TOM-1

Unit 1: Velocity Acceleration Analysis *07 Hours+

Theory of Machines is defined as that branch of Engineering-science, which deals with the study of relative
motion between the various parts of a machine, and forces which act on them.

Classifications
1. Statics: It is that branch of Theory of Machines which deals with the forces and their effects while the
machine parts are at rest
2. Dynamics. It is that branch of Theory of Machines which deals with the forces and their effects, while acting
upon the machine parts in motion.
a. Kinematics. It is that branch of Theory of Machines which deals with the relative motion between the
various parts of the machines.
b. Kinetics. It is that branch of Theory of Machines which deals with the inertia forces which arise from the
combined effect of the mass and motion of the machine parts.

Difference between a Machine and a Structure

1. The parts of a machine move relative to one another, whereas the members of a structure do not move
relative to one another.
2. A machine transforms the available energy into some useful work, whereas in a structure no energy is
transformed into useful work.
3. The links of a machine may transmit both power and motion, while the members of a structure transmit
forces only.
Kinematic Link or Element

Each part of a machine, which moves relative to some other part, is known as a kinematic link (or simply link) or
element.
A link may consist of several parts, which are rigidly fastened together, so that they do not move relative to one
another.
A link or element needs not to be a rigid body, but it must be a resistant body
A body is said to be a resistant body if it can transmit the required forces with negligible deformation

Thus a link should have the following two characteristics:

1. It should have relative motion
2. It must be a resistant body
Types of Links
1. Rigid link : A rigid link is one which does not undergo any deformation while transmitting motion. Strictly
speaking, rigid links do not exist. However, as the deformation of a connecting rod, crank etc. of a reciprocating
steam engine is not appreciable; they can be considered as rigid links.
2. Flexible link: A flexible link is one which is partly deformed in a manner not to affect the transmission of
motion. For example, belts, ropes, chains, and wires are flexible links and transmit tensile forces only.
3. Fluid link: A fluid link is one which is formed by having a fluid in a receptacle and the motion is transmitted
through the fluid by pressure or compression only, as in the case of hydraulic presses, jacks and brakes.

Types of Constrained Motions

1. Completely constrained motion
2. Incompletely constrained motion.
3. Successfully constrained motion
When the motion between the elements, forming a pair, is such that the constrained motion is not
completed by itself, but by some other means, then the motion is said to be successfully constrained motion.

Kinematic Pair
The two links or elements of a machine, when in contact with each other, are said to form a pair. If the relative
motion between them is completely or successfully constrained (i.e. in a definite direction), the pair is known as
kinematic pair.

Classification of Kinematic Pairs

1. According to the type of relative motion between the elements.
(a) Sliding pair. ------ a sliding pair has a completely constrained motion.
1. The piston and cylinder, cross-head, and guides of a reciprocating steam engine,
2. ram and its guides in shaper, 3. tail stock on the lathe bed

(b) Turning pair. When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way that one can only turn or
revolve about a fixed axis of another link, the pair is known as turning pair.
A turning pair also has a completely constrained motion.
1. A shaft with collars at both ends fitted into a circular hole, the crankshaft in a journal bearing in an engine,
2. Lathe spindle supported in head stock, 3.cycle wheels turning over their axles etc

(c) Rolling pair. When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way that one rolls over another fixed
link, the pair is known as rolling pair.
1.Ball and roller bearings are examples of rolling pair.
(d) Screw pair. When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way that one element can turn about
the other by screw threads, the pair is known as screw pair.
1.The lead screw of a lathe with nut 2. bolt with a nut are examples of a screw pair.

(e) Spherical pair. When the two elements of a pair are connected in such a way that one element (with
spherical shape) turns or swivels about the other fixed element, the pair formed is called a spherical pair.
1.The ball and socket joint, 2.attachment of a car mirror, pen stand etc

2. According to the type of contact between the elements.

(a) Lower pair. When the two elements of a pair have a surface contact while in motion
It will be seen that sliding pairs, turning pairs and screw pairs form lower pairs.

(b) Higher pair. When the two elements of a pair have a line or point contact when in motion
A pair of friction discs, toothed gearing, belt and rope drives, ball and roller bearings and cam and follower are
the examples of higher pairs.

3. According to the type of closure.

(a) Self closed pair. When the two elements of a pair are connected mechanically in such a way that only
required kind of relative motion occurs, it is then known as self-closed pair.
The lower pairs are self-closed pair.
(b) Force-closed pair. When the two elements of a pair are not connected mechanically but are kept in contact
by the action of external forces, the pair is said to be a force-closed pair. The cam and follower is an example of
force closed pair, as it is kept in contact by the forces exerted by spring and gravity.

