nothing of that needed for
cutlery, if they were cut off from foreign magnetic ores.
Here, at Lake Superior, those necessary for the production of the
best of steel lie side by side. A mixture of the hematite and magnetic
gives a metal superior, in every respect, to any that England can
produce.
This one fact settles the question of the future of this region. It is
to become one of the great iron-marts of the world. It is to give, by
and by, the supremacy to America in the production of steel.
It is already settled, by trial, that every grade of iron now in use in
arts and manufactures can be produced here at Lake Superior by
mixing the various ores.
The miners are a hardy set of men, rough, uncouth, but
enterprising. They live in small cottages, make excellent wages, drink
whiskey, and rear large families. How happens it that in all new
communities there is such an abundance of children? They throng
every doorway, and by every house we see them tumbling in the dirt.
Nearly every woman has a child in her arms.
We cannot expect to see the refinements and luxuries of old
communities in a country where the stumps have not yet been
cleared from the streets, and where the spruces and hemlocks are
still waving above the cottages of the settlers, but here are the
elements of society. These hard-handed men are developing this
region, earning a livelihood for themselves and enriching those who
employ them. Towns are springing into existence. We find Ishpeming
rising out of a swamp. Imagine a spruce forest standing in a bog
where the trees are so thick that there is hardly room enough for the
lumbermen to swing their axes, the swamp being a stagnant pool of
dark-colored water covered with green slime!
An enterprising town-builder purchased this bog for a song, and
has laid out a city. Here it is,—dwelling-houses and stores standing
on posts driven into the mud, or resting on the stumps. He has filled
up the streets with the débris from the mines. Frogs croak beneath
the dwellings, or sun themselves on the sills. The town is not thus
growing from the swamp because there is no solid land, but because
the upland has exhaustless beds of iron ore beneath, too valuable to
be devoted to building purposes.
I have seen few localities so full of promise for the future, not this
one little spot in the vicinity of Marquette, but the entire metallic
region between Lake Superior and Lake Michigan.
Look at the locality! It is half-way across the continent. Lake
Michigan laves the southern, Superior the northern shore, while the
St. Lawrence furnishes water-carriage to the Atlantic. A hundred and
fifty miles of rail from Bayfield will give connection with the navigable
waters of the Mississippi. Through this peninsula will yet lie the
shortest route between the Atlantic and Pacific. Westward are the
wheat-fields of the continent, to be peopled by an industrious and
thriving community. There is no point more central than this for easy
transportation.
Here, just where the future millions can be easiest served,
exhaustless deposits of the best ore in the world have been placed by
a Divine hand for the use and welfare of the mighty race now
beginning to put forth its energies on this western hemisphere.
Towns, cities, and villages are to arise amid these hills; the forests
and the hills themselves are to disappear. The product, now worth
seventeen millions of dollars per annum, erelong will be valued at a
hundred millions.
 I think of the coming years when this place will be musical with
the hum of machinery; when the stillness of the summer day and the
crisp air of winter will be broken by the songs of men at work amid
flaming forges, or at the ringing anvil. From Marquette, and Bayfield,
and Ontonagon, and Escanaba, from every harbor on these inland
seas, steamers and schooners, brigs and ships, will depart freighted
with ore; hither they will come, bringing the products of the farm and
workshop. Heavily loaded trains will thunder over railroads, carrying
to every quarter of our vast domain the metals manufactured from
the mines of Lake Superior.
We have but to think of the capabilities of this region, its extent
and area, the increase of population, the development of resources,
the construction of railways, the growth of cities and towns; we have
only to grasp the probabilities of the future, to discern the dawning
commercial greatness of this section of our country.
 CHAPTER X.

A FAMILIAR TALK.

HAVE called to have a little talk about the West, and think
“I that I should like a farm in Minnesota or in the Red River
country," said a gentleman not long since, who introduced
himself as Mr. Blotter, and who said he was "clerking it."
"I want to go out West and raise stock," said another gentleman
who stopped me on the street.
"Where would you advise a fellow to go who hasn't much money,
but who isn't afraid to work?" said a stout young man from Maine.
"I am a machinist, and want to try my luck out West," said another
young man hailing from a manufacturing town in Massachusetts.
"I am manufacturing chairs, and want to know if there is a place
out West where I can build up a good business," said another.
Many other gentlemen, either in person or by letter, have asked for
specific information.
It is not to be expected that I can point out the exact locality
suited to each individual, or with which they would be suited, but for
the benefit of all concerned I give the substance of an evening's talk
with Mr. Blotter.
"I want a farm, I am tired of the city," said he.
Well, sir, you can be accommodated. The United States
government has several million acres of land,—at least 30,000,000 in
Minnesota, to say nothing of Dakota and the region beyond,—and
you can help yourself to a farm out of any unoccupied territory. The
Homestead Law of 1862 gives a hundred and sixty acres, free of cost,
to actual settlers, whether foreign or native, male or female, over
twenty-one years old, or to minors having served fourteen days in the
army. Foreigners must declare their intention to become citizens.
Under the present Pre-emption Law settlers often live on their claims
many years before they are called on to pay the $1.25 per acre,—the
land in the mean time having risen to $10 or $12 per acre. A recent
decision gives single women the right to pre-empt. Five years'
residence on the land is required by the Homestead Law, and it is not
liable to any debts contracted before the issuing of the patent.
The State of Minnesota has a liberal law relative to the exemption
of real estate from execution. A homestead of eighty acres, or one lot
and house, is exempt; also, five hundred dollars' worth of furniture,
besides tools, bed and bedding, sewing-machine, three cows, ten
hogs, twenty sheep, a span of horses, or one horse and one yoke of
oxen, twelve months' provisions for family and stock, one wagon, two
ploughs, tools of a mechanic, library of a professional man, five
hundred dollars' worth of stock if a trader, and various other articles.
You will find several railroad companies ready to sell you eighty, or
a hundred and sixty, or six hundred and forty acres in a body, at
reasonable rates, giving you accommodating terms.
"Would you take a homestead from government, or would you buy
lands along the line of a railroad?"
That is for you to say. If you take a homestead it will necessarily
be beyond the ten-mile limit of the land granted to the road, where
the advance in value will not keep pace with lands nearer the line.
You will find government lands near some of the railroads, which you
can purchase for $2.50 per acre, cash down. The railroad companies
will charge you from $2 to $10, according to location, but will give
you time for payment.
"What are their terms?"
 The St. Paul and Pacific Railroad, the main line of which is to be
completed to the Red River this year, and which owns the branch line
running from St. Paul up the east bank of the Mississippi to St. Cloud,
have a million acres of prairie, meadow, and timber lands which they
will sell in tracts of forty acres or more, and make the terms easy.
Suppose you were to buy eighty acres at $8 per acre, that would give
you a snug farm for $640. If you can pay cash down, they will make
it $7 per acre,—$80 saved at the outset; but if you have only a few
dollars in your pocket they will let you pay a year's interest at seven
per cent to begin with, and the principal and interest in ten annual
payments. The figures would then run in this way:—
Eighty acres at $8 per acre, $640

Interest. Principal. Total.

1st year, $44.80
2d " 40.32 $64.00 $104.32
3d " 35.84 64.00 99.84
4th " 31.36 64.00 95.36
5th " 26.88 64.00 90.88
6th " 22.40 64.00 86.40
7th " 17.92 64.00 81.92
8th " 13.44 64.00 77.44
9th " 8.96 64.00 72.96
10th " 4.48 64.00 68.48
11th " 64.00 64.00

"The second year will be the hardest," said Mr. Blotter, "for I shall
have to fence my farm, build a cabin, and purchase stock and tools.
Is there fencing material near?"
That depends upon where you locate. If you are near the line of
the railway, you can have it brought by cars. If you locate near the
"Big Woods" on the main line west of Minneapolis, you will have
timber near at hand. Numerous saw-mills are being erected, some
driven by water and others by steam. The timbered lands of the
company are already held at high rates,—from $7 to $10 per acre.
The country beyond the "Big Woods" is all prairie, with no timber
except a few trees along the streams. It is filling up so rapidly with
settlers that wood-lands are in great demand, for when cleared they
are just as valuable as the prairie for farming purposes.
Many settlers who took up homesteads before the railroad was
surveyed now find themselves in good circumstances, especially if
they are near a station. In many places near towns, land which a
year ago could have been had for $2.50 per acre is worth $20 to-day.
"Is the land in the Mississippi Valley above St. Paul any better than
that of the prairies?"
Perhaps you have a mistaken idea in regard to the Mississippi
Valley. There are no bottom-lands on the Upper Mississippi. The
prairie borders upon the river. You will find the land on the east side
better adapted to grazing than for raising wheat. The company do
not hold their lands along the branch at so high a figure as on the
main line. Some of my Minnesota friends say that stock-growing on
the light lands east of the Mississippi is quite as profitable as raising
wheat. Cattle, sheep, and horses transport themselves to market, but
you must draw your grain.
If you are going into stock-raising, you can afford to be at a
greater distance from a railroad station than the man who raises
wheat. It would undoubtedly be for the interest of the company to
sell you their outlying lands along the branch line at a low figure, for
it would enhance the value of those nearer the road. You will find St.
Cloud and Anoka thriving places, which, with St. Paul and
Minneapolis, will give a good home demand for beef and mutton, to
say nothing of the facilities for reaching Eastern markets by the
railroads and lakes.
"Do the people of Minnesota use fertilizers?"
No; they allow the manure to accumulate around their stables, or
else dump it into the river to get rid of it!
 They sow wheat on the same field year after year, and return
nothing to the ground. They even burn the straw, and there can be
but one result coming from such a process,—exhaustion of the soil,—
poor, worn-out farms by and by.
The farmers of the West are cruel towards Mother Earth. She
freely bestows her riches, and then, not satisfied with her gifts, they
plunder her. Men everywhere are shouting for an eight-hour law; they
must have rest, time for recreation and improvement of body and
mind; but they give the soil no time for recuperation. Men expect to
be paid for their labors, but they make no payment to the kind
mother who feeds them; they make her work and live on nothing.
Farming, as now carried on in the West and Northwest, is downright
robbery and plunder, and nothing else. If the present exhaustive
system is kept up, the time will come when the wheat-fields of
Minnesota, instead of producing twenty-five bushels to the acre upon
an average throughout the State, will not yield ten, which is the
product in Ohio; and yet, with a systematic rotation of crops and
application of fertilizers, the present marvellous richness of the soil
can be maintained forever.
"Do the tame grasses flourish?"
Splendidly; I never saw finer fields of timothy than along the line
of the St. Paul and Pacific Railroad, west of Minneapolis. White clover
seems to spring up of its own accord. I remember that I saw it
growing luxuriantly along a pathway in the Red River Valley, and by
the side of the military road leading through the woods to Lake
Superior. Hay is very abundant, and exceedingly cheap in Minnesota.
I doubt if there is a State in the Union that has a greater breadth of
first-class grass-lands. Hon. Thomas Clarke, Assistant State Geologist,
estimates the area of meadow-lands between the St. Croix and the
Mississippi, and south of Sandy Lake, at a million acres. He says:
"Some of these are very extensive, and bear a luxuriant growth of
grass, often five or six feet in height. It is coarse, but sweet, and is
said to make excellent hay."
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