Kinematic chain
When the kinematic pairs are coupled in such a way that the last link is joined to the first link to transmit
definite motion (i.e. completely or successfully constrained motion), it is called a kinematic chain
e.g. the crankshaft of an engine forms a kinematic pair with the bearings which are fixed in a pair, the
connecting rod with the crank forms a second kinematic pair, the piston with the connecting rod forms a third
pair and the piston with the cylinder forms a fourth pair. The total combination of these links is a kinematic
chain.

Important relations for kinematic chain are

1. If each link is assumed to form two pairs with two adjacent links, then the relation between
the number of pairs (p ) forming a kinematic chain and the number of links (l) may be expressed in
the form of an equation: l = 2 p – 4
2. relation between the number of links (l) and the number of joints ( j ) which constitute a kinematic chain is
given by the expression :

Above relations are for lower pairs only if there are higher pairs then, each higher pair may be taken as
equivalent to two lower pairs

If in any arrangement this condition is satisfied then it is not kinematic chain

If LHS > RHS  Locked Chain

Kinematic chain is always constrained chain

Types of Joints in a Chain

1. Binary joint. When two links are joined at the same connection, the joint is known as binary joint.
2. Ternary joint. When three links are joined at the same connection, the joint is known as ternary joint.
It is equivalent to two binary joints
3. Quaternary joint. When four links are joined at the same connection, the joint is called a quaternary joint.
It is equivalent to three binary joints

Mechanism
When one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed, the chain is known as mechanism.
A mechanism with four links is known as simple mechanism,
A mechanism with more than four links is known as compound mechanism.
When a mechanism is required to transmit power or to do some particular type of work, it then becomes a
machine

Number of Degrees of Freedom for Plane Mechanisms

It is defined as the number of input parameters (usually pair variables) which must be independently
controlled in order to bring the mechanism into a useful engineering purpose.

Kutzbach criteria
for the movability of a mechanism having plane motion

n = 3 (l – 1) – 2 j – h
Lower pairs

With higher pair

Grubler’s Criterion for Plane Mechanisms
The Grubler’s criterion applies to mechanisms with only single degree of freedom joints where the overall
movability of the mechanism is unity. Substituting n = 1 and h = 0
in Kutzbach equation, we have 1 = 3 (l – 1) – 2 j or
3l – 2j – 4 = 0

Types of Kinematic Chains

1. Four bar chain or quadric cyclic chain,
2. Single slider crank chain, and
3. Double slider crank chain

Inversion of Mechanism
The method of obtaining different mechanisms by fixing different links in a kinematic chain is known as
inversion of the mechanism.
the relative motions between the various links is not changed in any manner through the process of
inversion, but their absolute motions (those measured with respect to the fixed link) may be changed
drastically.

1. Four Bar Chain or Quadric Cycle Chain

According to Grashof ’s law for a four bar mechanism, the sum of the shortest and longest link lengths
should not be greater than the sum of the remaining two link lengths if there is to be continuous relative
motion between the two links
the shortest link which make a complete revolution  crank or driver
The link which makes a partial rotation or oscillates is known as lever or rocker or follower
the link which connects the crank and lever is called connecting rod or coupler.
The fixed link is known as frame of the mechanism

Inversions of Four Bar Chain

a. Beam engine (crank and lever mechanism) the purpose of this mechanism is to convert rotary motion into
reciprocating motion.
b. Coupling rod of a locomotive (Double crank mechanism).
c. Watt’s indicator mechanism (Double lever mechanism).
2. Single Slider Crank Chain
A single slider crank chain is a modification of the basic four bar chain. It consists of one sliding pair and
three turning pairs.
It is, usually, found in reciprocating steam engine mechanism

Inversions of Single Slider Crank Chain

a. Pendulum pump or Bull engine – The duplex pump which is used to supply feed water to boilers have two
pistons attached to link 1
b. Oscillating cylinder engine. -- is used to convert reciprocating motion into rotary motion.
c. Rotary internal combustion engine or Gnome engine  gas turbines
d. Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism  shaping machines, slotting machines and in
rotary internal combustion engines
e. Whitworth quick return motion mechanism. This mechanism is mostly used in shaping and slotting
machines.
 Double Slider Crank Chain
A kinematic chain which consists of two turning pairs and two sliding pairs is known as double slider crank
chain
Inversions of Double Slider Crank Chain
a. Elliptical trammels
b. Scotch yoke mechanism

Velocity in Mechanisms (Instantaneous Centre Method)

Sometimes body has motion of rotation as well as translation. In combined motion of rotation and
translation, it being immaterial whether the motion of rotation takes first, or the motion of translation.

The instantaneous centre of a moving body may be defined as that centre which goes on changing from one
instant to another. The locus of all such instantaneous centres is known as centrode.
A line drawn through an instantaneous centre and perpendicular to the plane of motion is called instantaneous
axis. The locus of this axis is known as axode.

Space and Body Centrodes

The locus of the instantaneous centre in space during a definite motion of the body is called the space centrode
the locus of the instantaneous centre relative to the body itself is called the body centrode.

Methods for Determining the Velocity of a Point on a Link

1. Instantaneous centre method 2. Relative velocity method.

Properties of the Instantaneous Centre

1. A rigid link rotates instantaneously relative to another link at the instantaneous centre for the configuration
of the mechanism considered.
2. The two rigid links have no linear velocity relative to each other at the instantaneous centre.

Number of Instantaneous Centres in a Mechanism

Types of Instantaneous Centres

1. Fixed instantaneous centres
2. Permanent instantaneous centres,
3. Neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous centres.

Rules for Location of Instantaneous Centres

1. When the two links are connected by a pin joint (or pivot joint), the instantaneous centre lies on the centre
of the pin as shown in Fig. 6.6 (a). Such a instantaneous centre is of permanent nature, but if one of the links
is fixed, the instantaneous centre will be of fixed type.
2. When the two links have a pure rolling contact (i.e. link 2 rolls without slipping upon the fixed link 1 which
may be straight or curved), the instantaneous centre lies on their point of contact
3. When the two links have a sliding contact, the instantaneous centre lies on the common normal at the point
of contact.
Aronhold Kennedy (or Three Centres in Line) Theorem
The Aronhold Kennedy’s theorem states that if three bodies move relatively to each other, they have
three instantaneous centres and lie on a straight line.

Method of Locating Instantaneous Centres in a Mechanism

1. First of all, determine the number of instantaneous centres (N)
2. Make a list of all the instantaneous centres in a mechanism. Since for a four-bar mechanism
3. Locate the fixed and permanent instantaneous centres by inspection e.g. I12and I14 are fixed instantaneous
centres and I23 and I34 are permanent instantaneous centres.

4. Locate the remaining neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous centres (or secondary centres) by
Kennedy’s theorem
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Velocity and acceleration by relative velocity Method

Relative Velocity of Two Bodies Moving in Straight Lines

the relative velocity of A with respect to B (i.e. vAB)

Motion of a Link
Velocity of any point on a link with respect to another point on the same link is always perpendicular to the line
joining these points on the configuration (or space) diagram.

The absolute velocities of the points are measured from the pole (i.e. fixed points) of the velocity diagram

Rubbing Velocity at a Pin Joint

The links in a mechanism are mostly connected by means of pin joints. The rubbing velocity is defined
as the algebraic sum between the angular velocities of the two links which are connected by pin joints,
multiplied by the radius of the pin.

When the pin connects one sliding member and the other turning member, the angular velocity of the sliding
member is zero. In such cases, rubbing velocity at the pin joint =
Acceleration in Mechanisms
Acceleration of a particle whose velocity changes both in magnitude and direction at any instant has the
following two components:
1. The centripetal or radial component, which is perpendicular to the velocity of the particle at the given
instant.
2. The tangential component, which is parallel to the velocity of the particle at the given instant

Centripetal or radial component of the tangential component of the acceleration of B with

acceleration of B with respect to A, respect to A,

This radial component of acceleration acts perpendicular This tangential component of acceleration acts parallel to the
to the velocity vBA, In other words, it acts parallel to the velocity vBA. In other words, it acts perpendicular to the
link AB. link A B.

A point at the end of a link which moves with constant angular velocity has no tangential component of
acceleration.
When a point moves along a straight line, it has no centripetal or radial component of the acceleration.
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Coroliies Component of Accleration
When a point on one link is sliding along another rotating link, such as in quick return motion
mechanism, then the coriolis component of the acceleration must be calculated.

In the above discussion, the anticlockwise direction for ω and the radially outward direction for v are
taken as positive. It may be noted that the direction of coriolis component of acceleration changes sign, if
either ω or v is reversed in direction. But the direction of coriolis component of acceleration will not be changed
in sign if both ω and v are reversed in direction. It is concluded that the direction of coriolis component of
acceleration is obtained by rotating v, at 90°, about its origin in the same direction as that of ω.
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Approximate Analytical Method for Velocity and Acceleration of the Piston

Derivation:
Klein’s Construction: